Bachelor of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering

Assignment

Advanced Engineering Materials

Bachelor of Electrical and Electronic Engineering - 9846

A.R.S Fernando
Acknowledgement
First, I would like to express my deepest regards to all those who have provided their
assistance and efforts in the process of creating the report on the synthesis of a high-
performance steel alloy suitable for lathe machines. And my thanks go to my colleagues and
team members for their contributions to this project: the work would have been impossible
without their help. We also extend sincere gratitude to the technical advisors who provided
insight and assistance during the research. Finally, it may be important to acknowledge any
sources of support from the organization in which this work was conducted, as such
assistance is invaluable in carrying out the work.

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Executive Summary
This report aims at designing and manufacturing a high-performance steel alloy for lathe
machines to meet some of the major demands such as mechanical properties, heat stability,
and failure. It previews the details of the development of a high-performance steel alloy for
lathe machine application and the material’s critical demands for mechanical performance,
heat endurance, and failure avoidance. Therefore, through the understanding of superior
manufacturing methods on possible failure modes and optimum solutions, this report offers a
systematic investigation to improve the reliability of the lathe machine parts. Specific
recommendations concerning this problem include proper choice of alloying additives,
precise control of the process and effective quality control.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
2. Mechanical Properties and Experimental Procedures ........................................................ 4
2.1 Tensile Strength ................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Hardness ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Toughness ......................................................................................................................... 7
3. Manufacturing Processes.................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Powder Metallurgy ........................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Heat Treatment ................................................................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Stages of Heat Treatment (Figure 9) .................................................................. 9
3.3 Forging ........................................................................................................................... 10
3.3.1 Impression Die Forging .................................................................................... 10
3.3.2 Cold Forging..................................................................................................... 11
3.3.3 Die Forging in Open Form ............................................................................... 11
3.3.4 Rolling Ring Forging Seamless ........................................................................ 11
4. Possible Failures ............................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Fatigue Failure................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Wear and Abrasion ......................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Thermal Fatigue ............................................................................................................. 13
5. Optimization of Product Quality ...................................................................................... 14
6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 15
7. Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 16
7.1 Composition of The Proposed Steel Alloy ..................................................................... 16
7.2 Key Properties ................................................................................................................ 16
7.3 Alloy Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 17
7.3.1 Microstructure .................................................................................................. 17
7.3.2 Corrosion Resistance ........................................................................................ 17
7.3.3 Machinability ................................................................................................... 17
8. References ........................................................................................................................ 18
9. Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 19
9.1 Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................................... 19
9.2 Appendix 2 ..................................................................................................................... 20
9.3 Appendix 3 ..................................................................................................................... 21

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Modern Lathe Machine (Wikipedia, 2019) ................................................................ 1
Figure 2: Alloy Steel (amardeepsteel, 2024) .............................................................................. 2
Figure 3: Stress-Strain Behaviour for Steel Alloys (steelconstruction, 2017) ........................... 3
Figure 4: Tensile Stress-Strain Curve (French, 1922) ................................................................ 5
Figure 5: Major components of a Rockwell hardness Tester (TEST, 2016). ............................. 5
Figure 6: Rockwell Hardness Test Results Example (Contributors, 2019) ................................ 7
Figure 7: Toughness Testing (Yang, 2012) ................................................................................. 8
Figure 8: Stages of the Powder Metallurgy Processes (Wikipedia, 2020) ................................. 9
Figure 9: Temperature Ranges for Heat Treatment Processes (Buschow, 2001) ..................... 10
Figure 10: Impression Die Forging .......................................................................................... 10
Figure 11: Cold Forging Processes And Arrangement Of Materials ........................................ 11
Figure 12: Methods of Forging (wikipedia, 2019) ................................................................... 11
Figure 13; Patterns of Component Fractures at Fatigue Failure (Yang, 2012) ........................ 12
Figure 14: Thermal Fatigue (Hoerner, 2021) ........................................................................... 14

List of Tables
Table 1: Experimental Procedure Of Tensile Strength Testing .................................................. 4
Table 2: Experimental Procedure Of Hardness Testing ............................................................. 6
Table 3: Experimental Procedure Of Toughness Testing ........................................................... 7

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1. Introduction
Lathe machines Figure 1 are very important in industries, especially in operations that involve
turning, cutting and finishing of metals and wooden materials respectively. These are versatile
machines where the table has two axes While one of the tables remains stationary, the other
rotates around the workpiece so cutting tools can work on the desired area. The extensive
application of lathe machines in applications like motor vehicle production, production of
aircraft and other transport equipment, metal and wood industries etc. is an indication of the
fact that lathe machines are useful in the manufacturing of a variety of parts right from simple
cylindrical form to near complicated shapes. Regarding the material used for the construction
of lathe machines, it is quite clear that their overall efficiency and lifespan are determined by
this factor. Of all these materials, steel alloys are highly essential as they can provide high
intensity, high toughness, and ease in their processing (Wikipedia, 2019).

Figure 1: Modern Lathe Machine (Wikipedia, 2019)

To achieve the maximum possible functionality and durability of a lathe machine, specialized
steel alloys in its parts, including spindles, tool holders, and cutting tools, should have special
qualities that determine the stability of their performance. Some of these properties include
Mechanical properties namely the inherent strength of the material Heat resistance The ability
of the material to resist different types of failure. Because of hardness, strength, and toughness,
mechanical capability is recognized as one of the most essential properties of any material.
These properties, therefore, make the steel alloy capable of handling the mechanical loading
and unloading that come along with the machining exercises without further deformations or
even failure. Tensile strength, as a characteristic of the cutting material, enables it to resist such
forces that pull on it and hardness, enables it to resist wear and abrasion due to friction with the
workpiece or the cutting tools.

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Fatigue resistance is crucial since the importance of impact energy for weight-carrying vehicles
and components would otherwise lead to brittle failure under shock loads. Machining processes
of the lathe sometimes develop large amounts of heat due to the rubbing action of the cutting
tool and the workpiece material. For this reason, the steel alloy needs to offer good heat
resistance to still afford the necessary mechanical will, power and fabrication properties at high
temperatures. High-temperature stable alloys that do not undergo mechanical degradation or
exhibit thermally activated failure, are highly desirable for applications where material
performance is susceptible to thermal cycling and thermal stresses, leading to thermal fatigue
failure. It is common for extremely high temperatures to be produced due to the friction of the
cutting tool material against the workpiece. Hence, the steel alloy Figure 2 is required to possess
a high level of heat resistance given the mechanical properties that have to be retained when
the pressure vessel is exposed to high operating temperatures.

Materials that have high-temperature stability, and do not have high thermal sensitivity are
important in preventing many issues that arise from overheating or thermal stress. They are also
supposed to resist some different kinds of failures, and this is, in fact, one of the key
characteristics of high-performance steel alloys that are used in the construction of lathe
machines. Some of the failure modes include fatigue failure, wear and abrasion failure, and
thermal fatigue failure. Toughness is the ability of the steel alloy to absorb energy without
failing through the process of ductile fracture, so an ideal steel alloy must be engineered to
resist these failures through optimized composition and microstructure (amardeepsteel, 2024).

Figure 2: Alloy Steel (amardeepsteel, 2024)

The research topic of this report is the creation of an ultra-high-performance steel alloy
appropriate for use in lathe machines. It aims at achieving an optimum alloy that could exhibit
mechanical flexibility, heat stability, and negligible tendency towards failure. Based on these
requisites, the development of the novel alloy aspires to increase both the service life and
functionality of lathe machine parts in practical usage for refining the accuracy of machining

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processes. It is to the above concern that the following sections of this report will expand on
the technical requirements that would help in achieving this goal. Considering the above-
discussed findings and based on an intricate research and technical evaluation process, this
report seeks to lay an extensible groundwork to produce a high-performance steel alloy that
holds the capability to meet contemporary manufacturing requirements (steelconstruction,
2017).

Figure 3: Stress-Strain Behaviour for Steel Alloys (steelconstruction, 2017)

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2. Mechanical Properties and Experimental Procedures

2.1 Tensile Strength

Tensile strength is the maximum load that can be applied on a material before fracture, for its
elongation in tension. It is standard to measure the complement of the alloy designed to be taken
in forces implemented during several machining processes. High tensile strength applied to the
lathe machine components can withstand very much greater loads than the required fracture
load (Ducheyne, 2015).

Table 1: Experimental Procedure Of Tensile Strength Testing

Requirement of Requires specialised laboratory facilities,

locating laboratory  Safety
facilities  Standardising

Equipment  Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

Requirements  Grips and Fixtures
 Data Acquisition Systems
Sample Preparation Standardized test specimens according to E8/E8M of
ASTM (ASTM, 2024).
 Precision Cutting and Machining
 Surface Preparation

Standardised Testing  Controlled Environment (Temperature &

Conditions Humidity)
 Calibration
Testing Setup  The specimen is mounted in the UTM.
 Extensometers are attached to the specimen to
measure elongation.
Measurement  The UTM applies a tensile load at a controlled rate.
Data acquisition systems record the load and
elongation throughout the test.
Data Analysis The maximum load before fracture is recorded.

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The tensile strength is calculated by,

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Tensile Strength =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎.

Stress-strain curves (Figure 4) are generated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the

material's behaviour under tensile stress (French, 1922).

Figure 4: Tensile Stress-Strain Curve (French, 1922)

2.2 Hardness
Material hardness is defined as the capability of a material to resist deformation, permanent
deformation, indentation, or scratching among other effects. Higher hardness level or high
tensile strength signifies improved wear or abrasive resistance possessed by the lathe machine
parts, in other words, durability. Hardness helps to make sure, that the cutting tools and the
other elements of machinery can resist abrasive power during the process of machining and will
not wear out too quickly (Contributors, 2019).

Figure 5: Major components of a Rockwell hardness Tester (TEST, 2016).

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 Table 2: Experimental Procedure Of Hardness Testing

Requirement of Requires specialised laboratory facilities,

Locating Laboratory  Safety
Facilities  Standardising
 precise and accurate results

Equipment  Hardness Testers (Rockwell (Figure 6), Vickers, and

Requirements Brinell hardness testers)
 Indenters
Sample Preparation Standardised test specimens according to the specific
hardness test requirements.
 Surface Preparation (Rockwell hardness testing -
grinding and polishing the surface to remove any
imperfections)
 Size and Thickness Requirements

Standardised Testing  Controlled Environment (Temperature & Humidity)

Conditions  Calibration (Hardness testers)
Testing Setup  The sample is placed on the hardness tester's anvil.
 The appropriate indenter is selected and positioned
on the sample surface.
Measurement  Apply a specific load to the surface with a diamond
indenter.

(Rockwell hardness testing - depth of the indentation

is measured automatically.)
(Vickers or Brinell hardness testing - the size of the
indentation is measured using a microscope or
optical system.)

Data Analysis The hardness value is calculated based on the depth or size
of the indentation

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Many hardness testers are equipped with software to analyse indentation data, calculate
hardness values, and store results for further analysis.

Figure 6: Rockwell Hardness Test Results Example (Contributors, 2019)

2.3 Toughness
Toughness is the measure of the ability of a material to I an amount of energy before it fractures
under a process of plastic deformation. It is a relieving property that helps in avoiding a
system’s collapse during high shock forces or high-stress loads. Toughness allows the material
to resist shocks or impacts that on occasion must be applied, and this will go a long way in
enhancing the reliability as well as safety of lathe machine components (Yang, 2012).

Table 3: Experimental Procedure Of Toughness Testing

Requirement of Requires specialised laboratory facilities,

locating laboratory  Safety
facilities  Standardising
 Accurate, reliable, and reproducible results
Equipment  Impact Testers (Charpy or Izod impact tests)
Requirements  Notching Machines
Sample Preparation Standardized test specimens according to the specific
hardness test requirements.
 Surface Preparation
 Precision Cutting and Machining (ASTM E23 for
Charpy impact testing) (International, 2023)

Standardised Testing  Controlled Environment (Temperature & Humidity)

Conditions  Calibration (Impact testers)

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Testing Setup  Secure the specimen in the impact tester, ensuring
proper alignment.
 Verify the calibration of the impact tester before the
test.
Measurement  The impact tester releases a pendulum to strike the
notched specimen, fracturing it.
 The machine measures the energy absorbed by the
specimen during fracture.
Data Analysis The toughness of the material is calculated based on the
energy absorbed during the impact.

Figure 7: Toughness Testing (Yang, 2012)

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3. Manufacturing Processes
The manufacturing processes are instrumental in defining the character as well as capability of
the steel alloy.

3.1 Powder Metallurgy

PM (Figure 8) is simply the formation of metal powders into a given shape and then heating it
to have a combined mass. This process helps to have accurate control of the constitution and
structure of the alloy to achieve better mechanical properties. The process produces a uniform
and fine-grained microstructure, which contributes to the improved mechanical properties of
the alloy (Wikipedia, 2020).

Figure 8: Stages of the Powder Metallurgy Processes (Wikipedia, 2020)

3.2 Heat Treatment

Key processes like annealing, quenching, and tempering are instrumental in controlling the
mechanical properties of the steel alloy. These processes include heating the alloy to certain
temperatures and cooling it to other pre-determined temperatures within controllable rates to
realize the intended hardness, strengths, and toughness (Buschow, 2001).

3.2.1 Stages of Heat Treatment (Figure 9)

Stage 1 – Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature.

Stage II – Soaking the metal at a given temperature for a given period.

Stage III – Cooling the metal to room temperature.

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 Figure 9: Temperature Ranges for Heat Treatment Processes (Buschow, 2001)

3.3 Forging
In this case, forging can be described as the process of using forces that are compressive in the
shaping of the metal. The involved process refines the grain structure and enhances the features
such as toughness and strength in the alloy. It is a known fact that forged components are highly
reliable and are also more resistant mechanically than cast components. To shape metal
products, four types of forging manufacturing methods are widely employed. These methods
of forging metal include cold forging, open die forging, seamless rolled ring forging, and
impression die forging (closed die) (wikipedia, 2019).

3.3.1 Impression Die Forging

The impression dies forging method, also known as closed die forging, uses dies that completely
encapsulate the base material, which facilitates the material's shaping into the required shape.
Impressions die forging demands higher compressive forces than other forging processes to
guarantee that the die cavities are filled, and the item is completed.

Figure 10: Impression Die Forging

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 3.3.2 Cold Forging

The goal of the cold forging process is to produce parts and components with tight tolerance
dimensions and improved surface finish quality. In contrast to most other forms of forging, cold
forging uses lower temperatures to create a variety of components rather than heat to shape the
part's structure.

Figure 11: Cold Forging Processes And Arrangement Of Materials

3.3.3 Die Forging in Open Form

Direct force is used to mould open die-made pieces, which is also known as hammersmith
forging. Two flat dies hold the workpiece in place as the hammer impacts and distorts it. Since
the workpiece is not enclosed by the dies, this process is known as open-die forging. In this
sense, the dies function less as enclosed moulds and more like tools.

3.3.4 Rolling Ring Forging Seamless

Seamless rolled ring forging techniques are perfect for creating rings with diameters ranging
from a few inches to thirty feet. They usually include punching a hole in a big, spherical piece
of metal, rolling and then compressing the doughnut into a thin ring. In contrast to previous
methods, rolled ring forging forms ring-shaped components by using curved dies rather than
flat dies.

Figure 12: Methods of Forging (wikipedia, 2019)

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4. Possible Failures
It is critical to capture the different failure modes that can happen to the steel alloys in the lathe
machines for the product’s reliability and performance to be enhanced. Here are the three main
types of failures and ways to mitigate them (Hoerner, 2021):

4.1 Fatigue Failure

Fatigue failure is the failure that occurs because of cyclic loading that causes progressive crack
development and expansion over a period. This type of failure is quite dangerous considering
that it can occur at a stress point less than the ultimate tensile strength.

Causes:

 Substantial vibratory loads on the structure due to the cycle of stress by using the lathe
machine.
 Stress raisers including grooves, corners, or defects on the surface.
 Incorrect heat treatment process or incorrect treatment of the surface of the material.

To mitigate fatigue failure following steps can be followed,

 Introduce alloying elements that yield higher fatigue strength, chromium, molybdenum,
and vanadium for instance.
 To improve the grain structure, minimize residual stress and increase ductility right
forgings and heat treatments are done.

Figure 13; Patterns of Component Fractures at Fatigue Failure (Yang, 2012)

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 4.2 Wear and Abrasion
Fatigue and rubbing are common phenomena, which happen through the wearing out of the
alloy material that meets the workpiece or cutting tools for a long time and causes loss of
material and surface deterioration. This kind of failure regularly occurs in the components of
lathe machines such as tool holders and spindles.

Causes:

 It is the force of resistance or interaction between the component surfaces and the
workpiece.
 Dust in working areas, sand, and other small particles.
 Inadequate lubrication.

To mitigate Wear and Abrasion following steps can be followed,

 Employ materials with high levels of hardness and wear resistance.

 Use a layer build-up or application of various chemical compounds on the surface of
the working component to increase its hardness and minimize wear.
 Correct lubrication methods are utilized to reduce friction and other wear types.

4.3 Thermal Fatigue

Thermal fatigue occurs due to cyclic thermal stresses from repeated heating and cooling
during the operation of the lathe machine. This can lead to the initiation and growth of
thermal cracks, which may eventually cause the component to fail.

Causes:

 Rapid temperature changes during machining operations.

 Inadequate thermal management.
 High thermal gradients within the material.

To mitigate Thermal Fatigue following steps can be followed,

 Select alloys with high thermal stability and low thermal expansion coefficients, such
as those containing nickel or cobalt.
 Use proper heat treatment processes to enhance the thermal fatigue resistance of the
alloy, such as tempering to relieve internal stresses.

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  Implement effective thermal management strategies, including the use of coolants and
optimized machining parameters to minimize temperature fluctuations.

Figure 14: Thermal Fatigue (Hoerner, 2021)

5. Optimization of Product Quality

The steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality of the new steel alloy include choosing
the right material, the right manufacturing process, and the quality assurance process.

 Material Selection

It is very important to decide which alloying elements provide the increase of the desirable
mechanical characteristics. Minerals such as chromium, vanadium and molybdenum help in
increasing the hardness, tensile strength, and toughness.

 Process Control

Process control is the final element that separates the various steps involved in manufacturing
from ensuring that quality is always maintained. This covers the areas of heat treatment and
forging, whereby the authorities fix the temperature, pressure, and rates of cooling.

 Quality Assurance

It is also relevant to adopt a comprehensive system of quality control, which includes systematic
testing and inspection of the product to determine weaknesses and irregularities as soon as
possible. To carry out an inspection and discover internal flaws, there are methods like non-
destructive testing or NDT in short.

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6. Conclusion

The development of a high-performance steel alloy for lathe machine applications is a

multifaceted challenge that necessitates a deep understanding of material science, mechanical
engineering, and manufacturing processes. This report has detailed the critical requirements
and processes necessary to create an alloy that meets the stringent demands of lathe machine
components, focusing on mechanical capability, heat resistance, and failure resistance. Lathe
machines are indispensable in modern manufacturing, and their efficiency and longevity are
heavily influenced by the materials used in their construction. Specifically, the steel alloys
employed in lathe machine components such as spindles, tool holders, and cutting tools must
exhibit exceptional mechanical properties. The three key mechanical properties identified—
tensile strength, hardness, and toughness—are paramount in ensuring that the alloy can
withstand operational stresses, resist wear and abrasion, and absorb energy without fracturing.
Most of the experimental methods necessary for the assessment of the said properties, namely
tensile strength test, hardness test and toughness test, are highly specialized and entail the use
of sophisticated laboratory equipment to obtain the best results. The tensile strength test gives
information to the extent that the alloy can take stretching force whereas the hardness test gives
information related to the resistance level of the alloy to get plastic deformation. On the other
hand, toughness testing looks at the capability of the alloy to take an amount of energy at an
imperative time of affecting it and without it fracturing, important in cases where high energy
or sudden forces are experienced causing possible failure.

Methods of making steel alloys are of utmost importance when it comes to the final
characteristics of the manufactured manufacture product. Thus, the application of powder
metallurgy, heat treatment, and forging are three methods which may be employed to fine-tune
several properties of the alloy. Through powder metallurgy, one can really and truly control the
composition of the alloy and the grain structures and hence there is an improvement in the
mechanical characteristics. The application of annealing, quenching, and tempering methods
enhances the control of the alloy microstructure, impacting hardness, strength, and toughness.
It is of importance for forging aims at improving the grain structure depending on the type of
the alloy that leads to better and more reliable strength and durability. It is important to identify
and address potential breakdowns to enhance the overall quality and effectiveness of the steel
alloy. They may fail due to fatigue failure, wear and abrasion, and thermal fatigue failure,
especially on the cutting tool and other moving parts of the lathe machine. Fatigue failure is the
failure as a result of stacks of cyclic loading that causes cracks to form and grow. It is the

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wearing a way whereby the surfaces are in constant rubbing contact leading to material removal
and damage to the working surfaces. Thermal fatigue is found due to cyclic heat and cool
stresses, where the material is exposed to changes in temperatures cyclically. All these failure
modes are mitigatable through material selection, optimization of the processing methods
applied, and the surface treatments carried out.

7. Recommendations

7.1 Composition of The Proposed Steel Alloy

The following composition is suggested to create a high-performance steel alloy for use in lathe
machines:

Carbon (C): 0.8–1.0%

Chromium (Cr): 5.0–7.0%

Vanadium (V): 0.2-0.5

Molybdenum (Mo): 0.5-1.5%

Tungsten (W): 1.0-2.0%

Cobalt (Co): 5.0-10.0%

Iron (Fe): Balance

This formulation is appropriate for high-performance applications in lathe machines because it

balances toughness, heat resistance, tensile strength, and hardness.

7.2 Key Properties

The proposed steel alloy exhibits the following key properties,

Carbon, chromium, and vanadium all played their part in enhancing the tensile strength of the
component implying that high pulling forces are achievable during normal machining.
Chromium aids forte and increases the wear capability of the cutting tool in continuous usage,
tungsten boosts the hardness and enhances the toughness of the tool, and cobalt helps in
providing better heat resistance. Molybdenum and vanadium enhance the ‘tensile’ properties of
the alloy and make the metal tougher and more capacitive to absorb impact energy thereby
reducing the tendency to brittle fracture. By incorporating chromium, tungsten and cobalt into
the alloy, the material retains the required mechanical properties and performance at high
temperatures so eliminating the issue of thermal fatigue is achieved.
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 7.3 Alloy Characteristics

7.3.1 Microstructure

In this way, various cooling and heat treatments are used to refine the grain size of the alloy
either into mar antagonistic or gain antagonistic structures that have better mechanical
properties.

7.3.2 Corrosion Resistance

Chromium and cobalt are effective in boosting the corrosion protection of the alloy and thus
serve the alloy in different operational environments for quite a long period.

7.3.3 Machinability

Even though the cylindrical alloy expresses extremely high hardness and strength, it also offers
good machinability due to its proper metallurgical construction and fine grains thus enabling
easy, effective and accurate turning to be made on the material.

17
8. References
amardeepsteel, 2024. PROPERTIES AND USES OF ALLOY STEEL. [Online]
Available at: https://www.amardeepsteel.com/blog/SpecificBlog/1/
ASTM, 2024. Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. [Online]
Available at: 10.1520/e0008_e0008m-22
Buschow, K., 2001. Encyclopedia of materials : science and technology. Oxford: Elsevier.
Contributors, W., 2019. Brinell scale. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinell_scale
Ducheyne, P., 2015. Comprehensive biomaterials. 5 ed. s.l.:Amsterdam Elsevier.
French, H., 1922. Tensile properties of some structural alloy steels at high temperatures.
Journal of the Franklin Institute, 193(2), pp. 249-250.
Hoerner, D. M., 2021. Turbomachinery: How metals break: the materials of metallurgical
failure. s.l.:KnightHawk Materials Lab.
International, A., 2023. Charpy Impact Test: ASTM E23. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.wmtr.com/en.charpy.html#:~:text=The%20Charpy%20Impact%20Test%20consis
t
steelconstruction, 2017. Steel material properties. [Online]
Available at: https://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties
TEST, H., 2016. Digital Display Brinell Rockwell Vickers Universal Hardness Tester. [Online]
Available at: https://hsttest.en.made-in-china.com/product/WSYxyREvOfpV/China-Hbrvs-
187-5-Digital-Display-Brinell-Rockwell-Vickers-Universal-Hardness-Tester.html
wikipedia, 2019. Forging. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forging
Wikipedia, 2019. Lathe. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathe
Wikipedia, 2020. Powder metallurgy. [Online]
Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_metallurgy
Yang, Z., 2012. Achieving high strength and toughness in a Zr–2.3Nb alloy by the formation
of duplex microstructure. Materials & Design.

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9. Appendices

9.1 Appendix 1

19
9.2 Appendix 2

20
9.3 Appendix 3

21