1)Define term Irrigation and explain necessities of Irrigation.

Ans- Irrigation is defined as a process of supplying water to crops artificially.

The science of planning and designing a water supply system to the plants, crops,
for their normal growth during the period of no
rainfall with the help of dam, weir, barrage,
reservoir and canal system with head works, cross drainage works, and miscellaneous
works of canal like canal fall is called Irrigation Engineering.
Necessity of Irrigation
•Insufficient Rainfall.
• Irrigation is necessary in the areas where
rainfall is insufficient for the satisfactory
growth of the crops and the plants.
• Uneven or Non-Uniform Rainfall Distribution
•Improvement of Perennial Crops.
•Development of Desert Area.
•The dry and desert areas can be converted to abeautiful cropland if irrigation
water can be
supplied as per need.

Question 2: Enlist different benefits and ill effects of Irrigation.

Answer- •Yields of crops-Yield of crop can be increased by irrigation even in the
period of low rainfall. •Optimum benefits-Optimum use of water is possible by
irrigation to obtain maximum output. •Elimination of mixed cropping •Prosperity of
farmers •Sources of Revenue- When water tax is taken from farmers for supplying
water, it adds to the revenue of the country. •Water Supply-Irrigation water may be
used as source for
domestic and industrial water supply. •Navigation.-If the irrigation canals are big
and deep, they may be used as navigable water way. •Increase of Groundwater Level.-
Due to constant seepage and percolation of water from canal, groundwater level in
the nearby area is increased.
•Ill effects- Damp Climate-Temperature of the command area of an irrigation
projects may be
lowered and damp climate prevails, which adversely affect the health of the
community living in this area. •Breeding Places of Mosquitoes-Due to excess
application of water, seepage and leakage fromcanal, marshy land may be formed
leading to breeding place of mosquitos. •Loss of Valuable Land-Valuable land may be
submerged due to
construction of reservoir by dam, weir barrages. • Return of Revenue-Irrigation
projects are complex and expensive. If
project fails due tO absence of regular maintenance, return of revenue to the
government becomes low compared to its cost of construction. Maintenance cost is
quite high for normal functioning of the project.

Question) Define Irrigation Efficiency and explain its types.

Answer- Irrigation efficiency- It refers to the amount of water removed from the
water source that is used by the crop. This value is determined by irrigation
system management, water distribution characteristics, crop water use rates,
weather and soil conditions. Irrigation efficiency pertains to the use of water for
an entire growing season.

•Types of Irrigation Efficiency

(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency - It is the ratio of the amount of water applied,
to the land to the amount of water supplied from the reservoir. It is obtained by
the expression,
ηc = Wl Wr × 100
(b) Water Application Efficiency:It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone
of plants to the water applied to the land. It is obtained by the expression,
ηa = Wz Wl × 100
(c) Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount
of water applied. It is obtained by the expression,
ηu = Wu Wl × 100
(d) Consumptive use Efficiency: It is the ration of the consumptive use of water to
the amount of water depleted from the root zone. It is obtained by the expression,
ηcu = Cu Wp ×100

Question: Enlist the different types of Irrigation Systems and explain subsurface
irrigation.
Answer: 1) subsurface irrigation (2) sprinkler irrigation (3) Drip irrigation
•subsurface irrigation- Surface irrigation is defined as the group of application
techniques where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by
gravity.It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world. Types
of Surface Irrigation
(1)Basin Irrigation (2)Border Irrigation (3)Furrow Irrigation

Question 8: Write a short note on Application of AI in Irrigation and Drainage

Answer: Application of Artificial intelligence (AI) in Irrigation and Drainage:
• Agriculture consumes 85% of the world’s freshwater. It is only ideal that the
water is channeled efficiently for such a huge consumption.
• AI can guarantee this efficiency in several ways. One of such ways is through the
real-time automated monitoring of soil moisture to determine the need for
irrigation.
• In this way, the delivery of water to crops can be tailored to actual need rather
than just broad-spectrum delivery.
• This intervention can further be optimized as the machine learning algorithm,
which understands more about how crops and the soil respond to irrigation within
the context of environmental changes.
• AI can also learn from weather and climate data to optimize the delivery schedule
of water to crops.
• Beyond soil moisture content, AI algorithms can monitor groundwater and surface
water content to make irrigation decisions.

Question 9: Write a short note on Basin Irrigation and Border Irrigation.

Answer: Basin Irrigation: 1)Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface
irrigation, particularly in regions with layouts of small fields. (2) If a field is
level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff, and provides
an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin. (3) A
basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and
rectangular configurations.

Suitable Crops for Basin Irrigation: 1)Paddy rice grows best when its roots are
submerged in water and so basin irrigation is the best method to use for this crop.
2)Not suited to crops which cannot stand in wet or waterlogged conditions for
periods longer than 24 hours (e.g. potatoes, beet and carrots, etc.)

Suitable Land Slopes for Basin Irrigation: 1)The flatter the land surface, the
easier it is to construct basins. (2)On flat land only minor levelling may be
required to obtain level basins.

Suitable Soil for Basin Irrigation:1)Loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation
so that
waterlogging can be avoided. (2) Coarse sands are not recommended for basin
irrigation as, due to the high infiltration rate, percolation losses can be high.

•Border Irrigation: Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin

irrigation to sloping, long rectangular or contoured field shapes, with free
draining conditions at the lower end.
Question : Describe the concept of soil moisture, soil texture and soil structure.
Answer- 1)soil moisture- •Soil moisture plays an important role in agricultural
monitoring, drought and flood forecasting, forest fire prediction, water supply
management, and other natural resource activities. • Soil moisture is “the total
amount of water, including the water vapor, in an unsaturated soil.” •Soil moisture
sometimes also called soil water, which represents the water in land surfaces that
is not in rivers, lakes, or groundwater, but instead resides in the pores of the
soil. •The level of soil moisture is determined by a host of factors beyond weather
conditions, including soil type and associated vegetation.•In turn, soil moisture
levels affect a range of soil and plant dynamics. Surface soil moisture is the
water that is in the upper 10 cm of soil, whereas root zone soil moisture is the
water that is available to plants generally considered to be in the upper 200 cm of
soil.
2) soil texture: •Soil texture is a classification instrument used both in the
field and laboratory to determine soil classes based on their physical texture
•Texture indicates the relative content of particles of various sizes, which
separates the three significant components like sand, silt and clay. Soil texture
is also a property through which we could classify the soil type.
3)soil structure- Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of
sand, silt and clay are assembled. Single particles when assembled appear as a
larger particles. Thus, the aggregated soil particles contribute to the soil
structure, which is called the ped. Soil structure is influenced by soil moisture,
microbial flora, organic matter and root growth.

Question 2: Explain the different soil groups present in India.

Answer- (1) Alluvial Soil (2)Black Cotton Soil (3)Red & Yellow Soil (4)Laterite
Soil (5)Mountainous or Forest Soil (6)Arid or Desert Soil (7)Saline and Alkaline
Soil (8)Peaty and Marshy Soil

1)Alluvial Soil
• Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and river valleys.
• It covers about 40% of the total land area of the country.
• These soils are mainly derived from the debris brought down from the Himalayas.
• The colour of the alluvial soil varies from light grey to ash grey.
• The alluvial soil varies in nature from sandy loam to clay.
• They are rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.
2)Red & Yellow Soil
• Also known as the “omnibus group”.
• It covers about 18.5 % of the total land area of the country.
• It is found in regions of low rainfall
3) Black cotton or Regur Soil
• Black soil is also known as “Regur Soil” or the “Black Cotton Soil”.
• It covers about 15% of the total land area of the country.
• It covers most of the Deccan Plateau – parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
• The colour of these soils varies from deep black to grey.
4) Desert Soil
• Desert Soil is Also known as arid soil, it accounts for over 4.42 % of the total
land area of the country.
• The colour ranges from red to brown.
• Desert soils are sandy to gravelly in texture, have low moisture content and low
water-retaining capacity.
• These soils are saline in nature and in certain regions the salt content is so
high that common salt is obtained by evaporating water.
• These soils have normal phosphate content but are deficient in nitrogen.
5) Laterite Soil
• The name has been derived from the Latin word “later” which means brick.
• It accounts for about 3.7% of the total area of the country.
• Although low in fertility, they respond well to manures and fertilisers
6) Mountain Soil
• This type of soil is found in the forest regions where rainfall is sufficient.
• The texture of the soil depends on the mountain environment where they are found.
• These soils are coarse-grained in the upper slopes and loamy and silty on valley
sides.
• In the snowbound areas of the Himalayas, these soils undergo denudation and are
acidic with low humus content.
7) Peaty and Marshy Soils
• These soils are found in regions of heavy rainfall and high humidity, and it
supports the good growth of vegetation.
• Peaty soils are rich in humus and organic matter.
• These soils are generally heavy and black in colour. In many places, these soils
are alkaline.
8) Saline and Alkaline soil
• These soils have high percentages of sodium, magnesium and potassium, and hence
are infertile. The high salt content is mainly because of the dry climate and poor
drainage.
• The texture ranges from sandy to loamy.
• These soils are found in arid and semi-arid areas, and in waterlogged and swampy
regions.

Question: What is field capacity and wilting point in Irrigation.

Answer- 1)Field Capacity-Field capacity is the amount of soil moisture or water
content held in soil after excess water has drained away and the rate of downward
movement has materially decreased, which usually takes place within 2–3 days after
a rain or irrigation in pervious soils of uniform structure and texture. Typically
measured as a percentage, field capacity lets the cultivator know the amount of
water needed to ensure optimal growth and nutrition for their plants.
Wilting Point
2)Permanent wilting point (PWP) or wilting point (WP) is defined as the minimum
amount of water in the soil that the plant requires not to wilt. If the soil water
content decreases to this or any lower point a plant wilts and can no longer
recover its turgidity when placed in a saturated atmosphere for 12 hours. The
physical definition of the wilting point, symbolically expressed as θpwp or θwp, is
said by convention as the water content at −1,500 kPa (−15 bar) of suction
pressure, or negative hydraulic head.

Question: What are the different kinds of soil water.

Answer: (1) Gravitational water (2)Capillary water (3)Hygroscopic water

Question: Discuss the term: Soil profile and Soil water Relationship.
Answer- •The soil is the topmost layer of the earth’s crust mainly composed of
organic minerals and rock particles that support life. A soil profile is a vertical
cross-section of the soil, made of layers running parallel to the surface. These
layers are known as soil horizons.
•The soil is arranged in layers or horizons during its formation. These layers or
horizons are known as the soil profile. It is the vertical section of the soil that
is exposed by a soil pit.
• The layers of soil can easily be identified by the soil colour and size of soil
particles. The different layers of soil are:
•Topsoil •Subsoil •Parent rock
Each layer of soil has distinct characteristics.

Question: Write a short note on Tensiometer and Lysimeter.

Answer- 1)Tensiometers:These tools measure the tension of soil moisture. They are
water-filled tubes, with a porous ceramic tip at the bottom. These are sealed and
have a vacuum gauge at the top. They are inserted in the soil to the depth of the
plant root zone. The readings obtained in the tensiometers indicate the
availability of water in the soil.
2)Lysimeter:
A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a
field of growing plants. The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the
surrounding field. Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water
required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank measured either
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an arrangement made in the lysimeter.
Lysimeters should be designed to accurately reproduce the soil conditions, moisture
content, type and size of the vegetation of the surrounding area. They should be so
hurried that the soil is at the same level inside and outside the container.
Lysimeter studies are time-consuming and expensive.

Question: Explain the soil moisture tension and measurement of soil moisture.
Answer:1) soil moisture- • Soil moisture tension is the measurement of how strongly
water is held in the soil.
• Water is held in the soil by capillary forces as well as the attraction of the
water molecule to itself and
to electrically charged clay particles.
• Soil moisture tension is measured in units of pressure (centibars or
kilopascals).
• The tension at which irrigation is recommended depends on the soil and crop, but
typically falls somewhere between 30 and 50 centibars*

2)measurement of soil moisture:

1. Tensiometers
These tools measure the tension of soil moisture. They are water-filled tubes, with
a porous ceramic tip at the bottom. These are sealed and have a vacuum gauge at the
top. They are inserted in the soil to the depth of the plant root zone. The
readings obtained in the tensiometers indicate the availability of water in the
soil.
2. Electrical Resistance Blocks
These consist of two electrodes connected to lead wires extending to the soil
surface. The electrodes are embedded in the blocks of porous material. It is used
to measure soil water tension.
3. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
TDR – Time Domain Reflectometry is used to determine the soil moisture content.
Steel rods are placed in the soil and electrical signals are sent through them. The
returned signals are measured to determine soil water content.

Question : What is Evapotranspiration and enlist the different methods of direct

measurement of evapotranspiration.
Answer:Evapotranspiration
1)• Evapotranspiration often approximates consumptive water use, which refers to
all of the water within a system that cannot be recovered or reused, and includes
water that is consumed by plants or humans, evaporated, or contaminated.
• Because water that evaporates and transpires re-enters the atmosphere and travels
away from the immediate area, this water is effectively “consumed” and cannot be
reused within a watershed.
• Consequently, ET is a measure of water that is removed from a local system after
it has been applied to, or fallen on, the landscape. This is in contrast to water
that flows into local drainage or stream systems or recharges groundwater basins.
• While transpiration occurs, the land in which plants stand also loses moisture by
the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies. In hydrology and irrigation
practice, it is found that evaporation and transpiration processes can be
considered advantageously under one head as evapotranspiration.
• The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation is called actual
evapotranspiration
2)different methods of direct measurement of evapotranspiration.-

1. Penman’s equation is based on sound theoretical reasoning and is obtained by

combining the energy balance and mass transfer approach.
2.FAO Penman-Monteith Method
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is used to estimate reference evapotranspiration.
3.blaney-criddle method- This method requires the use of only two factors,
temperature and information of day light hours which is a factor based purely on
the latitude of the place.
4. Thornthwaite Method- Thornthwaite method is based on the assumption of an
exponential relationship between mean monthly temperature and mean monthly
consumptive use.