The Ketamine Papers Phil Wolfson

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-ketamine-papers-phil-wolfson/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Essential University Physics 4th Edition Richard

Wolfson

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-university-
physics-4th-edition-richard-wolfson/

Essential university physics 4th Edition Richard

Wolfson

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-university-
physics-4th-edition-richard-wolfson-2/

Essential University Physics: Volume 1 (4th Edition)

Richard Wolfson

https://textbookfull.com/product/essential-university-physics-
volume-1-4th-edition-richard-wolfson/

War of Secrets Phil Kelly

https://textbookfull.com/product/war-of-secrets-phil-kelly/
The Duplicity of Philosophy s Shadow Heidegger Nazism
and the Jewish Other Elliot R. Wolfson

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-duplicity-of-philosophy-s-
shadow-heidegger-nazism-and-the-jewish-other-elliot-r-wolfson/

The Rough Guide to Mallorca Menorca Seventh Edition

Phil Lee

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-rough-guide-to-mallorca-
menorca-seventh-edition-phil-lee/

Electrical Wiring Commercial 16th Edition Phil Simmons

https://textbookfull.com/product/electrical-wiring-
commercial-16th-edition-phil-simmons/

Electrical Wiring. Commercial 16th Edition Phil Simmons

https://textbookfull.com/product/electrical-wiring-
commercial-16th-edition-phil-simmons-2/

A knock on the door the essential history of

residential schools Phil Fontaineaimée Craft

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-knock-on-the-door-the-
essential-history-of-residential-schools-phil-fontaineaimee-
craft/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 128.—Sclerotinia ciborioides: a sclerotium with three apothecia slightly
magnified; b ascus with eight ascospores; c germinating ascospore.
 Fig. 129.—Dasyscypha willkommii: a
portion of bark of Larix decidua with sessile,
cup-shaped apothecia (nat. size); b two
paraphyses on either side of an ascus with
eight ascospores.
Order 2. Mollisiaceæ. Mollisia cinerea, principally on decaying wood.

Order 3. Pezizaceæ. This order contains the largest and

morphologically the highest forms of the Discomycetes. Apothecia
fleshy, and in the later conditions generally saucer-shaped.
Peziza, with sessile apothecia, growing on the ground; P. cochleata is brown,
and coiled like a snail-shell; P. coccinea is scarlet; P. aurantia occurs as an orange-
coloured expansion on the ground.
 Order 4. Ascobolaceæ. Apothecia fleshy; in the later stages flat or convex. The
asci are, comparatively speaking, large, and often contain a great number of
spores which escape by the casting off of a lid on the summit of the ascus.
Generally living on dung.—Ascobolus furfuraceus, etc.

Family 6. Helvellales.
These Fungi have the appearance of clubs, bells, or mushrooms,
consisting of an upright stalk bearing a large and fleshy head, on the
exterior surface of which the hymenium is spread. The ascocarps
are probably gymnocarpic from the beginning, and on this account
these plants are placed in a separate family. The development of the
ascocarps is unknown. The Morchella (Morell) grows on the ground;
some species are edible. 1 order.
Order. Helvellaceæ. Spathulea is yellow and club-shaped, and forms “fairy
rings” in woods.—Geoglossum (Earth-tongue) projects above the ground as a
black tongue, or as a club-shaped body. Several species are found in meadows
and on heaths.—Helvella has a stalk, bearing an irregularly folded head, on the
external surface of which is the hypothecium.—Morchella (Morell, Fig. 130), the
stalk bears on its summit the conical or spherical head, the external surface of
which is reticulate and bears the asci.—Mitrula. Verpa.
 Fig. 130.—Morchella esculenta: a an entire
specimen, about one half natural size; b
longitudinal section through the head.

Appendix to the Ascomycetes:

Family 7. Ascolichenes (Lichen-forming Ascomycetes).

The Lichens were formerly classed among the Thallophyta as a
group quite distinct from the Algæ and Fungi. Investigations during
the last twenty-five years, however, have conclusively proved that
the Lichens are Fungi which reproduce in the same manner as the
Ascomycetes, or, more rarely, the Basidiomycetes, and have entered
into a peculiar symbiotic relation with Algæ, especially the
Cyanophyceæ and Protococcoideæ, with which they associate, and
without which they would be unable to exist. The Fungus forms the
largest portion of the Lichen, enclosing the Alga with which it may be
said to be commensal. The Fungus especially produces reproductive
bodies and absorbs the inorganic nourishment through the rhizoids,
whilst the Alga supplies it with the organic materials. In consequence
of this the Lichens, in contradistinction to other Fungi, need light for
the development of their nutritive organs, and are therefore, in any
case internally, of a more or less greenish colour. The form and
condition of the thallus is unusual among the Fungi, and they can
grow upon rocks and in other places where no dead organic matter,
such as would be required by other Fungi, is obtainable.
 Fig. 131.—Transverse section through the thallus of Sticta
fuliginosa (× 500): r-r rhizoid-strands, which arise from the under side;
g-g gonidial layer; m medullary layer; o upper, u lower cortex.
Two cellular forms are therefore to be found in each Lichen:
1. The cells which belong to the Fungus. These are generally
septate, branched hyphæ without any trace of chlorophyll. In the
thallus of the majority of Lichens there may be found a medullary
layer (Fig. 131 m) of loosely-woven hyphæ, between which there are
large air chambers; and an external layer (cortex) (Fig. 131 o, u)
formed of closely-woven hyphæ without any intercellular spaces. In
some Lichens (Collemaceæ) the hyphæ wind about in the thallus,
being equally distributed throughout, without forming any decided
strata. These Lichens moreover become gelatinous when exposed
to moisture (Fig. 132), on account of the swelling of the walls of the
Algæ. The hyphæ contain protoplasm with drops of oil, but never
starch; their walls easily swell when exposed to damp after having
been dried, and in some (e.g. Cetraria islandica) they become
gelatinous when cooked. Certain strata of hyphæ become blue on
treatment with iodine alone, from which it is inferred that the wall is
allied, in its chemical nature, to starch.
2. The enclosed Algæ, termed “gonidia.” Some belonging to the
Cyanophyceæ, Protococcoideæ, (especially Pleurococcus) and
Chroococcaceæ, are spherical and are found isolated, or in irregular
groups of cells (Fig. 131 g); some belonging to Nostoc (Fig. 132 g),
Lyngbyaceæ, etc., are placed in cell-rows. Each Lichen, as a rule,
has only one definite Algal-form for its gonidium.
The gonidia either lie together in a certain stratum between the
cortex and the medullary layer (Fig. 131 g), or are scattered
irregularly throughout the entire thallus (Fig. 132). The thallus is in
the first instance termed “heteromerous,” in the second instance,
“homoiomerous.” The Fungal-hyphæ embrace the gonidia and apply
themselves closely to, or even penetrate them, and hence it has
been difficult to decide whether the one cellular form does or does
not develop from the other (Figs. 134, 135).
 Fig. 132.—Collema microphyllum. Transverse section through the thallus; g
Nostoc-chains; h hyphæ.
This theory regarding the symbiosis of Fungi and Algæ to form a Lichen is
termed the Schwendenerian theory, after the first scientist who advanced it with
any weight. It had been already indicated by De Bary, and further arguments in its
support have at a later time been adduced by Bornet, Stahl, Treub, Frank, Bonnier,
Alfr. Möller and others.
 Fig. 133.—Ephebe pubescens. The
apex of a branch of the thallus with two
lateral branches (s): h its hyphæ; g the
apical gonidium of the main branch.
 Fig. 134.—Nostoc lichenoides, which is
attached by a germinating thread (h) of
Collema glaucescens.
 Fig. 135.—A Germinating spore of Physcia parietina with Protococcus
viridis. B Synalissa symphorea with Glæocapsa. C Cladonia furcata with
Protococcus.
The thallus of the Lichen appears mainly under three forms:—
1. The Crustaceous, which adheres firmly to the substratum
(bark, stone) throughout its entire surface, without being raised into
any free patches or lobes. It has, in many instances, no definite
outline, and hyphal-branches from it often penetrate deeply into the
substratum. It grows at the circumference and sometimes dies away
in the centre (Figs. 138, 139, 140).
2. The Foliaceous. This also lies flat upon the substratum, but is
not firmly attached to and has a definite outline. It grows at the
margin, and raises itself a little by free outgrowths and lobes (Fig.
141). The rhizoid-strands spring out from its whitish under surface
(Fig. 131, r).

Fig. 136.—Portion of a hymenium: d a thin stratum on which the asci

(s) are situated.
 Fig. 137.—Spores of, a Cladonia, Lecanora and Pertusaria;
b Bæomyces; c Sphinctrina; d, e, f various species of
Parmelia; g, h Verrucaria in its younger and older condition; i, k
species of Leptogium.
3. The Fruticose, which is attached to its substratum at a small
point from which it projects freely, either erect or pendulous. It is
more or less tufted, in the form of a bush (Figs. 142, 143). These
three thallus-forms gradually pass over by many intermediate forms
into one another.
 Fig. 138.—Lecanora subfusca: a the bark on
which it is situated; l the thallus; s the ascocarp; s’
an ascocarp.
Fig. 139.—Graphis (two species).
 Fig. 140.—Pertusaria communis.
The Lichens, like other Ascomycetes, have very variously
constructed ascospores (Fig. 137), which are enclosed in asci (Fig.
136), usually surrounded by paraphyses attached together.
Furthermore they possess pycnidia (Fig. 141) containing numerous
microconidia. These were formerly considered as organs of
fructification, and were termed “spermatia,” and the pycnidia,
“spermogonia.” Alfr. Möller proved, in 1887, that the microconidia are
able to germinate and produce a mycelium with new conidia, just as
in other Ascomycetes.
Vegetative Reproduction takes place by soredia, which to the
naked eye appear as whitish powder on the surface of the thallus.
They are small round bodies, formed by one or a group of gonidia,
which are surrounded by a mass of felted hyphæ. After the rupture of
the cortex they are set free, and readily carried by the wind to other
places, where under favourable circumstances they establish a new
thallus.

Fig. 141.—A A portion of the thallus of Parmelia parietina with ascocarps (a)
and pycnidia (b). B A portion of the thallus of Cetraria islandica with pycnidia at the
end of small lobes. C A lobe with pycnidia and ejected microconidia. (Magnified).
Geographical Distribution. The Lichens are the most hardy
plants, and are the first to appear on hitherto bare rocks which they
gradually disintegrate, and hence prepare the way for the growth of
other plants. They are to be found from the Polar regions to the
Equator; from the highest snow-free mountain-peaks down to the
level of the sea; on the stems of trees; on rocks, soil, some even on
inundated places; on stones in woodland streams, and on beaches;
but they are never found upon rotten organic remains. Some grow
gregariously in enormous masses, and form wide-stretching carpets,
e.g. Reindeer Moss (Cladonia rangiferina), species of Cetraria and
other fruticose Lichens.
Uses. On account of the cell-wall being composed of
Lichenstarch (Lichenin), the Iceland-Lichen and Manna-Lichen
(Lecanora esculenta) are used as food; the latter grows on stones, in
the deserts of Asia and North Africa, and is often torn loose in large
masses and carried away by the wind. The Reindeer-Lichen is not
only the principal food of the reindeer, but it is also used in the
manufacture of Danish brandy. Cetraria islandica (Lichen islandicus)
is officinal. Colouring materials (lacmus, orseille, persio) are made
from several species, especially from Roccella tinctoria (from the
rocky coasts of the Mediterranean). Parmelia saxatilis and
particularly Lecanora tartarea are used for colouring purposes in the
Northern countries.
About 2,000 species of Lichens have been described. If we
disregard the Basidiolichenes, which will be considered on page 176,
the remaining Lichens (Ascolichenes) may be divided into the two
following orders according to the structure of the fruit-bodies:—
Order 1. Pyrenolichenes. The ascocarps (apothecia) are
spherical or flask-shaped, as in the Pyrenomycetes, more rarely
linear (Graphis).
According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be divided into:—
a. Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching according to the mode
of growth of the Algæ: Ephebe (Fig. 133), with Algæ of the genus Stigonema.
b. Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: Lichina.
c. Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: Verrucaria, Pyrenula; Graphis (Fig. 139),
which may be considered as Hysteriaceæ with gonidia; several species of Graphis
are common on bark.
d. Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: Endocarpon.
e. Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: Sphærophorus.
Order 2. Discolichenes. These, as in the Discomycetes, have
open apothecia, which, as a rule, are cupular, more rarely
hemispherical (Cladonia).
According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be divided into:—
a. Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching according to the mode
of growth of the Algæ: Cœnogonium.
b. Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: Collema (Fig. 132), with Algæ of the
genus Nostoc; Leptogium.
c. Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: Pertusaria (Fig. 140), Lecidea, with
apothecia open from the beginning; Lecanora, with apothecia, which in the
beginning are closed, later on open, but with a rim formed by the thallus (Fig. 138);
Bæomyces, whose apothecia are borne on a stem formed by the thallus.
d. Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: Parmelia (P. saxatilis; P. parietina, Wall-
Lichen, Fig. 141, is yellow, very frequent on tree-stems, stone-walls, tiles); Physcia
(P. ciliaris, frequent on tree-stems); Sticta (S. pulmonacea, Lung-Lichen, on tree-
stems); Peltigera, especially on the Moss among trees; Umbilicaria, on rocks.
e. Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: Cetraria (C. islandica), “Iceland Moss,” with
an olive-brown, flat, furrowed, fringed thallus, on heaths; C. nivalis, white, in the
Polar regions; Evernia, Ramalina, Usnea (U. barbata, Beard-Lichen, Fig. 143);
Roccella, Stereocaulon, Cladonia, of which the genus C. rangiferina, Reindeer-
Moss (Fig. 142) is important; Cladonia has two kinds of thallus, one scaly and leaf-
like, the other erect, which bears the apothecia and may be fruticose (Fig. 142), or
cupular (Fig. 144); they grow in soil in forests and on heaths.
Fig. 142.—Cladonia rangiferina: s ascocarp.