1.

TELEVISION RECEIVER
“Tele-Vision” means to “see at a distance”. The visual information in the picture is converted
into electrical signal for transmission. At receiver it is reconverted into its original form. In
monochrome TV, the picture is reproduced in black and white (whereas in color TV, it is
reproduced in its original colors). The TV was invented by J.L. Baird.

TYPES OF TV RECEIVERS
i) Monochrome as well as colour TV receivers may be of the following 3 types:
All tube receivers: The type mainly applies to monochrome and few old colour TV
receivers. All the functions are carried out by electron tubes. A colour receiver may
employ more number of tubes as compared to
monochrome receiver.
ii) Solid state receivers: In this type, all the stages use solid state devices, except the picture
tube (P.T.). The devices include semi-conductor diodes, transistors and ICs etc.
iii) Hybrid receivers: This is a combination of the above two types. The deflection circuits
use power tubes, while the signal circuits use solid state devices.
iv) Flat panel LCD/LED receivers: Recently, these have captured the market, the picture tube
has been replaced by LCD/LED respectively. All solid state devices are used.

MONOCHROME TV RECEIVER
The figure below shows block diagram of a typical monochrome TV receiver. As shown there,
the receiver has been divided into several main sections depending on their functions and are
discussed below.

Figure: Simplified block diagram of a monochrome television receiver system

 Figure: Detailed block diagram of a monochrome television receiver system

i) Antenna: The picture and sound signals are intercepted by antenna of the receiver. A wire
connects the antenna to the input of the receiver. Twin lead is generally used. There are
various antennas used but the most popular is “yagi-uda” which gives good output in
fringe areas. If the signal is weak a booster can be used and, if signal is strong or if the
transmitting station is near, either no antenna is required or a telescopic indoor antenna
may be sufficient. The twin lead from antenna to the receiver has an approximate
impedance of 300 ohm. A folded dipole has also the same impedance at its resonant
frequency, hence both provide a good impedance matching.
ii) VHF Tuner: The antenna input provides r.f. picture and sound signals for the r.f.
amplifier stage. The amplified output of amplifier is given to the mixer. Also output of a
local oscillator is given to mixer to heterodyne with signals as in the case of radio. When
the oscillator frequency is set for the particular channel to be tuned, the signals are
converted into intermediate frequency.
There are two I.F. outputs from the mixer—one for the picture and other for the sound.
The standard value for I.F. in a 625 line TV system is 38.9 MHz for picture and 33.4
MHz for sound. The tuner selects the channel to be received by converting its picture and
sound R.F. carrier frequencies into intermediate frequencies which can be amplified in
I.F. amplifiers. The station selector is a gang switch that changes value of capacitor of the
tuned circuits of the R.F. amplifier, mixer and local oscillator simultaneously. (See the
following Fig. below)
 iii) UHF Tuner: When channel selector is set to UHF tuner position, the antenna input is
obtained from a separate UHF antenna. This heterodynes the UHF input to the
intermediate frequencies. These frequencies are amplified by required number of
amplifier stages.
iv) I.F. Amplifiers: These amplify output of the mixer in number of stages to get sufficient
voltage for the video detector. The gain of the I.F. amplifier is controlled by an AGC.
v) Video detector: The modulated I.F. picture signal is rectified and filtered in the detector
to detect (recover) the amplitude modulated picture signal which is required for driving
the picture tube.
vi) Sync. separator: A sync. separator is basically a clipper circuit that separates the sync.
pulses from the camera signal contained in the composite video signal. Since there are
sync. pulses for horizontal as well as vertical scanning, output of the sync. separator is
divided into two parts.
vii) Deflection circuits: These include the vertical and horizontal oscillators for vertical and
horizontal scanning. The deflection circuits produce the required scanning currents. The
deflection oscillators basically are A-stable multivibrators, which do not need any
external triggering pulse for operation.
viii) L.T. (Low Tension) supply: This is needed for tubes and transistors. The dc output upto
280V is needed to vaccum tube amplifers. A dc supply up to 90 V is needed for rectifier
and other circuits. The heater of the vacuum tubes may need dc supply of 6.3 V.
ix) EHT (Extra High Tension) supply: The high voltage supply needed to rectifiers is given
from horizontal amplifiers. The H.V supply is also needed to picture tube for its suitable
operation. Approximate value of EHT supply for anode of the picture tube is 15—18 kV.
This is needed for sufficient brightness. A voltage of 6 to 9 kV is developed across
primary winding of horizontal output transformer. This is stepped up by an auto
transformer to 15–18 kV (See the following Fig. below).
x) AGC: It stands for “Automatic Gain Control”: It helps in getting constant amplitude of
the video signal for different carriers. For the picture signal, AGC provides an automatic
control of contrast in the reproduced picture. An AGC circuit has been shown in the
following Fig. below.

xi) Video amplifier: Before giving composite video signal to picture tube,
it is amplified in video amplifier sufficiently. It may have number of stages as per
requirement. The amount of video signal required for the picture tube is about 100 V for
strong contrast. Stronger video signal means more contrast.
The blanking pulses in composite video signal drive the grid voltage of the picture tube to
cut off, blanking out the retraces. The function of sync. pulses is to drive the grid more
negative than cut off. The Fig. below shows last stage of the TV receiver.
SUMMARY
1. The “Television” means to see at a distance.
2. The few TV applications are: cable TV, close circuit TV, Picture phone, TV games etc.
3. The TV camera converts picture into electrical signal. The popular black and white TV
camera tubes are: Orthicon, Vidicon and Plumbicon.
4. The picture tube converts the electrical signal into picture signal. It may be a
monochrome picture tube or a colour picture lube.
5. The picture is “scanned” by a camera before converting it into electrical signal. Usually
“Interlaced Scanning” is used; in which the picture is divided into 625 lines and is then
scanned line by line.
6. The Vestigial side band (VSB) transmission is generally used for TV signals. In this
technique, full upper side band and some part of lower side band (called Vestigial) are
transmitted.
7. In a TV, sound is given to microphone which converts it into electric waves, these waves
are processed and transmitted into space through an antenna. The picture is given to a
camera, which is also converted into electrical waves which are processed and
transmitted into space through the same antenna.
At the receiver, sound and picture both are detected separately. Sound after processing, is
given to loudspeaker, which converts it into the original sound and the picture signal after
processing is given to the picture tube, which converts it into original picture.
8. The important TV processes are: scanning, synchronization and blanking.
The picture signal along with blanking and synchronizing signals is called “composite
video signal”. In TV, the sound signal is frequency modulated and the picture signal is
amplitude modulated.
9. The TV receiver may be monochrome type (Black and white) or colour TV, solid state
TV, LCD/LED TV, hybrid TV, etc.
COLOUR TV RECEIVER
A colour receiver is a normal superhetrodyne receiver of the monochrome system up to video
detector. The detector detects Y and C signals. In colour decoder section, the C signal is
separated by a bypass filter circuit, amplified and then, the basic colour difference signals, (B-Y)
and (R-Y), are decoded, using a synchronous quadrature detector. The third signal (G-Y) is
obtained with the help of a resistive matrix. Then Y signal is added to each of the colour
difference signals to get original camera signals pertaining to red, green and blue colours. These
three colour signals are converted into coloured lights by making phosphor elements of the
colour picture tube glow red, green and blue for every pixel. The eye integrates these primary
colours by additive mixing and sees the resultant original colour. All the pixels on the screen are
made to glow in quick succession with the help of deflection circuits which produce horizontal
and vertical deflection currents for scanning the screen.

Thus, the colured picture is produced on the screen of the picture tube.
Sound is reproduced from the loudspeaker in the same manner as in case of a monochrome
receiver.
Basic elements of color receiver are shown in the following figure below:

TELEVISION TEST CHARTS

All TV stations transmit a particular universal test chart for some time before the commencement
of their programmes. This enables the viewers to have a quick check about the performance of
their receivers. Though the short duration for which the test chart is transmitted is not enough for
fault finding or alignment of the receiver but it does provide enough information about the nature
of the fault if any. Many universal test charts have been developed but the one designed by the
Radio, Electronics, and Television Manufacturers Association of America (RETMA) is
commonly used. This chart is shown in Fig. below

Figure: A typical TV test chart.

TELEVISION TROUBLE SHOOTING
Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to problem-solving that is often used to find and
correct issues with a device or machines. Trouble shooting is a skill in itself and does not come
automatically by reading books and remembering circuits alone. Even the handbooks which are
exclusively devoted to servicing give only a guideline to locate faults because it is impossible to
list all possible varieties of faults and their remedies. Servicing needs long experience and there
are no short cuts to it. A determined effort and hard work coupled with a thorough understanding
of the operating principles of the receiver is necessary to become a good servicing engineer.
Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or
processes on a machine or a system.
FAULTS IN MONOCHROME TV RECEIVERS
A TV receiver presents an excellent example of functional area approach technique of isolating
the faulty area. Besides the power supply unit, there are the following four functional sections,
illustrated in the following Fig. below
1. Common section (stages common to modulated audio and video signals)
2. Video section (consisting of video amplifiers)
3. Deflection section (consisting of H and V deflection stages)
 4. Audio section (consisting of intercarrier amplifier, limiter, FM detector, audio amplifiers,
and loudspeaker)

SYMPTOMS AND DEFECTIVE STAGES OF MONOCHROME RECEIVERS

1. Symptoms: Insufficient width and height of raster
Defective stage: Low Voltage Power Supply (B+)

Figure: Shrunken raster (insufficient width and height) due to low B+ supply.

2. Symptoms: Blooming of picture

Defective stage: E.H.T. Supply
 Figure: Blooming of the reproduced picture.

3. Defective stage: Horizontal Sweep Circuits

a) Symptoms: Single vertical line in the centre of the screen, sound normal

Figure: Single vertical line in the centre of the raster due to failure of horizontal sweep circuit.

b) Symptoms: Horizontal keystone effect —This is indicated by a dim and narrow

raster with its bottom wider than the top or vice versa.

Figure: Horizontal keystoning effect. The pattern shown is the result of a shorted horizontal coil
in the deflection yoke.
 c) Symptoms: Loss of horizontal sync (horizontal pulling)

4. Defective stage: Vertical Sweep Circuit

a) Symptoms: Bright horizontal line on the screen, sound normal

Figure: Loss of vertical sweep.

b) Symptoms: Insufficient picture height

Figure: Insufficient height of the picture

 c) Symptoms: Picture rolls vertically

Figure: Picture rolls vertically at a fast rate due to complete loss of vertical synchronization.

d) Symptoms: Vertical keystoning

Figure: Vertical keystoning. The pattern shown is the result of defective vertical coil in the
deflection yoke.

5. Defective stage: Sync Separator and Processing Circuit

a) Symptoms: Poor or complete loss of both vertical and horizontal sync, picture breaks
into strips and rolls vertically

Figure: Complete loss of both vertical and horizontal synchronization. The picture breaks into
strips and rolls vertically.
 b) Symptoms: Loss of vertical sync (picture rolls vertically)

Vertical scanning not synchronized–picture slowly slips frames vertically.

2. VIDEO RECORDING
INTRODUCTION
A camera tube converts brightness and colour of a picture into electrical signals, called video
signals. Recording of video signals is done by two methods:
1. Recording on magnetic tape
2. Recording on optical disc.
PRINCIPLE OF RECORDING ELECTRICAL SIGNALS ON TAPE AND THEIR
REPRODUCTION (playback)
When varying electric current of baseband signal (audio and video) flows trough a coil wrapped
over a core of soft iron, the core is magnetized and magnetic flux follows the variations of the
applied signal. The core, called head, contains a tiny air gap, the size of which is of the order of a
micrometer.

If a magnetic tape, having a coating of magnetic material, like as iron oxide or chromium dioxide
doped with cobalt, moves across the gap, and the reluctance of the coating is much lower the
value than the air gap, the magnetic flux will pass through the air gap up to the tape. Thus, the
magnetic circuit will be complete through the tape, and hence the moving tape will be
magnetised in accordance with the variation of electric current of the signal. This way, the
baseband signals are converted into magnetism on the tape, as shown in Fig. below.
For reproduction (playback), the magenetised tape is moved across the gap. The varying
magnetic field on the tape surface induces voltage in the coil in accordance with Faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction. This induced voltage produces the waveforms of baseband signal
and finally reproduced in the output.
 Figure: Magnetisation of tape with video signal

Effect of Bandwidth, Tape Speed and Gap Size

If S is the speed of the tape, and f, the frequency in hertz of the electrical signal being recorded,
the distance (λ) covered in one time period, T, is given by the following equation;

If gap width is equal to λ, the portion of the magnetised tape below the gap will have
magnetisation of opposite polarities (Fig. below) and hence during reproduction, the induced
signal will suffer total cancellation. For gap width less than λ, cancellation would not occur fully
and for gap width equal to λ/2, cancellation would be zero and optimum output would be
achieved, as shown in Fig. (a) and (b) below. For best results, the highest frequency, f m is given
by Equation below that indicates that for normal speeds of tape, the gap width for 5 MHz video
signals works out to be too small, in the range of nanometers.

Example:
a) When the tape speed is 19 cm per second and 5 MHz video signals. Find gap width (G).
b) When is the gap width is kept normal (1µm) and 5 MHz video signals. Find the tape speed
(S).
Solution:
a) (G) gap width should be 19 nm. (1cm= 10-2 m). in practical possible
b) S =10 meter per second (not possible)
 (a) (b)
Figure: (a) Magnetization on tape as seen in playback and (b) Output vs wavelength in playback

ROTATING HEADS AND VHS FORMAT

The practical solution to the problem of gap size and tape speed is to use rotating heads. The
relative speed is increased by mounting the heads on a drum which is rotated at high speed
(about 500 cm/s). The tape is wrapped over the drum and is moved linearly at slow speed (about
2 cm/s). This technique allows recording of the high video frequency signals with a feasible gap
size of about 0.5 µm.

Figure: Tape path in VHS

One rotating head provides blank to part of the tape in each revolution. So, at least two heads
will be needed so that no portion of the tape remains without recording. There are several
methods of wrapping the tape around the drum (like VHS, Betamax, V-2000, U-matic, 8 mm
type) but the method known as video home system (VHS) is most widely used. The tape path in
VHS system is shown in the above Fig. The two heads are diametrically opposite to each other.
The wrap is slightly longer than 180o so that no portion of the tape is missed from being
recorded.

HELICAL RECORDING
To make the playback time long (at least 3 hours) without using too much tape length, the
recording is made diagonally across the tape. Each diagonal track corresponds to video signals
pertaining to one scanning field. In the following figure below shows the diagonal tracks for the
video signal in VHS method.

Figure: Tracks in VHS format

Zero Guard Band System
Video tracks in VHS format do not use guard band to save the space in tape. Elimination of the
guard band was made possible by tilting the gaps of two heads with opposite angles. The gaps
are tilted (or canted) by 6o from the vertical in opposite directions. The tilting enables head 1 to
ignore the video signals recorded on the track of head 2 and vice versa.
NEED OF FREQUENCY MODULATION FOR VIDEO RECORDING
Another problem in video recording is a very wide bandwidth of video signal. Reduction of
frequency range is done in two steps. First, the luminance signal is reduced from 5 MHz to 2.5
MHz by a low pass filter. Second, the luminance signal is made to modulate a carrier of about 4
MHz, using narrow band FM (NBFM).It produces two side bands, lower sideband equal to 1.5
MHz (4.0 2.5) and upper sideband equal to 6.5 MHz (4.0+2.5).
VIDEO RECORDING ON DISC
Video disc system was developed to record video and associated audio information on a disc
with the help of laser beams, to eliminate the disadvantages of magnetic recording on tapes.
These disadvantages were as follows:
1. The capacity of a tape reel or cassette was inadequate for recording pictures.
2. Replication of tape was a time consuming process.
3. Random access of programme was not possible and the tape had to be run from the
beginning to reach the desired portion of a programme.
4. Good quality picture freeze was not easy in tape recorders.
5. Magnetic tape was expensive.
6. Wear and tear in tape was high, hence its life was limited.
7. The tape surface was prone to scratches, dust, grease, etc

The compact disc was very much superior to tape as it provided the following advantages:
1. As it is covered by a transparent plastic or transparent lacquer, the tracks and recordings
remain safe and are not affected by dust, grease and scratches. Compact disc is immune
to surface contamination.
2. Signal to noise ratio is high.
3. Dynamic range is high.
4. Channel separation is high.
5. Frequency response is excellent and cover complete audio range.
6. Size is quite small.
7. Due to error correction codes, and distortion due to scratches is also automatically
corrected.
8. The system has all advantages of a digital system.

VIDEO COMPACT DISC (VCD)

Video compact disc is an extension of the compact disc originally developed for recording audio
programmes using a laser beam.
Original recording is done on a master disc which consists of a glass substrate. A photoresist
material, about 130 m (or 1300 Å) thick, is coated on the glass substrate. The glass is polished
and is spotlessly clean. The glass disc with photoresist material is called resist master disc
(RMD) or simply the master disc. Normally, a professional mastering house is used to master
and create a master CD or DDP for production (duplication or replication).
When a disc is developed in a recording system, a very fine pattern of pits and flats is created.
Flats are also called lands. As the disc rotates, the laser beam exposes spirals, and therefore, the
spiral tracks of pits and flats are formed on the disc, spiraling out from the centre. The pits are of
the same fixed depth, but their length and the spacing between them varies with accordance with
signal information.
In the following fig below shows (a) pits and lands disc with (b) spiral recording/playing

(a) (b)
The developed (made) master disc is coated with silver to make it electrically conductive. It
undergoes several stages of nickel plating to obtain the final disc. As shown in the following fig.
below:

After first plating, the nickel is peeled off the master disc, and then called the father disc, It is
negative replica (copy) of the master disc. The father disc is again plated and removal of the
plating produces a mother disc which is identical to the master disc. The mother discs are again
plated and the plating when removed gives a son disc which is identical to father disc. The son
disc is also negative nickel-plated stamper or simply stamper. Finally, consumer discs for
playback are obtained by pressing on the stamper. The consumer disc is made of polycarbonate.
A thin layer of aluminum is added to the disc to make it reflective.

DIGITAL VIDEO DISC (DVD)

Video compact disc did not possess the desired capacity. It could hold pictures of about one hour
duration only, which was too inadequate. Despite the success of VCD, the need for a higher
capacity disc was felt to meet the requirements of long movies (of about 3 hours duration), high
quality surround sound, computer backup memory (as portable as floppy disks but capable of
recording data of several gigabytes) and multimedia applications.
DVD FORMATS
The formats for recording video that approved from the company groups such
i) Matsushita and Toshiba
ii) Sony and Philips
The DVD formats on different aspects which are in use are described below.
i) DVD-Video
ii) DVD-Audio
iii) DVD-ROM
iv) DVD-R
v) DVD-RW
vi) Hybrid DVD
TECHNIQUES USED TO INCREASE CAPACITY IN DVDs
The techniques used in DVDs to increase its capacity to hold large information are as follows:
a) The use of smaller wavelength: A smaller wavelength resulted in a smaller
spot. A shaper beam spot increased the capacity in two ways:
i) Adjacent tracks, became closer, allowing more tracks per disc.
ii) The pits where data is stored became much smaller than those in a CD.
b) Information can be scanned from more than one layer in DVD. While a Sigle layer gives
4.7 GB storage capacity, two layers gives 8.5 GB. The provision of two layers enables the
user to use the DVD with higher capacity without removing it from the drive and turning
over.
c) DVD allows double sided discs. Hence two discs were bonded back to back, making the
whole disc 1.2mm thick.
d) DVD uses more efficient error correction code (ECC). Smaller the number of error
detecting and correcting bits gives the space used as room for real data.
e) DVD uses the format of MPEG-2 (Moving Picture Experts Group of International
Standards Organization) for coding and decoding which gives higher quality than MPEG-1
used in CD.
LAYOUT OF LAYERS IN DVD
In DVD, scanning of information can be done from more than one layer, simply by changing
focus of the laser beam. It enables a single disc to deliver 8.5 GB of data without removing the
disc from the drive or without turning it over.
Like CD, each layer of a DVD contains the following three areas :
1. Lead in
2. User’s data
3. Lead out

Areas marked in a single layer disc

Tracks in dual layers disc (a) Parallel tracks in the same direction and (b) Parallel tracks running
in opposite directions.

FEATURES OF DVDs
Apparently, a DVD looks similar to a VCD. Both are plastic discs, 120 mm in diameter both and
1.2 mm thick. Also, both rely on lasers to read pits and flats on spiral tracks and are immune to
surface contamination. The similarities end here. The digital video disc has surpassed compact
disc in many ways. The following are the value-added features which have made DVDs popular.
1. DVD has a huge storage capacity, with the following options:
a) Single side single layer (SSSL), capacity = 4.7GB.
b) Single side double layer (SSDL), capacity = 8.5 GB.
c) Double side single layer each side (DSSL), capacity = 9.4 GB.
d) Double side single layer each side (DSSL), capacity = 17.1 GB.

A full-length movie can be seen in playback even on SSSL type DVD. In DSDL type, 3 to 4 full
length movies can be seen.
 2. Designed from the outset for video, audio, computer and multimedia, and not just audio.
Hence, it is very versatile.
3. All formats use a common file system, and hence there is no problem of compatibility.
4. Overall size is quite small and handy, and hence it is portable.
5. Its replication is easy and inexpensive.
6. The strength is same as in a CD, due to the bonding of two substrates.
7. Efficient error detection and correcting codes.
8. All special features and advantages of digitized systems are available as DVD recording
is digital.
9. CDs and VCDs can be played on a DVD player without any difficulty, but not viceversa.

APPLICATIONS OF DVDs
Applications of DVD technology are so wide that the abbreviation which initially meant Digital
Video Disc is now quoted as Digital Versatile Disc. Some of its applications are listed below:
1. Worldwide distribution of full length movies through DVD video discs with several
special and useful features, surpassing VCDs.
2. Worldwide distribution of high-quality music with surround sound effect through DVD
audio discs.
3. DVD-ROMs of huge capacity for computers.
4. DVDs are able to store data as backup memory for computers and play it many times
over.
5. Rewritable (RW) DVDs can be used as RAM. These can also be used as VCRs for
recording new programmes after erasing the earlier ones.

BLU-RAY DISC
A Blu-ray disc (BD) is a high density optical disc with five times the capacity of a DVD.
Need for a High Density Disc
A DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7 GB per layer, this satisfactory for a standard definition TV.
But for HDTV, it is failed to accommodate the specifications. A laser of blue colour should be
used for a high density disc because produces shorter wavelength. A Blu-ray disc (BD) uses a
laser of wavelength of 405 nm. This shorter wavelength allows five times more data storage per
layer (a DVD’s capacity per layer is 4.7 GB, while BD’s capacity per layer is 25GB).
Advantages of BDs as a Medium of Storage of Information
1. Brightness of images, richness of colours and contrast in the picture is outstanding and
use of MPEG-4 AVC (or H264) compression standard, it is also using MPEG-2 to
provide compatibility with DVDs.
2. Superior resolution to produce a more detailed image.
3. High capacity, therefore suitable for HDTV. It can store 23 hours of movie pictures of
SDTV against 8 hours in DVD. It can store 8 hours of HDTV movies, while DVD cannot
store HDTV at all.
4. BD disc can support 3D TV also.
5. Can instantly skip to any spot on the disc.
6. Can record one programme while watching another.
7. Ability to search automatically an empty space on the disc to avoid overlapping.
8. Can access the Web to download subtitles and other extra feactures.