energies
Article
Methods of Ferroresonance Mitigation in Voltage Transformers
in a 30 kV Power Supply Network
Wojciech Kraszewski 1, * , Przemysław Syrek 1
Citation: Kraszewski, W.; Syrek, P.;
Mitoraj, M. Methods of
Ferroresonance Mitigation in Voltage
Transformers in a 30 kV Power
Supply Network. Energies 2022, 15,
9516. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en15249516
Received: 10 November 2022
Accepted: 13 December 2022
Published: 15 December 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 9516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249516
and Mateusz Mitoraj 2
1 Department of Electrical and Power Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology,
al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
2 ELECON Sp. z o.o., Rybnicka 20, 43-190 Mikolow, Poland
* Correspondence: wkraszew@agh.edu.pl
Abstract: Inductive voltage transformers are the basic components of the switchgear equipment or
electrical substations. This article presents problems related to their operation. Inductive voltage
transformers were exposed to specific working conditions in the form of ferroresonance oscillations
with the participation of measurement and protective transformers. The disadvantage and negative
significance of the phenomenon contributed to the development of the most convenient elimination
methods, which is the main goal and achievement of the publication. The analysis of the proposed
solutions were carried out on a theoretical model of a 30 kV power network model created and
run in the Electromagnetic Transients Program/Alternative Transients Program (EMTP/ATP). The
article presents several results of computer simulations carried out together with their complete
characteristics (phase voltage waveforms on the primary side of voltage transformers), which allowed
us to indicate the disadvantages and advantages of the solutions developed, and choose the most
favorable methods to eliminate nonlinear oscillations. In the article, we present an analysis of all
aspects contributing to the solution to the problem. This has permitted an appropriate conclusion
to be made indicating the advantage of the method based on the use of a damping resistor in the
open delta circuit compared to other solutions. Current solutions are largely based on a product
using active variation of the resistance of an open delta attached resistor. The concept in this paper is
based on a fixed resistance value, which is a different approach to the problem. By using a switch,
the resistor is only connected when a fault occurs. Thanks to this solution, the secondary winding of
the open delta is not additionally loaded (despite the very high resistance) at all times during the
operation of the power network, as is the case with the available solution.
Keywords: ferroresonance; ferroresonance mitigation; power supply network; inductive voltage
transformers; EMTP/ATP
1. Introduction
The constant development of power engineering in many areas encourages the creation
of new concepts regarding the measuring apparatus used. Modern transmission and
distribution networks are becoming increasingly advanced, as are smart grids [1–4]. The
wide availability of materials, innovative solutions improving the parameters of power
devices, and the assurance of adequate confidence in the operation of systems are only a
few aspects considered by producers in terms of voltage transformers.
Voltage transformers are devices that allow the measurement of voltage in electrical
circuits included in the power system. They are characterized by low short circuit voltage
and low nominal power. They are not directly involved in the processing of electrical energy
at high power. In the rated operation condition, as well as in an emergency condition, they
should be distinguished by the correct voltage transformation [5]. Their absence in the sys-
tem would significantly limit the possibility of controlling the work of networks and power
systems, constituting the primary source of signals used in protective automation systems.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 2 of 17

The main structural element of voltage transformers is a ferromagnetic core. Because

it is characterized by the nonlinearity of the magnetic circuit, the formation of non-standard
operating conditions of the power network contributes to the possibility of undesirable
phenomena affecting the functioning of voltage transformers [6–8]. One of them concerns
ferroresonant oscillations [9]. The negative aspect of this state is associated with the effects
of damage, and voltage transformer explosions in extreme cases [10]. The main goal set for
the constructors of voltage transformers is to make power devices in a way that allows them
to be protected against the negative influence of ferroresonance or to limit the possibility of
its occurrence.
Bearing in mind the unfavorable impact of nonlinear oscillations on measuring and/or
security units, the main objective of this work is to present and characterize this phe-
nomenon with an indication of methods as to how to eliminate it in the form of damping.
Primary attention here is focused on inductive voltage transformers of medium voltage.
On this basis, a comparison was made between the available methods and a selection of the
most convenient ferroresonance minimization technologies. Based on the analysis, the most
effective methods of damping nonlinear vibrations can be identified. An important part of
the article is the simulations made in the EMTP/ATP program, which was developed for
the 30kV power grid using the listed elimination paths. Such an approach allowed a clear
indication of the best method of suppressing ferroresistant oscillations.

2. Introduction and Theory

The wide range of rated voltages used in power systems contributes to the use of
measuring equipment that allows it to be installed in any system. This aspect is also focused
on voltage transformers. Providing basic properties and parameters as well as the required
measurement accuracy means that, nowadays, various structures are manufactured and
widely analyzed.
Depending on the number of phases to which the primary winding of the voltage
transformer is connected, the following units are distinguished: single- and three-phase
units. Single-phase units are characterized by a wide range of applications for almost every
value of the rated voltage. Three-phase structures are most often used in the voltage range
not exceeding several dozen kilovolts.

2.1. Essential Characteristics of Ferroresonance with the Participation of Voltage Transformers

Voltage transformers belong to a group of devices whose presence is necessary for the
proper operation of power systems. The equipment of transformers in ferromagnetic cores
causes structures to be susceptible to the occurrence of the ferroresonance phenomenon
that disturb the normal functioning of power grids.
Ferroresonant oscillations occur due to a combination of system capacitive reactance
with the nonlinear inductive reactance of voltage transformers [11]. The condition for the
phenomenon is the mutual adjustment of the parameters presented.
The formation of nonlinear oscillation may occur due to two different configurations
specifying the manner of the reactance jointly. These arrangements include:
• Serial connection—in the case of a serial combination of capacitance together with
nonlinear inductance;
• Parallel connection—in the presence of a parallel combination of capacitance with
nonlinear inductance.
The method of integrating elements conducive to the formation of ferroresonant
oscillations contributes to the initiation of the proper character of the phenomenon [12].
A serial connection causes voltage ferroresonance initiation, while a parallel compilation
causes ferroresonance of currents. Each type of oscillation is associated with the possibility
of its occurrence with the voltage value of a given fragment of the power grid. This also
applies to the manner of how the neutral point of the network is to be connected to earth,
which in the case of medium voltages (MV) can be isolated or grounded by a choke or
resistor. A high-voltage network (HV) works with an effectively grounded neutral point.
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 3 of 17

Such configurations contribute to the occurrence of ferroresonant currents in MV networks

with an isolated neutral point and ferroresonant voltages in HV systems [13,14].
Pulses that have a decisive effect on the formation of nonlinear oscillation include sud-
den changes in voltage, load changes [15], and changes to the network configuration [16].
Their effects result in a significant overvoltage and overcurrent [17,18]. The ferroresonance
phenomenon is classified as a group of temporary overvoltages for which oscillations are
non-damping or poor damping. The duration can be maintained for a long time. The
oscillation result is to saturate the cores of transformers and increase the value of currents in
primary winding [19]. Deformation of voltage and current waveforms during the ferroreso-
nance phenomenon may occur both for fundamental frequencies and for subharmonics and
higher harmonics. This contributes to the possibility of a few solutions specifying nonlinear
inductance and capacitance for which a condition for nonlinear oscillations is met.

2.2. Favorable Conditions for the Formation of the Ferroresonance Phenomenon

A mutual connection of capacitance and nonlinear inductance creates the possibility of
ferroresonant oscillations. The sources of the presented parameters are many. In the case of
capacitance, the capacitance of power cables, overhead lines, capacitor batteries, and shunt
capacitors of the circuit breaker must be taken into account. The use of capacitance-voltage
transformers attests to the need for them to be considered in the determination of the
resultant layout capacitance.
A significant number of elements affecting the forming of the phenomenon and the
method of their interrelations result in the fact that ferroresonance initiation conditions are
met for different configurations [20]. Of the systems susceptible to nonlinear oscillation,
the most important cases regarding voltage transformers were selected. They belong to
the following:
(1) The installation of three induction voltage transformers in a three-phase system with
different magnetization characteristics. This issue can be related to the use of power
devices of various types or their assembly by other manufacturers.
(2) The opening of multi-break circuit breakers connected in parallel with the capacitors
controlling voltage distribution to which HV inductive transformers are connected.
In the presence of disconnectors, an essential aspect is their proper closure enabling
the creation of a system susceptible to series ferroresonance.
(3) The performance of switching operations or occurrence of an earth fault in the MV net-
work structure operating with an isolated neutral point and equipped with inductive
voltage transformers.
(4) The presence of an unbalanced load of inductive voltage transformers installed in the
MV system.
(5) A break in the circuit due to a blown fuse located in the primary part of the group of
three inductive voltage transformers in the MV system.
(6) No synchronization of switching three MV inductive voltage transformers on or off
with the use of single-pole disconnectors.
The configurations presented do not determine the necessity of ferroresonance in the
system. This is related to the complexity of the phenomenon itself and the change in the
values of the system parameters under the influence of, among others, the expansion or
modernization of the network, causing the inability to initiate non-linear vibrations [21].

2.3. Ferroresonant Vibrations and a Sign of Their Occurrence

Nonlinear oscillations, despite their complicated analysis, the complexity of the pro-
cesses taking place, and difficulties in predicting the potential occurrence, contribute to the
formation of characteristic symptoms indicating the phenomenon’s presence [22,23]. The
most common symptoms accompanying ferroresonant vibrations in voltage transformers
include large overvoltages and overcurrents, significant and constant distortion of voltage
and current waveforms, continuous and excessively loud noise, overheating, a voltage
higher than the phase-to-earth voltage in an open triangle circuit, and voltmeter fluctua-
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 4 of 17

tions [5,24]. An essential aspect in this context comprises properly conducted monitoring
and diagnostics of ferroresonance phenomena [25,26].

2.4. Methods of Elimination of the Ferroresonance Phenomenon

The main goal set for designers of power systems is to create structures that protect
voltage transformers against the negative effects of ferroresonance or reduce the possibility
of its occurrence, by initially making specifications using modern nonlinear techniques
of analysis to define both safe and unsafe zones of operation [27]. Therefore, extensive
countermeasures are undertaken to eliminate nonlinear oscillations. The most common
solutions include the following:
(1) Application of anti-ferrorresonance transformers.
(2) Switching on the damping resistor in the open delta circuit.
(3) Application of fuses located in the primary circuits of voltage transformers.
(4) Grounding through the transformer star point resistor.
(5) Installing suppression resistors, in each phase, located in the secondary windings
connected in a star [28].
(6) Series connection of a very low-value resistor and saturable reactor.
(7) Connecting additional to-ground capacity to the busbars in order to detach the circuit
from ferroresonant vibrations.
The ferroresonance phenomenon may be mitigated by the installation of a zigzag-
grounding transformer [29]. Research has also been conducted on the use of memristors to
reduce overvoltage and overcurrents in inductive voltage transformers [30], the application
of neural networks, and time–domain analysis for overcurrent relay [31].

3. Model of the Power Grid

The subject of the study is a fragment of the power grid with a voltage of 30 kV,
operating with an isolated neutral point. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the structure
implemented, as created in an EMTP/ATP program.
The system is supplied from the G_1 power system through the Tr_1 power transformer.
The structural elements include the presence of five receiving fields equipped with a cable
and overhead lines, and one measurement field with a system of three identical inductive
voltage transformers. Each module is equipped with a switch with an appropriate marking
ranging from W1 to W8.
The diagram of the voltage transformer for phase L1 is shown in Figure 2. The key
elements of the model include:
• RL_1—resistance and leakage inductance of the primary winding.
• RL_2—resistance and leakage inductance of the secondary winding, reduced to the
primary side.
• RL_3—resistance and leakage inductance of the open delta winding, reduced to the
primary side.
• R_Fe1—resistance representing active power losses in the core.
• R_1, R_2 —earth resistance.
• L_µ1—nonlinear magnetization inductance.
• A—primary winding terminal.
• A–n—secondary winding terminals.
• da–dn—open delta winding terminals.
For the purposes of conducting the analysis in the form of computer simulations, it
was necessary to implement individual elements of the system, the parameters of which
are presented in Table 1.
Considering the inductive voltage transformers applied, an important feature con-
tributing to the possibility of inducing the ferroresonance phenomenon is the magnetization
characteristic of the units. For this purpose, the characteristic defined as in number 2 was
implemented as the base waveform, which is illustrated in Figure 3.
 • A–n—secondary winding terminals.
• da–dn—open delta winding terminals.
• R_1, R_2 —earth resistance.
• L_μ1—nonlinear magnetization inductance.
• A—primary winding terminal.
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 5 of 17
• A–n—secondary winding terminals.
• da–dn—open delta winding terminals.

Figure1.1.Model
Figure Modelof of
thethe power
power network
network analyzed
analyzed in the in the EMTP/ATP
EMTP/ATP program,program, in which
in which the the ferro
ferrores-
Figure 1. Model of the power network analyzed in the EMTP/ATP program, in which the ferroreso-
onancephenomenon
onance phenomenon occurs.
occurs.
nance phenomenon occurs.

Figure 2. Model of single-phase voltage transformer for phase L1 made in EMTP/ATP software.
 was necessary to implement individual elements of the system, the parameters of which
are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Parameters of the power grid model analyzed.

Energies 2022, 15, 9516 Name Parameter Value 6 of 17

Power system—G_1 Rated voltage—Un 110 kV
Rated power—Sn 63 MVA
Table 1. Parameters of
Energy transformer—Tr_1the power grid modelvoltage—U
Upper analyzed. GN 115 kV
Low voltage—UDN 31.5 kV
Name Parameter Value
Rated primary voltage—U1n 33/√3 kV
Inductive voltage
Power system—G_1 Rated voltage—Un 110 kV
Rated secondary voltage—U 2n 110/√3 V
transformers Rated power—S 63 MVA
Rated open delta voltage—U
n 2dn 110/3 V
Energy transformer—Tr_1 Upper voltage—UGN 115 kV
Low voltage—U 3 × XRUHAKXS
31.5 kV × 240 mm
1 2
Cable lines Types of cablesDN
3 × XRUHAKXS √ 1 × 120 mm2
Rated primary voltage—U1n 33/ √3 kV 2
Inductive voltage AFL-6-120
Overhead lines Rated Types
secondary voltage—U2n
of lines 110/ 3 mmV
transformers AFL-6-95 mm2
Rated open delta voltage—U2dn 110/3 V
3 × XRUHAKXS 1 × 240 mm2
Cable lines
Considering the inductive voltageTypes of cables
transformers applied, anXRUHAKXS
important 1feature con-
2
3× × 120 mm
tributing to the possibility of inducing the ferroresonance phenomenon is the magnetiza-
AFL-6-120 mm2
Overhead lines
tion characteristic of the units. For thisTypes of lines
purpose, the characteristic defined as mm
in number
2 2
AFL-6-95
was implemented as the base waveform, which is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Magnetization
Figure 3. Magnetizationcharacteristics
characteristicsofof voltage
voltage transformers,
transformers, the the
corescores of which
of which are made
are made of
of sheets
sheets (1) with the lowest loss, (2) with intermediate loss, and (3) with the highest loss.
(1) with the lowest loss, (2) with intermediate loss, and (3) with the highest loss.

The subject of
The subject of the
thepower
powergridgridanalysis,
analysis,a afragment
fragmentofof which
which is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 1, is1,the
is
the occurrence of parallel ferroresonance. The transient initiation is a consequence
occurrence of parallel ferroresonance. The transient initiation is a consequence of an earth of an
earth fault
fault in phasein L1
phase L1overhead
of the of the overhead
line in bay line in bay
1. The 1. The
incident incidentinmapping
mapping in the
the EMTP/ATP
EMTP/ATP program is realized by closing the W9 circuit breaker. As a result
program is realized by closing the W9 circuit breaker. As a result of a disturbance, the W1 of a disturb-
ance,
switchtheofW1
theswitch of the
indicated indicated
bay bay is
is opened. opened.
The The parameters
parameters of the operations
of the operations cited, andcited,
the
and the elements
elements used to conduct
used to conduct the computer
the computer simulation,simulation, are presented
are presented in Table in
2. Table 2.

Table 2. Parameters of elements and operations of the power grid model contributing to the excitation
of nonlinear oscillations.

Element Parameter Value

Transition resistance at the
Resistance R_p 1Ω
fault location
Switch W9 Switch closing time 0.1 s
Switch W1 Switch opening time 0.2 s

According to the theory, the ferroresonance phenomenon arises as a result of the

correlation between the capacitive reactance of the power system XC and the inductive
reactance of the voltage transformer reduced to the primary winding Xµ0 :

XC = Xµ0 (1)
 tance of the voltage transformer reduced to the primary winding 𝑋 :
𝑋 =𝑋 (1)

where:
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 1 1 7 of 17
𝑋 = = (2)
𝜔∙𝐶 2∙𝜋∙𝑛∙𝑓 ∙𝐶

where: 𝑋 =𝜔∙𝐿 =2∙𝜋∙𝑛∙𝑓 ∙𝐿 (3)

1 1
XC = = (2)
The sum of inductive reactance of theω voltage
·C 2·πtransformer
·n· f n ·C present in the formula:
𝑋Xµ0==𝑋ω ·_Lµ+=𝑋2·π
_ ,· n+
· f n𝑋· Lµ + 𝑋 _ (3) (4)
The
wheresumXof inductive reactance of the voltage transformer present in the formula:
RL_1 is the reactance of the primary winding, 𝑋 _ , is the reactance of the second-

ary winding reduced to X the

0 primary side, 0 X′a-n is the
0 load0 reactance of the measuring (4) sec-
µ = X RL_1 + X RL_2,3 + X a−n + X L_µ1
ondary winding reduced to the primary side, and 𝑋 _ is the core magnetization reac-
tance.XRL_1 is the reactance of the primary winding, XRL_2,3
where 0 is the reactance of the secondary
winding Thereduced
phenomenon
to the primary side, Xa0 −n isisthe
of ferroresonance extremely difficult
load reactance to mathematically
of the analyze.
measuring secondary
This is due to the nature of its initiation 0
for different n- components
winding reduced to the primary side, and X L_µ1 is the core magnetization reactance. of the Fourier series
frequencies, where theoffundamental
The phenomenon ferroresonance frequency
is extremelyis fn difficult
and as presented in Formulas
to mathematically (2) and
analyze.
(3). The
This easiest
is due to theway is toofpoint
nature to the idea
its initiation of the phenomenon
for different n- components itself.
of the Fourier series
frequencies, where
The cases the fundamental
of two-phase with frequency
the ground, is ftwo-phase
n and as presented in Formulas
and three-phase in(2)
theand (3). of
context
The easiest way is to point to the idea of the phenomenon itself.
ferroresonance initiation in the considered power grid model (Figure 1) were also ana-
lyzed.The cases of two-phase with the ground, two-phase and three-phase in the context of
ferroresonance initiation in the considered power grid model (Figure 1) were also analyzed.
4. Simulation Results
4. Simulation Results
4.1.Base
4.1. BaseModel
ModelSimulation
SimulationResults
Results
Thewaveforms
The waveformsrepresenting
representingthe theexcitation
excitationofofthe theferroresonance
ferroresonancephenomenon
phenomenon asas a
a result of the earth fault (initiation of the short circuit–closing the W9 circuit breakerafter
result of the earth fault (initiation of the short circuit–closing the W9 circuit breaker
0.1 s,0.1
after removing the disturbance—opening
s, removing the disturbance—opening the the
W1 W1circuit breaker
circuit breakerafter 0.20.2
after s) in thethe
s) in struc-
ture of the
structure power
of the powergrid,
grid,ininthe
themodel
modelshown Figure1,1,are
shown in Figure areshown
shown in in Figures
Figures 4–6.4–6.
The The
graphswere
graphs wereobtained
obtainedfor formeasurements
measurements carried
carried outoutonon
thetheR_OTR_OT resistor
resistor in the
in the casecase
of of
zero-sequence
zero-sequencevoltage
voltage(Figure
(Figure4)4)and andononthethe
page terminal
page terminalprimary
primary voltage transformers
voltage transformers
with
withrespect
respecttotothe
thephase
phasevoltages
voltages (Figure
(Figure5) 5)
and currents
and currents(Figure
(Figure6). The ideaidea
6). The of using the the
of using
R_OT resistor with a resistance of 1 MΩ is to create a circuit that allows
R_OT resistor with a resistance of 1 MΩ is to create a circuit that allows the measurement the measurement
of
ofvoltage,
voltage,thethestructure
structureofof which
which corresponds
corresponds to an open
to an triangle
open trianglesystem.
system.

Figure 4. Waveform of the voltage at open delta terminals of the delta transformer.

Based on the enclosed characteristics, it was noticed that the system maintains sym-
metry before the disturbance. The lack of zero-sequence voltage and the mutual correlation
of voltage and current waveforms confirms this aspect. As a result of the disturbance, the
trajectory is deformed, causing the appearance of the zero-sequence voltage and the voltage
drop in the L1 phase to the zero value. In the L2 and L3 phases, the voltage increases to
the interphase level. Similarly, for the current waveforms, which disappear in the short-
circuited phase and increase in the remaining (non-grounded) phases. Opening the W1
switch in field 1 causes excitation of permanent, undamped ferroresonance. The presence of
the ferroresonance phenomenon is evidenced by the presence of characteristic currents and
phase voltages. This situation is accompanied by a large increase in currents on the primary
side of voltage transformers. Their excessive value and long duration of occurrence can be
very dangerous for the structure of power devices. However, the relationship between the
waveform of the voltage at open delta terminals of the delta transformer (Figure 4) and the
phase voltages of the transformers on the primary side (Figure 5) is worth emphasizing.
This is the state of the network at the pre-fault conditions. After about 0.1 s, a disturbance
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 8 of 17

appears, which represents the beginning of the phenomenon diagnosed based on the data
in Figure
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4. This translates into deformation of all three phase voltages (Figure 5), which
9 of 19
lose their sinusoidal character with an amplitude of 24.5 kV, which in turn corresponds
√
to the phase voltage amplitude of 30 kV (phase-to-phase voltage), precisely 30 √2 kV. All
3
phase
Figurevoltages reachofpeak
4. Waveform values at
the voltage of open
up todelta
50 kV.
terminals of the delta transformer.

Figure 5. Waveforms of phase voltages on the primary side of voltage transformers under ferrores-
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
Figure 5. Waveforms of phase voltages on the primary side of voltage transformers under ferroreso-
onant oscillation conditions.
nant oscillation conditions.

Based on the enclosed characteristics, it was noticed that the system maintains sym-
metry before the disturbance. The lack of zero-sequence voltage and the mutual correla-
tion of voltage and current waveforms confirms this aspect. As a result of the disturbance,
the trajectory is deformed, causing the appearance of the zero-sequence voltage and the
voltage drop in the L1 phase to the zero value. In the L2 and L3 phases, the voltage in-
creases to the interphase level. Similarly, for the current waveforms, which disappear in
the short-circuited phase and increase in the remaining (non-grounded) phases. Opening
the W1 switch in field 1 causes excitation of permanent, undamped ferroresonance. The
presence of the ferroresonance phenomenon is evidenced by the presence of characteristic
currents and phase voltages. This situation is accompanied by a large increase in currents
on the primary side of voltage transformers. Their excessive value and long duration of
occurrence can be very dangerous for the structure of power devices. However, the rela-
tionship between the waveform of the voltage at open delta terminals of the delta trans-
former (Figure 4) and the phase voltages of the transformers on the primary side (Figure
5) is worth emphasizing. This is the state of the network at the pre-fault conditions. After
about 0.1 s, a disturbance appears, which represents the beginning of the phenomenon
diagnosed based on the data in Figure 4. This translates into deformation of all three phase
voltages
Figure (Figure
Figure6.6.Current 5), which on
Currentwaveforms
waveforms lose
onthe their
the sinusoidal
primary
primary character
sideofofvoltage
side with an under
voltagetransformers
transformersamplitude of 24.5 kV,
underferroresonant
ferroresonant os-
which in
cillation turn corresponds
conditions.
oscillation conditions. to the phase voltage amplitude of 30 kV (phase-to-phase volt-
√
age), precisely 30 kV. All phase voltages reach peak values of up to 50 kV.
Based √
on the results presented
The analysis of other types ofinshort
Figure 6, thedid
circuits currents do not
not show thereach the values
occurrence thatferro-
of the
Based on the results presented in Figure 6, the currents do not reach the values that
threaten
resonance the phenomenon
correct operation of the
in the network, model
considered and their course
of the poweris ofgrid.
secondary importance
threaten
when the correct
it comes operation
to assessing of the network,
the ferroresonance and their course
phenomenon itself.is of secondary importance
when it analysis
comes toofassessing theofferroresonance phenomenon itself.
4.2. The
Results other types
of Simulation of Models short circuits
Taking did not show
into Account the occurrence
Ferroresonance of the ferro-
Suppression Methods
resonance phenomenon in the considered model of the power grid.
The availability of forms of minimizing the ferroresonance phenomenon contributes
to the possibility of their application in practical solutions. Therefore, at this stage, an es-
sential element is to check all methods in terms of their effectiveness in a situation where
nonlinear oscillations occur. The analysis concerns not only the comparison of the indi-
cated methods with each other but also individual concepts depending on the properties
of the elements contributing to the elimination of the ferroresonance phenomenon.
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 9 of 17

4.2. Results of Simulation of Models Taking into Account Ferroresonance Suppression Methods
The availability of forms of minimizing the ferroresonance phenomenon contributes
to the possibility of their application in practical solutions. Therefore, at this stage, an
essential element is to check all methods in terms of their effectiveness in a situation where
nonlinear oscillations occur. The analysis concerns not only the comparison of the indicated
methods with each other but also individual concepts depending on the properties of the
elements contributing to the elimination of the ferroresonance phenomenon.
It was assumed that these effects would be candidates for assessment:
• Duration of the phenomenon. In this case, the lack of suppression of the phenomenon
or suppression to a small extent destroys the very idea. Regardless of the amplitude of
the phase voltages in the network, ferroresonance causes their distortion, increases the
RMS value, and creates possible undesirable effects caused by higher harmonics.
• The second factor is the value of the voltage oscillation in the first resonance phase, Vmax .

4.2.1. Application of Anti-Ferroresonance Transformers

The first method of eliminating nonlinear vibrations is the use of anti-ferroresonance
transformers. The idea behind the approach indicated is based on the materials used
to build the cores. In this case, the use of sheets with poorer magnetic properties has a
legitimate application. Materials with a more significant loss should also be emphasized.
This solution contributes to the effective dissipation of energy in the core present during
the ferroresonance phenomenon. A different meaning is given to the use of low-loss sheets,
which negatively affect damping of the nonlinear oscillations that arise. The comparisons
of the magnetization characteristics of voltage transformers, the cores of which are made of
sheets with different losses, are shown in Figure 3.
The theoretical confirmation of the idea of the described solution are Formulas (5) and (6).
→ →
The magnetic flux Φ depends on the magnetic induction vector B and the surface vector S
as evidenced by Formula (5).
→ →
Φ = B· S (5)
Magnetic induction is described by the magnetic permeability of the material µ,
→
vacuum µ0 , and the intensity of the magnetic field vector H. According to Formula (6), the
magnetic permeability of the material µ is a characteristic feature of a given material and
thus of the described idea in terms of changing the inductive reactance X0 µ (Formula (4)).
→ →
B = µ0 · µ · H (6)

The implementation of the solution is related to the change in the magnetization

characteristics of power devices implemented in the elements L_µ1, L_µ2, and L_µ3
(Figure 1). The influence of changing the parameters of the resistance and leakage inductance
of voltage transformers was also analyzed in terms of the ferroresonance phenomenon.
Voltage transformers with worse magnetic properties have magnetization characteris-
tics defined by number 3 (Figure 3). Further analysis includes the change in the current
characteristic defined by course number 2 to route number 3. Furthermore, as a result of
the transformation, zero-sequence voltage and phase voltage graphs were obtained, which
are presented in Figures 7 and 8.
Based on the waveforms attached, several important conclusions can be drawn. First,
the methods used to solve the problem of ferroresonant oscillations are fully effective.
This is evidenced by the gradually subsiding vibrations of phase voltages and currents.
However, their suppression period is relatively long, which is well illustrated by the
characteristic of the zero-sequence voltage. As a confirmation of the outlined aspect, it
should be noted that after 1.9 s from the disturbance occurrence, the voltage in the open
delta circuit reaches about 32 V. This value is lower than the level determined immediately
 The implementation of the solution is related to the change in the magnetization char-
The implementation of the solution is related to the change in the magnetization char-
acteristics of power devices implemented in the elements L_μ1, L_μ2, and L_μ3 (Figure 1).
acteristics of power devices implemented in the elements L_μ1, L_μ2, and L_μ3 (Figure 1).
The influence of changing the parameters of the resistance and leakage inductance of volt-
The influence of changing the parameters of the resistance and leakage inductance of volt-
age transformers was also analyzed in terms of the ferroresonance phenomenon.
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 age transformers was also analyzed in terms of the ferroresonance phenomenon. 10 of 17
Voltage transformers with worse magnetic properties have magnetization character-
Voltage transformers with worse magnetic properties have magnetization character-
istics defined by number 3 (Figure 3). Further analysis includes the change in the current
istics defined by number 3 (Figure 3). Further analysis includes the change in the current
characteristic defined by course number 2 to route number 3. Furthermore, as a result of
characteristic
after openingdefined
the W1by course
switch number
in field 2 ittoisroute
1, but still number 3.Thus,
significant. Furthermore,the
asconclusion
a result of
the transformation, zero-sequence voltage and phase voltagedespite
graphs were obtained,
thestated,
transformation, zero-sequence voltage and phase voltage graphs were obtained,
which itare
is not decisiveinregarding
presented Figures 7theandeffectiveness
8. of the method presented.
which are presented in Figures 7 and 8.

Figure7.7.The
Thevoltage
voltagewaveform
waveform inthe the open delta circuit resulting from changing the magnetization
Figure
Figure 7. The voltage waveform inin open
the open delta
delta circuit
circuit resulting
resulting from
from changing
changing the
the magnetization
magnetization
characteristics
characteristics of the voltage transformers from waves 2 to 3.
characteristics of of
thethe voltage
voltage transformersfrom
transformers fromwaves
waves22to to 3.
3.

Figure 8. Phase voltage waveforms on the primary side of voltage transformers as a result of chang-
Figure 8. Phase voltage
8. Phase waveforms
voltage waveforms ononthe
theprimary
primary side of
ofvoltage
voltagetransformers
transformersasas a result of chang-
Figure
ing their magnetization characteristics from 2 toside
3. a result of changing
ingtheir
theirmagnetization
magnetization characteristics from 2 to
characteristics from 2 to 3. 3.

Based on the waveforms attached, several important conclusions can be drawn. First,
Based
The on the waveforms
aspect indicating much attached,
worseseveral important
attenuation conclusions
properties can betransformers
of voltage drawn. First,
the methods used to solve the problem of ferroresonant oscillations are fully effective.
thewith
methods used to solve the problem of ferroresonant
cores made of sheets of lower loss was also analyzed. For this purpose, theoscillations are fully effective.
mag-
Energies 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWThis is evidenced by the gradually subsiding vibrations of phase voltages and 12 of 19
This is evidenced
netization by the gradually
characteristics of powersubsiding vibrations of
devices determined by phase voltages
waveform 3) currents.
and currents.
2 (Figure were
However,
replaced bytheir suppression
trajectory 1. The period is
graphs relatively
indicated in long,
Figures which is 10well illustrated by the char-
However, their suppression period is relatively long, which9isand show the effect
well illustrated by theofchar-
the
acteristic of the
changesofintroduced. zero-sequence voltage. As a confirmation of the outlined aspect, it should
acteristic the zero-sequence voltage. As a confirmation of the outlined aspect, it should
be noted that after 1.9 obtained
s from the disturbance occurrence, the voltage in the
thetransformers
open delta
be noted thataspect
The
The indicating
characteristics
after 1.9 s from the much worse
clearly
disturbance attenuation
indicate the lack
occurrence, properties
of of voltage
theeffectiveness
voltage of
in the openapplied
delta
circuit
method reaches
withreaches
cores
for made
the about
caseof 32 V. consideration.
sheets This
ofvaluevalueloss
lower is lower
was than
also the level
analyzed. determined immediately
For thisispurpose, byafter
the magnet-
circuit about 32under
V. This is lower The
than resulting
the leveldisturbance
determined accompanied
immediately after
opening
ferroresonance
izationthe the W1 switch
excitation,
characteristics in field
the 1, but
vibrations it
ofis still
which significant.
are permanent Thus,
in despite
phase the
voltagesconclusion
and
opening W1 switch inoffield power devices
1, but determined
it is still significant.by Thus,
waveform 2 (Figure
despite 3) were re-
the conclusion
stated,
currents.
placed itbyis trajectory
not decisive
Failure to minimize
1. regarding
The graphs the
the resulting effectiveness
indicatedoscillations
in ofmay
Figuresthe 9method
have
and presented.
negative
10 show effects
the on the
effect of the
stated, it is not decisive regarding the effectiveness of the method presented.
design
changes of introduced.
voltage transformers, emphasizing their thermal and mechanical damage.

Figure9.9.The
Figure Thevoltage
voltagewaveform
waveform inin
thethe open
open delta
delta circuit
circuit as aasresult
a result of changing
of changing the magnetization
the magnetization
characteristicsofofthe
characteristics thevoltage
voltage transformers
transformers from
from waveform
waveform 2 to21.to 1.
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 11 of 17
Figure 9. The voltage waveform in the open delta circuit as a result of changing the magnetization
characteristics of the voltage transformers from waveform 2 to 1.

Figure10.
Figure 10. Phase voltage
voltage waveforms
waveforms on onthe
theprimary
primaryside
sideofof
voltage transformers
voltage asas
transformers a result of chang-
a result of
ing their magnetization characteristics from 2 to 1.
changing their magnetization characteristics from 2 to 1.

When analyzing the impact

The characteristics of changing
obtained the remaining
clearly indicate voltage
the lack transformer parameters
of effectiveness of the applied
in the power
method gridcase
for the model (Figure
under 1), it can be The
consideration. noticed that ferroresonance
resulting disturbance isdoes not occur by
accompanied
only when the R_Fe
ferroresonance resistance
excitation, thevalue is decreased
vibrations of whichor when the primary
are permanent in side
phaseparameters
voltages and
are increased. The efficiency is related to the mentioned aspect of energy dissipation
currents. Failure to minimize the resulting oscillations may have negative effects on in the
the core.
design of voltage transformers, emphasizing their thermal and mechanical damage.
4.2.2. When analyzing
Switching the impact
on the Damping of changing
Resistor in the the
Openremaining voltage transformer parame-
Delta Circuit
ters in the power grid model (Figure 1), it can be noticed that ferroresonance does not
One of the primary methods of eliminating ferroresonance is to connect a damping
occur only when the R_Fe resistance value is decreased or when the primary side param-
resistor in the open triangle circuit. The idea behind the role of minimization based on
eters are increased. The efficiency is related to the mentioned aspect of energy dissipation
the solution mentioned above is to increase the damping factor (by loading the circuit
in the
and core.
introducing resistance losses). The effectiveness of the method depends, among other
things, on the time of component activation. The variety of solutions means that the
4.2.2. Switching
resistor on the Damping
can be permanently Resistor
connected inadditional
to the the Open Delta Circuit
winding, or it can be connected
during One of the primary
transient methods
states. Another of eliminating
significant ferroresonance
parameter concerns the is size
to connect a damping
of the applied
resistance. This value is difficult to determine accurately. The only solution is to determine
resistor in the open triangle circuit. The idea behind the role of minimization based on the
the minimum
solution value ofabove
mentioned the resistance R_OTD
is to increase thethat will ensure
damping permissible
factor (by loading changes in the and
the circuit
temperature
introducingofresistance
the winding during
losses). Thetheeffectiveness
phenomenon.of the method depends, among other
things, on the time of component activation. √ The variety
2
of solutions means that the resis-
3· 3·U2dn
tor can be permanently connected to the
R_OTD = additional winding, or it can be connected during(7)
transient states. Another significant parameter Pconcernse the size of the applied resistance.
The data contained in Formula (7) determine the rated voltage of the secondary
winding connected in open delta configuration U2dn and the rated thermal load of this
winding Pe (the apparent power that can be delivered to the winding without exceeding
the temperature rise limit [24]).
The system’s structure in the EMTP/ATP program implementing the indicated solu-
tion is based on adding a series-connected resistor R_OTD with switch W10 to the open
triangle winding, which is located parallel to the resistor R_OT. The diagram shown in
Figure 1 was used as the base model.
For the purpose of computer simulation of the system, it becomes necessary to define
the parameters of the connected components. In this case, the value of the R_OTD resistor
was set at 10 Ω, and the closing time of the W10 switch was set to 0.5 s from the moment of
starting the simulation. For this structure, the voltage waveforms in the open delta circuit
 The system's
The system's structure
structure in in the
the EMTP/ATP
EMTP/ATP program
program implementing
implementing the the indicated
indicated solu-
solu-
tion is based on adding a series-connected resistor R_OTD with switch
tion is based on adding a series-connected resistor R_OTD with switch W10 to the open W10 to the open
triangle winding,
triangle winding, which
which is is located
located parallel
parallel toto the
the resistor
resistor R_OT.
R_OT. TheThe diagram
diagram shown
shown in in
Figure 11 was
Figure was used
used as
as the
the base
base model.
model.
For the purpose of computer simulation of
For the purpose of computer simulation of the
the system,
system, it
it becomes
becomes necessary
necessary to to define
define
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 12 of 17
the parameters of the connected components. In this case, the value of the
the parameters of the connected components. In this case, the value of the R_OTD resistor R_OTD resistor
was set
was set at
at 10
10 Ω,
Ω, and
and the
the closing
closing time
time of
of the
the W10
W10 switch
switch was
was set
set to
to 0.5
0.5 ss from
from the
the moment
moment
of starting the simulation. For this structure, the voltage waveforms in the
of starting the simulation. For this structure, the voltage waveforms in the open delta cir- open delta cir-
and
cuit the
and phase
the voltages
phase on theonprimary
voltages the side ofside
primary theof
voltage
the transformers
voltage were obtained,
transformers were as
obtained,
cuit and
shown
the phase
in Figures
voltages
11 and
on the primary side of the voltage transformers were obtained,
12. 12.
as shown
as shown in Figures
in Figures 11 and
11 and 12.

Figure 11.
Figure
Figure 11. The
11. The voltage
Thevoltage waveform
voltagewaveform
waveforminininthe
the open
the delta
open
open circuit,
delta
delta including
circuit,
circuit, the the
including
including the attenuation resistor
attenuation
attenuation R_OTD
resistor
resistor R_OTD
= 10
R_OTDΩ in theΩadditional
= 10
= 10 Ω in the additional winding
in the additional
winding system.
winding
system. system.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Waveforms
Waveforms ofof phase
phase voltages
voltages on the
the primary
primary side
side of
of voltage
voltage transformers,
transformers, including
including the
the
Figure 12. Waveforms of phase voltages ononthe primary side of voltage transformers, including the
attenuation resistor
attenuationresistor R_OTD
resistorR_OTD = 10 Ω in
R_OTD= =1010ΩΩinin the
the additional
additional winding
winding system.
system.
attenuation the additional winding system.

Accordingtoto
According
According tothe
thecharacteristics
the characteristicspresented,
characteristics presented,
presented, all
allall the
thethe phase
phase voltage
voltage
phase voltage and
andand current
current wave-
current wave-
wave-
forms
forms
forms areare established
are established after
established after connecting
after connecting
connecting the the damping
the damping resistor,
damping resistor, causing
resistor,causing
causingthe the system
thesystem
systemto to be re-
to be
be re-
stored to
restored
stored totothe
the state
thestate preceding
state preceding
preceding thethe disturbance
the disturbanceprocess.
disturbance process.The
process. The
The time
time
time taken
taken to
to to
taken reach
reach the
thethe
reach equilib-
equilib-
equilib-
rium
rium isis short
short because
because it isit is
aboutabout
0.2 s 0.2
for s
the for
casethe case
analyzed, analyzed,
indicating indicating
the
rium is short because it is about 0.2 s for the case analyzed, indicating the moment of moment theofmoment
closing of
the W10 circuit breaker as a reference point. On this basis, the method presented should be
classified as an effective method of elimination of the ferroresonance phenomenon.
Turning on the resistor first causes the resonance phenomenon to disappear in about
0.5 s. Second, after the same period, the phase voltages reach a sinusoidal steady state.
In line with the indication of the influence of the resistance value on the process
of damping of nonlinear oscillations, this specificity was also taken account of in the
considerations. To this end, the size of the R_OTD resistor was increased to 25 Ω while
the closing time of the circuit breaker W10 was maintained. Figures 13 and 14 show the
courses of relevant parameters that take into account the modification introduced.
Based on the characteristics indicated, it can be seen that along with the increase in
the resistance of the damping resistor, the damping time of nonlinear vibrations increases.
For the case under consideration, it is about 0.4 s, which is an increase of 0.2 s compared to
the previous solution. In an extreme situation, the tendency to increase the resistance may
lead to the ineffectiveness of ferroresonance elimination. This also determines the issue
wherein the selection of the damping resistor is a process necessary to ensure the correct
operation of the system.
 Turning on the resistor first causes the resonance phenomenon to disappear in about
Turning on the resistor first causes the resonance phenomenon to disappear in about
0.5 s. Second, after the same period, the phase voltages reach a sinusoidal steady state.
0.5 s. Second, after the same period, the phase voltages reach a sinusoidal steady state.
In line with the indication of the influence of the resistance value on the process of
In line with the indication of the influence of the resistance value on the process of
damping of nonlinear oscillations, this specificity was also taken account of in the consid-
damping of nonlinear oscillations, this specificity was also taken account of in the consid-
erations. To this end, the size of the R_OTD resistor was increased to 25 Ω while the clos-
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 erations. To this end, the size of the R_OTD resistor was increased to 25 Ω while 13the
of 17clos-
ing time of the circuit breaker W10 was maintained. Figures 13 and 14 show the courses
ing time of the circuit breaker W10 was maintained. Figures 13 and 14 show the courses
of relevant parameters that take into account the modification introduced.
of relevant parameters that take into account the modification introduced.

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Thevoltage
voltagewaveform
waveform inin the
the open
open delta
delta circuit,
circuit, taking
taking intointo account
account the the damping
damping resistor
resistor
Figure 13. The voltage waveform in the open delta circuit, taking into account the damping resistor
R_OTD==25
R_OTD 25ΩΩininthe
theadditional
additional winding
winding system.
system.
R_OTD = 25 Ω in the additional winding system.

Figure 14. Waveforms of phase voltages on the primary side of voltage transformers, including the
Figure14.
14.Waveforms
Waveforms ofof phase
phase voltages
voltages on on
thethe primary
primary sideside of voltage transformers, including the
of voltage
Figure
attenuation resistor R_OTD = 25 Ω in the additional winding system.transformers, including the
attenuation resistor R_OTD = 25 Ω in the additional winding
attenuation resistor R_OTD = 25 Ω in the additional winding system.
system.

Based on the characteristics indicated, it can be seen that along with the increase in
InBased on the
this case, thecharacteristics
duration of the indicated, it canincreases
disturbances be seen that along 0.4
by about with the increase
s (Figure 13). in
the resistance of the damping resistor, the damping time of nonlinear vibrations increases.
the resistance of the damping resistor, the damping time of nonlinear
The level of the peak voltages in the resonant state is at the same level as in the case of vibrations increases.
For the case under consideration, it is about 0.4 s, which is an increase of 0.2 s compared
For the=case
R_OTD 10 Ωunder
(Figure consideration,
14). it is about 0.4 s, which is an increase of 0.2 s compared
to the previous solution. In an extreme situation, the tendency to increase the resistance
to the previous solution. In an extreme situation, the tendency to increase the resistance
may Grounding
4.2.3. lead to the ineffectiveness of ferroresonance elimination. This also determines the
may lead to thethrough the Transformer
ineffectiveness Star Point Resistor
of ferroresonance elimination. This also determines the
issueThewherein the selection of the damping resistor is a process necessary to ensure the
issue wherein the selection of the damping resistor is abyprocess
ferroresonance phenomenon can be minimized grounding the transformer
necessary to ensure the
correct
star point operation of
resistor. The the system.
basis of this method is forcing the zero-sequence current to flow.
correct operation of the system.
In this case,of
The effectiveness thethe duration
concept of is the disturbances
related to the lower increases
voltage by aboutin
increase 0.4the
s (Figure 13). The
disturbance
In this case, the duration of the disturbances increases by about 0.4 s (Figure 13). The
level
state of
in the peak
relation tovoltages
the in
structurethe resonant
working state
with an is at the
isolated same
point,level
and as
in in
the the case of
consequencesR_OTD
level of the peak voltages in the resonant state is at the same level as in the case of R_OTD
= 10 Ω (Figure 14).
of the minimalization of additional magnetic fluxes Φ in the voltage transformers, which
= 10 Ω (Figure 14).
thankfully does not cause excitation of ferroresonant oscillations. The correct operation of
4.2.3.
the Grounding
system is relatedthrough the Transformer
to the appropriate Star
selection of Point Resistor
the resistor. The process of determining
4.2.3. Grounding through the Transformer Star Point Resistor
the appropriate
The ferroresonance phenomenon can be minimized byare
resistance level is complicated. However, there methods that
grounding the allow an
transformer
The of
indication ferroresonance
the optimal phenomenon
size of an element, canwhich
be minimized
is confirmed byingrounding
[32]. the transformer
star point resistor. The basis of this method is forcing the zero-sequence current to flow.
star point resistor. The basis of this method is forcing the zero-sequence current to flow.
Un
R_PN = √ (8)
3· IPN

where Un is the nominal voltage of the power grid and IPN is the rated earth fault current.
Because power grids, to a large extent, operate with an isolated neutral point, the
solution involves the use of an earthing transformer Tr_U 30/0.4 kV attached to the busbars,
which provides power to the auxiliary needs of the power substation. This structure was
also used to analyze this concept in the EMTP/ATP (Figure 1), which was obtained with
the W11 circuit breaker closed.
 𝑅_𝑃𝑁 = √3 ∙ 𝐼 (8)
(8)
√3 ∙ 𝐼
where U
where is the
Unn is the nominal
nominal voltage
voltage of of the
the power
power grid
grid and
and IIPN
PN is the rated earth fault current.
is the rated earth fault current.
Because power grids, to a large extent,
Because power grids, to a large extent, operate with an operate with an isolated
isolated neutral
neutral point,
point, the
the
solution involves the use of an earthing transformer Tr_U 30/0.4
solution involves the use of an earthing transformer Tr_U 30/0.4 kV attached to14the kV attached to the bus-
bus-
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 of 17
bars,which
bars, whichprovides
providespower
powerto tothe
theauxiliary
auxiliaryneeds
needsof ofthe
thepower
powersubstation.
substation.This
Thisstructure
structure
was also
was also used
used to to analyze
analyze this
this concept
concept in in the
the EMTP/ATP
EMTP/ATP (Figure(Figure 1),
1), which
which waswas obtained
obtained
with the W11 circuit breaker
with the W11 circuit breaker closed. closed.
Grounding
Grounding through
throughthe the
transformer
transformerstar point resistor
star point determines
point resistor
resistor the resistance
determines value
the resistance
resistance
Grounding through the transformer star determines the
for the purpose
value for
for the of
the purpose computer
purpose of simulation.
of computer
computer simulation.Therefore, the
simulation. Therefore,value
Therefore, theof 50 Ω
the value was
value of assumed
of 50
50 ΩΩ was as the
was assumed
assumed
value
resistance
as the R_PN,
the resistance which
resistance R_PN, results
R_PN, which in the
which results waveforms
results inin the shown
the waveforms in
waveforms shownFigures
shown in 15 and 16.
in Figures
Figures 1515 and
and 16.
16.
as

Figure15.
Figure
Figure 15.The
15. Thevoltage
The voltagewaveform
voltage waveform
waveform in
ininthethe
the open
open
open delta
delta circuit,
circuit,
delta taking
taking
circuit, into
intointo
taking account
account the presence
the the
account presence
presence of an
of anof an
earthing
earthing transformer
earthingtransformer connected
transformerconnected
connected to
toto earth
earth
earth through
through
through a resistor
a resistor R_PN
a resistor R_PN
R_PN = 50
= 50= Ω. Ω.
50 Ω.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Waveforms
Waveforms of of phase
phase voltages
voltages on the
the primary
primary side
side of
of voltage
voltage transformers,
transformers, taking
taking into
into
Figure 16. Waveforms of phase voltages ononthe primary side of voltage transformers, taking into
account
accountthethe presence
thepresence of an earthing
presenceofofananearthing
earthing transformer
transformer connected
connected to earth
to earth through
through a resistor
a resistor R_PN
R_PN = 50 Ω.
account transformer connected to earth through a resistor R_PN = 50 =Ω.50 Ω.

Basedon
Based
Based onthe
on thedescribed
the described
described characteristics,
characteristics,
characteristics, it has
it it
has has been
been
been noticed
noticed that
thatthat
noticed the
thethe ferroresonance
ferroresonance
ferroresonance
phenomenondoes
phenomenon
phenomenon doesnot
does notoccur
not occur
occur in
ininthethe
the system
system
system earthed
earthed
earthed through
through
through the
thethe resistor.
resistor. The
TheThe
resistor. resultresult of the
of the
result of the
earth
earth fault
fault isis manifested
manifested inin the
the appearance
appearance of of
thethe voltage
voltage zero-sequence,
zero-sequence, which
which
earth fault is manifested in the appearance of the voltage zero-sequence, which diminishes diminishes
diminishes
almostto
almost
almost tozero
to zeroafter
zero afteropening
after opening
opening thethe
the circuit
circuit breaker
breaker
circuit breaker W1
W1W1 in bay
in in
bay bay 1. At
1. At
1. At the
the the
samesame
time,
same time, only
onlyonly
time, the
the the
period in which the fault condition occurs has an influence on the phase voltage waveforms.
The departure of the currents from the classical outlines for the time after the elimination
of the disturbance indicates that the voltage transformers are in a deep saturation state.
The aspect related to the selection of the resistor has been included in the consideration
by simulating the system while indicating a different value of the resistor. Therefore, a
second experiment was carried out with the assumption of resistance R_PN = 100 Ω.
The characteristics for R_PN = 100 Ω are almost identical to the trajectories resulting
from the use of the R_PN = 50 Ω resistor. Slight differences in values occur for the duration
of the fault state. This indicates the effectiveness in the elimination of ferroresonance in
both cases considered. However, the resistor selection process should not be ignored since
its correct determination allows for the appropriate limitation of transient overvoltages to
values that are safe for the insulation of power system components.

4.2.4. Connecting the To-Ground Capacity

An analysis was also carried out to attach additional to-ground capacity to the busbars
in order to detune the circuit from ferroresonant vibrations. The use of additional overhead
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 15 of 17

lines, and in particular cable lines, can significantly contribute to the detuning of the system
from nonlinear oscillations. The concept that lies behind the effectiveness of the solution
presented is to change the to-ground capacity XC of the power grid. The simulation results
showed that this is not a sufficiently effective form of ferroresonance damping. Furthermore,
the time needed to dampen the oscillation entirely is quite long.

5. Discussion
Each of the methods described contributes to a greater or smaller extent to the elimina-
tion of the ferroresonance phenomenon. Nevertheless, an important feature to pay attention
to during the analysis is the power grid system created by the ferroresonance elimination
method. This aspect is particularly important for the selection of power system protections.
In particular, the connection of the resistor R_OTD to the open delta windings and the
earthing through the resistor R_PN of the power grid must be kept in mind. Particular
attention should be paid to earth-fault protection, among other things. By far the largest
earth fault overvoltages occur in an isolated system (and thus for the method involving
the attachment of a resistor in an open-delta system) and small ones in a network earthed
through a resistor. At the same time, the different nature of network operation translates
into the need for different types of earth fault protection. In an isolated system, directional
reactive or directional susceptance protections can be successfully used. However, these
types of protection cannot be implemented in a network earthed through a resistor. Con-
versely, in a network earthed through a resistor, it is recommended to use directional active
power protection or non-directional conductance protection (these protections cannot be
used in an isolated network). The most recommended and current protection in both
systems is the zero-voltage protection. A different aspect is the shock hazard for the types
of mains considered related to ferroresonance elimination methods. The risk is significantly
higher for a network earthed by a resistor than for an isolated system. At the same time,
this translates into requirements for substation earthing resistance which are greater for a
resistor earthed network than for an isolated system.
In view of the above, the choice of the elimination of ferroresonance brings with it the
need to analyze many aspects affecting the correct operation of the electricity system. This
forms the basis for another separate analysis of the topic.

6. Conclusions
As a result of the implementation of the elimination of the ferroresonance phenomenon,
it may be concluded that there are many methods available with varying degrees of com-
plexity and difficulties in implementing them into practical solutions. Furthermore, the
wide range of damping methods also affects the effectiveness and course of the minimiza-
tion process (presented in Section 4).
Among the methods of limiting the ferroresonance phenomenon analyzed and con-
sidered, two of them were seen to be effective (Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3). It should be
emphasized that both are characterized by similar values of phase voltages on the primary
side of the transformer in the resonant state. None of the values of the additionally added
resistors considered have an impact on the peak voltage levels. However, both the activa-
tion of the damping resistor in the open delta circuit (Figures 13 and 14) and the grounding
through the transformer star point resistor (Figures 15 and 16) affect the attenuation and
ferroresonance decay in less than 1 second. Therefore, the second method seems to be more
effective in this respect.
One of the simplest methods of minimizing nonlinear vibrations is the use of anti-
ferroresonance transformers (Section 4.2.1). However, the current trend of reducing di-
mensions, and in particular the dependence of the implementation of this technology on
manufacturers, significantly limits the practical use of the method.
The solutions that use one or more damping resistors are the most effective in sup-
pressing ferroresonance, which is confirmed by the simulations and literature. The use
of a resistor in the open triangle circuit should be particularly emphasized. This concept
Energies 2022, 15, 9516 16 of 17

has many more significant advantages over the location of resistors in the measurement
windings. This is related to the proper efficiency, simpler implementation, and maintenance
of the required measurement accuracy of the indicated method. Current solutions are
largely based on a product that uses the active resistance variation of a resistor connected in
an open delta. The concept proposed in this article is based on a constant resistance value
and presents a different approach to the defined problem. The resistor is only connected
with the switch when the fault occurs. With such a solution, the open delta secondary
winding is not additionally loaded during all of the power grid operation, which is used in
the available solutions (despite the very high resistance).
The above considerations confirm that the ferroresonance phenomenon with the
participation of voltage transformers is a highly negative state, and its correct elimination
using an appropriate suppression method, using a resistor in the open triangle circuit, is
necessary to maintain the correct operation of the entire power system. A separate issue is
to select the value of the added resistances for a specific transformer and network in which
the entire system is to operate.
The authors performed computer simulations in a simulation environment that con-
siders electrical parameters with a high approximation; however, simulations in a physical
environment may provide additional information on methods of limiting the ferroreso-
nance phenomenon. Being aware of the importance of the analyzed aspects, it was decided
to publish the obtained results, which may become the basis for further development works.
The developed issues are important because they can contribute to the improvement of
the operating conditions of the systems (damping and ferroresonance decay). The sim-
ulations carried out indicate the high potential of the solution, which, in the long term,
requires costly laboratory tests and the creation of a physical model for simulation in the
measurement environment. This type of research can be performed in a separate research
and development project. After confirming the correct and safe operation of the proposed
solutions on physical models, the project should be implemented in a real environment
with the participation of an industrial partner interested in implementing the solution.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.K., P.S. and M.M.; methodology, W.K., P.S. and M.M.;
software, M.M.; validation, W.K. and P.S.; investigation, M.M. and W.K.; writing—original draft
preparation, W.K., P.S. and M.M.; writing—review and editing, W.K., P.S. and M.M.; visualization,
M.M.; supervision, W.K. and P.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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