The City & Guilds Textbook Carpentry & Joinery LEVEL 1 DIPLOMA 6706

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The City & Guilds Textbook:

Site Carpentry and Architectural
Joinery for the Level 2
Apprenticeship (6571), Level 2
Technical Certificate (7906) &
Level 2 Diploma (6706)
Stephen Jones, Stephen Redfern, Colin Fearn 9781510458130
The City & Guilds Textbook:

Site Carpentry & Architectural
Joinery for the Level 3
Apprenticeship (6571), Level 3
Advanced Technical Diploma (7906)
& Level 3 Diploma (6706)
Martin Burdfield, Stephen Jones, Stephen Redfern, Colin Fearn 9781510458154
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Carpentry The City & Guilds textbook
& Joinery
LEVEL 1 DIPLOMA (6706)
Stephen Jones
Stephen Redfern
EDITOR: Martin Burdfield
9781398319370.indb 1 16/07/21 9:12 PM

Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently
overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first
opportunity.
Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going
to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned
in this book. It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the
home page for a website in the URL window of your browser.
Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and
made from wood grown in well-managed forests and other controlled sources. The logging and
manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country
of origin.
Orders: please contact Hachette UK Distribution, Hely Hutchinson Centre, Milton Road, Didcot,
Oxfordshire, OX11 7HH. Telephone: +44 (0)1235 827827. Email education@hachette.co.uk Lines
are open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday to Friday. You can also order through our website:
www.hoddereducation.co.uk
ISBN: 978 1 3983 1937 0
© The City & Guilds of London Institute and Hodder & Stoughton Limited 2021
First published in 2021 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House
50 Victoria Embankment
London EC4Y 0DZ
www.hoddereducation.co.uk
Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2025 2024 2023 2022 2021
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this
publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from
the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic
reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, www.cla.co.uk
Cover photo © Stockphoto-graf/stock.adobe.com
Illustrations by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India.
Typeset in India by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry, India.
Printed in Slovenia
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
9781398319370.indb 2 16/07/21 9:12 PM

Contents
Acknowledgements v
About the authors vi
Picture credits vii
How to use this book x
1 Principles of building construction, information and communication 1

How to identify information used in the workplace 1
Environmental considerations in construction 11
Construction of foundations 16
Construction of internal and external walls 23
Construction of floors 35
Construction of roofs 39
How to communicate in the workplace 48
2 Carpentry and joinery hand tools 54

Types of modern and traditional hand tools 54
How to safely use, sharpen and maintain hand tools 65
How to safely store and transport hand tools 110
3 Power tools 114

Power sources used with portable power tools 114
Power tool safety 118
Personal protective equipment (PPE) 120
Types of power tools, tooling and their safe use 121
Transporting, storing and maintaining power tools 172
4 Produce woodworking joints 177

Select and store materials used to produce woodworking joints 177
Select and use hand tools to produce woodworking joints 193
Identify the resources required to mark out woodworking joints 196
Mark out woodworking joints 198
Select and use hand tools and materials to produce basic woodworking joints 202
Understand how to manufacture a frame using woodworking joints 205
Form a frame using woodworking joints 211
Construct and fix hatch linings 217
Cut and fix skirtings and architraves 220
5 Types of fixings and ironmongery 228

Materials used in the manufacture of fixings and ironmongery 228
Fixings used in carpentry and joinery 229
Types of ironmongery 242
Installing ironmongery 256
iii
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6 Health, safety and welfare in construction 268
Health and safety regulations, roles and responsibilities 268
Accident and emergency procedures and documentation 279
Hazards in the workplace 284
Health and welfare in the workplace 295
Handling materials and equipment safely 298
Access equipment and working at height 301
Working with electrical equipment in the workplace 307
Using personal protective equipment (PPE) 311
Causes of fire and fire emergency procedures 315
Test your knowledge answers 319

Glossary 322
Index 327
iv
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Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
This book draws on several earlier books that were published by City & Guilds, and we acknowledge and thank the
writers of those books:
l Colin Fearn
l Stuart Raine
l Tim Taylor
l Martin Burdfield.
We would also like to thank everyone who has contributed to City & Guilds photoshoots. In particular, thanks to:
Andrew Buckle (photographer), Tony Manktelow, Victoria Lockwood, Lindsay Cotte, David Hartsilver and all the
staff at Burton and South Derbyshire College and at Central Sussex College, models Charlie Barber, Kieran Kelly,
Jake North, Joe Smith and Martin Standbridge, and Colin Fearn and Steve Redfern.
Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
From the authors

I’d like to dedicate this book to my Dad, who sadly passed away during my time working on this project. He was a
true craftsman in his own right and a real inspiration to me.
Stephen Jones
I would like to thank my wife, Sharon, children, Katie and Shaun, and grandchildren, Lewis, Charlotte, Evie and Emily.
Without your support and love this work would not have been possible. To Brian, a former tutor and dear friend,
thank you for all your encouragement, and last but not least to my editor, Rachel, a big thank you for all your hard
work and patience.
Stephen Redfern
9781398319370.indb 5 16/07/21 9:12 PM

The City & Guilds Textbook: Carpentry & Joinery for the Level 1 Diploma
About the authors

Stephen Jones
I was born and grew up in Newport, South Wales. After leaving school
at 16, I started an apprenticeship with a local Joinery business where I
completed my training. I then met my wife and later moved to Torquay
in Devon where we got married and raised three children.
During my career in the South West, I have worked as a shopfitter and
joiner and self-employed site carpenter, travelling all over the country
on various contracts. I had my own shopfitting and joinery business
for a number of years, working on retail, leisure and domestic projects,
and employed a small workforce. In 2004, I began teaching at South
Devon College. During my time in further education, I have continued
to develop my knowledge and skills by completing the Postgraduate
Certificate in Education (PGCE), Higher National Certificate (HNC) in
Construction and the National Examination Board in Occupational
Safety and Health (NEBOSH) Certificate. I am still employed as a
full-time lecturer, assessor and internal verifier of Site Carpentry and
Architectural Joinery courses from Levels 1 to 3.
When I first left school, I never dreamt that I would do or see many of
the things that I have during my time in the construction industry. I have
been able to travel the length and breadth of the country with work and
to visit other countries. This year, I have been fortunate enough to have
the opportunity to write my third and fourth Carpentry and Joinery
textbooks, a feat I never thought possible when I was at school.
If you have a passion and enjoy what you do, ‘the world is your oyster’.
Stephen Redfern
I was born and grew up in the Midlands, where I continue to live. I am
married with two children and four grandchildren.
On leaving school at 16, I managed to get an indentured apprenticeship
with a joinery manufacturer. I have spent the better part of 40 years
working in joinery and the construction industry, 26 of which were at a
further education college from which I have now retired as a course leader
for Joinery. During my time as a course leader, I delivered courses from
Level 1 through to Level 3 in Wood Machining, Carpentry and Joinery to
apprentices, full-time students and adult learners.
In my spare time, other than working on construction projects, I like
fishing, working my spaniels and clay shooting.
vi
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Picture credits
Picture credits
Fig 1.7 © jackie ellis/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 1.8 © Panupong/stock.adobe.com; Table 1.4 1st © Jesus Keller/
Shutterstock.com, 2nd © Smileus/Shutterstock.com, 3rd © Sky Light Pictures/Shutterstock.com, 4th © tchara/
Shutterstock.com, 5th 1st © Studio Harmony/stock.adobe.com, 6th © Proxima Studio/stock.adobe.com; Table 1.5 1st
© Steve Jones, 2nd © fotoivankebe/Shutterstock.com, 3rd © Alena Brozova/Shutterstock.com, 4th © BanksPhotos/
E+/Getty Images, 5th © Alena Brozova/Shutterstock.com, 7th © CORDELIA MOLLOY/Science Photo Library/Alamy
Stock Photo; Fig 1.10 tl © Paul Wishart/Shutterstock.com, bl © Stephen Finn/Shutterstock.com, r © TonyV3112/
Shutterstock.com; Fig 1.15 © Mr.Arthid Vongsawan/Shutterstock.com; Fig 1.17 © krsprs/stock.adobe.com; Fig 1.24 ©
MrSegui/Shutterstock.com; Table 1.6 1st © Chloe Johnson/Alamy Stock Photo, 2nd © mafffi/stock.adobe.com, 3rd ©
Chris Rose/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Colin Fearn, 5th © Alena Brozova/Shutterstock.com, 7th Image courtesy of
Sabrefix, 8th © IG Lintels, 9th © Saint-Gobain Weber UK & Ireland; Fig 1.27 l © PonyFriday/Shutterstock.com, r ©
Hervé Rouveure/stock.adobe.com; Fig 1.28 © Simon/stock.adobe.com; Table 1.7 1st © bright/Shutterstock.com, 2nd
© Oleksandr Tsybulskyy/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © mafffi/stock.adobe.com, 4th © City & Guilds, 5th © British Gypsum,
6th © KNAUF; Fig 1.30 © MiTek Industries Ltd; Fig 2.1 © Alexander Tekuchev/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.2 l © Phil Jones
Photography, r © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.3 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.4 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig
2.5 © Roman Ivaschenko/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.7 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.8 © Construction Photography/
Avalon/Hulton Archive /Getty Images; Fig 2.9 © Robert Bosch Power Tools GmbH, 2020, all rights reserved; Fig 2.10
© Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.11 t © Ravl/Shutterstock.com, b © Constantine Pankin/Shutterstock.com; Fig 2.12 ©
Amlbox/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.13 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.14 © Steve Jones; Fig 2.15 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.16 ©
Shinwa Rules Co., Ltd.; Fig 2.17 © Richard Heyes/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.18 © Natsmith1/Shutterstock.com; Fig
2.19 © Mipan – Fotolia; Fig 2.20 © 2007 Colin & Linda McKie/istockphoto; Fig 2.21 © Martin Burdfield/Building
Crafts College; Fig 2.22 © Rosinka79/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.28 © Mark Humphreys/123RF; Fig 2.29 © Jeffrey
Banke/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.30 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.31 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.32 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.33 ©
Colin Fearn; Fig 2.34 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.39 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.42 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.43 © Threecups/
stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.44 © Theo Alers/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.45 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.46 Courtesy of
Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig 2.47 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.48 Courtesy of Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig 2.49
Courtesy of Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig 2.51 © Krys Bailey/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.52 © Phil Jones
Photography; Fig 2.54 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.55 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.56 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.57 © City
& Guilds; Fig 2.58 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.59 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.60 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.61 © Phil Jones
Photography; Fig 2.62 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.63 © 2013 City & Guilds of London Institute; Fig 2.64 Illustration by
Lorna Johnson. Reprinted with permission from WOOD® magazine. © 1996 Meredith Corporation. All rights
reserved.; Fig 2.65 Courtesy of Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig 2.66 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.68 © Faithfull Tools; Fig
2.69 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.70 Illustration by Lorna Johnson. Reprinted with permission from WOOD® magazine.
©1996 Meredith Corporation. All rights reserved.; Fig 2.71 Illustration by Lorna Johnson. Reprinted with permission
from WOOD® magazine. © 1996 Meredith Corporation. All rights reserved.; Fig 2.72 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig
2.74 © Veritas Tools Inc. 2021; Fig 2.76 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.77 © Veritas Tools Inc. 2021; Fig 2.78 © Charles
Stirling/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.79 © Charles Stirling/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 2.80 Used by permission, The
Taunton Press, Copyright © 1998.; Fig 2.82 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.90 Used by permission, The Taunton Press,
Copyright © 1998.; Fig 2.91 Used by permission, The Taunton Press, Copyright © 1998.; Fig 2.92 © City & Guilds;
Fig 2.100 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.101 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.102 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.104 ©
Gresei/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.106 © Steve Jones; Fig 2.112 © Kuzmick/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.113 © Will Burwell/
Alamy Stock Photo; page 92 Step 1 tl © City & Guilds, tr © City & Guilds, bl © Steve Jones, br © Steve Jones, Step 2
© Steve Jones; page 93 Step 3 © Steve Jones, Step 4 © Steve Jones; page 94 © City & Guilds; page 95 © City &
Guilds; Fig 2.114 © Axpitel/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.115 Courtesy of Axminster Tool Centre Ltd; Fig 2.116 © Phil Jones
Photography; Fig 2.123 © lcswart/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.126 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.127 © City & Guilds; Fig 2.128
© Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.129 © Faithfull Tools; Table 2.2 1st © Punyaphat/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Kilukilu/
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Shutterstock.com, 4th Courtesy of Axminster Tool Centre Ltd, 5th © Steve Jones, 6th © Faithfull Tools, 7th © Faithfull
Tools, 8th © Travis Perkins, 9th © Faithfull Tools, 10th © Steve Jones; Fig 2.131 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.135 ©
Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.136 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.137 © Faithfull Tools; Table 2.3 1st © Faithfull Tools, 2nd © Steve
Jones, 3rd © Faithfull Tools, 4th © Faithfull Tools, 5th © Faithfull Tools, 6th © Faithfull Tools; Fig 2.138 © Steve Jones;
Fig 2.139 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 2.140 © jaimeskaggs/stock.adobe.com; Fig 2.141 © Phil Jones Photography;
Fig 2.142 © Van Vault; Fig 2.143 © Stanley Black & Decker, Inc.; Fig 3.1 Construction Photography © David Burrows;
Table 3.1 1st © Rigsbyphoto/Shutterstock.com, 2nd © RTimages/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © David J. Green - electrical/
Alamy Stock Photo, 4th © Ornot38/Shutterstock.com; Fig 3.3 © Vulcascot Cable Protectors; Fig 3.4 © Makita UK;
Fig 3.5 © Dizfoto1973/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.6 © Hoomoo/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.7 © Faithfull Tools; Table 3.5 1st
© Ian Pilbeam/Alamy Stock Photo, 2nd © Makita UK, 3rd © Oner/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Ian Pilbeam/Alamy Stock
Photo, 5th © Faithfull Tools, 6th © David J. Green - tools/Alamy Stock Photo, 7th © Screwfix; Fig 3.9 © Phil Jones
Photography; Table 3.6 1st © City & Guilds, 2nd © City & Guilds; Fig 3.10 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.11 © Phil Jones
Photography; Fig 3.15 r © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.16 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.17 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.18 © City
& Guilds; Fig 3.21 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.22 © scharfsinn86/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.26 © Screwfix; Fig 3.37
© Makita UK; Fig 3.40 © Eugene Shatilo/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.41 © Makita UK; Fig 3.42 © Phil Jones Photography;
Fig 3.43 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.51 © Robert Bosch Power Tools GmbH, 2020, all rights reserved; Fig 3.52 © City &
Guilds; Fig 3.54 © Tiero/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.55 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.56 © Trend Tool Technology; Fig 3.57 ©
City & Guilds; Fig 3.58 © Phil Jones Photography; Table 3.7 1st © Trend Tool Technology, 2nd © Trend Tool
Technology, 3rd © Trend Tool Technology, 4th © City & Guilds; Fig 3.59 © City & Guilds; Fig 3.63 © Piotr/stock.
adobe.com; Fig 3.64 © Screwfix; Fig 3.65 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.66 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.67 ©
Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.68 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.69 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.70 © Fotos 593/
stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.71 © creative soul/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.72 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.73 © Phil Jones
Photography; Fig 3.74 © Fototocam/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.75 © Makita UK; Fig 3.76 © vvoe/stock.adobe.com; Fig
3.78 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.79 © Makita UK; Fig 3.80 © Uwimages/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.81 © 2019
GMC Global Machinery Company; Fig 3.82 © ungvar/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.83 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.84
© Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.85 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 3.86 © JRJfin/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.87 © Phil
Jones Photography; Fig 3.88 © cegli/stock.adobe.com; Fig 3.89 © leo_photo/Shutterstock.com; Fig 4.7 © Steve
Jones; Page 181 a © Steve Jones, b © Steve Jones; Fig 4.8 © Protimeter Moisture Meters; Fig 4.10 © romaset/stock.
adobe.com; Fig 4.11 © Steve Jones; Fig 4.12 © Steve Jones; Fig 4.13 l © marilyn barbone/stock.adobe.com, r ©
Evgeny Skidanov/stock.adobe.com; Table 4.3 1st © Barnaby Chambers/Shutterstock.com, 2nd © The Wood Database,
3rd © The Wood Database, 4th © deepspacedave/stock.adobe.com, 5th © Raimund Linke/Photolibrary/Getty Images;
Table 4.4 1st © The Wood Database, 2nd © Peter Guess/Shutterstock.com, 3rd © ireneromanova/stock.adobe.com,
4th © The Wood Database, 5th © Bambuh/Shutterstock.com; Table 4.5 1st © Steve Jones, 2nd © Steve Jones, 3rd ©
Steve Jones, 4th © Steve Jones, 8th © Steve Jones, 10th © Steve Jones, 11th © Steve Jones, 12th © Steve Jones, 14th ©
Henrik Larsson/Shutterstock.com, 21st © taviphoto/stock.adobe.com, 23rd © Steve Jones; Fig 4.16 © City & Guilds;
Fig 4.17 © Martin Burdfield/Building Crafts College; Fig 4.18 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.19 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.20 ©
City & Guilds; Fig 4.21 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.23 © City & Guilds; Table 4.9 1st © Vaaka/Shutterstock.com, 2nd ©
Jocic/Shutterstock.com, 3rd © City & Guilds, 4th © Tashatuvango/Shutterstock.com, 6th © Alexandra/stock.adobe.
com, 7th © Chiltern Timber, 8th © Luis Carlos Torres/Shutterstock.com; Fig 4.25 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 4.37
© scharfsinn86/stock.adobe.com; Fig 4.41 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.42 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.43 © City & Guilds; Fig
4.44 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.46 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.47 © Steve Jones; page 223 Steps 1–2 © City & Guilds; page
224 Steps 3–4 © City & Guilds; Fig 4.50 © Faithfull Tools; Table 5.1 1st © Bert Folsom/123RF, 2nd © Scphoto48 /
stock.adobe.com, 3rd © scott/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Creative soul/stock.adobe.com, 5th © nathan_0834/stock.
adobe.com, 6th © Fotos 593/stock.adobe.com, 7th © rsooll/stock.adobe.com, 8th © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 5.2
© 2019 Screwfix Direct Limited; Fig 5.3 © Toolstation; Fig 5.4 © W. Wirth/imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig
5.5 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 5.6 © Артур Ничипоренко/stock.adobe.com; Fig 5.7 © salita2010/stock.adobe.
com; Table 5.2 1st © Ilja/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Nuclear_lily/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Al/stock.adobe.com, 4th © W.
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Picture credits
Wirth/imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo, 5th © SNEHIT PHOTO/stock.adobe.com, 6th © Hexstone Ltd, 7th © 2019
Screwfix Direct Limited; Table 5.3 1st © PROXXON S.A., 2nd © PROXXON S.A., 4th © Toolstation, 5th © G. Socka/
stock.adobe.com, 6th © Vaccaro/stock.adobe.com; Fig 5.9 © William Richardson/stock.adobe.com; Fig 5.10 ©
Roadknight/stock.adobe.com; Fig 5.11 Image courtesy of Sabrefix; Fig 5.12 © Coprid/stock.adobe.com; Table 5.5 1st
© ANDY RELY/stock.adobe.com, 2nd © Михаил Жигалин/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Phil Jones Photography, 4th ©
2021 UK Building Products Ltd; Fig 5.13 © Toolstation; Table 5.7 2nd © Toolstation, 4th © 2020 Screwfix Direct
Limited, 6th © Nikita/stock.adobe.com, 8th © johnanthony/Alamy Stock Photo, 9th © Toolstation, 10th © Steve
Jones, 11th © Bombaert/123RF.com; Fig 5.15 © Dorling Kindersley ltd/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 5.16 © Steve Jones;
Table 5.8 1st © 2019 Screwfix Direct Limited, 5th © Upvc Spares 4 Repairs; Table 5.9 1st © Uncle_Bob_666/
Shutterstock.com, 2nd © Bank215/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © Alona Dudaieva/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Fotomatrix/
stock.adobe.com, 6th Image provided by Frank Allart & Company Ltd., 8th © Toolstation, 9th © Toolstation, 10th ©
Toolstation, 11th Photograph of Raised Edged Covered Escutcheon 2032, courtesy of Croft Architectural Hardware
Limited., 12th © Liudmila/stock.adobe.com, 13th © 2019 Screwfix Direct Limited, 14th © Zerbor/123 RF, 15th © 2019
Screwfix Direct Limited, 16th © 2019 Screwfix Direct Limited, 17th © Steve Jones, 18th © Stuart Raine, 19th ©
Smuay/Shutterstock.com, 20th © Banepx/123RF, 21st © Steve Jones; page 257 Steps 2–3 © City & Guilds; page 258
Steps 4–6 © Steve Jones, Step 7 tl, tr, bl © Steve Jones, br © City & Guilds; page 259 Step 8 © Steve Jones; Fig 5.19
© Steve Jones; Fig 5.20 © Steve Jones; Fig 5.21 © Steve Jones; Fig 5.26 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 5.27 © Phil
Jones Photography; Fig 5.28 © Phil Jones Photography; page 263 Step 3 © Phil Jones Photography, Step 4 © Phil
Jones Photography; Fig 5.29 © Phil Jones Photography; Fig 6.1 l © Darkkong/Shutterstock.com, m ©
Dermarcomedia/Shutterstock.com, r © phiseksit/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.3 © BuildPix/Avalon/Construction
Photography/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 6.4 © HSE; Fig 6.5 © Igor Sokolov (breeze)/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.6 © Kalpis/
stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.7 © CONSTRUCTION SKILLS CERTIFICATION SCHEME LIMITED; Fig 6.8 © Kadmy/stock.
adobe.com; Fig 6.10 © Avalon/Construction Photography/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 6.11 © Alexander Erdbeer/
Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.12 © British building and construction photography/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 6.13 ©
Steroplast Healthcare Limited; Fig 6.14 © Anchels/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.16 © Steve Jones; Fig 6.17 © Steve Jones;
Fig 6.18 © City & Guilds; Fig 6.19 © Steve Jones; Fig 6.20 © Steve Jones; Fig 6.21 © Marbury/Shutterstock.com; Fig
6.23 © danheighton/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.24 © Adrian Greeman; Table 6.4 1st © ambassador806/stock.adobe.
com, 2nd © stringerphoto/stock.adobe.com, 3rd © oblong1/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Ford Photography/Shutterstock.
com, 5th © luca pb/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.25 © DeiMosz/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.27 © 29september/Shutterstock.
com; Fig 6.28 © Mint Images Limited/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 6.29 © mike.irwin/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.30 ©
George Dolgikh – Fotolia; Fig 6.31 © Virynja/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.33 © Israel Hervas Bengochea/Shutterstock.
com; Fig 6.35 © objectsforall/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.36 © Blackboard Associates Media/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig
6.37 © Roman Milert/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.38 © An-T/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.39 © Rob Kints/Shutterstock.com;
Fig 6.40 © Steve Jones; Fig 6.44 © Simon Turner/Alamy Stock Photo; Fig 6.46 © Euro Towers Ltd; Fig 6.53 ©
fotosen55/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.54 © Faithfull Tools; Fig 6.55 © RZ/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.56 l © Rigsbyphoto/
Shutterstock.com, m © David J. Green - electrical/Alamy Stock Photo, r © Ornot38/Shutterstock.com; Fig 6.59 ©
Makita UK; Fig 6.60 © Steve Jones; Fig 6.61© Steve Jones; Table 6.7 1st © James Hughes/Alamy Stock Photo, 2nd ©
George Dolgikh – Fotolia, 3rd © Virynja/stock.adobe.com, 4th © Stockbyte/Getty Images/Entertainment & Leisure
CD35, 5th © Nd700/stock.adobe.com, 6th © Valentin/stock.adobe.com, 7th © Petrik/stock.adobe.com, 8th ©
Pixelrobot/stock.adobe.com, 9th © Modustollens/stock.adobe.com, 10th © IRC/stock.adobe.com; Fig 6.64 l © Mr.
Zach/Shutterstock.com, ml © Mark Sykes / Alamy Stock Photo, mr © Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo, r ©
Colin Underhill/Alamy Stock Photo; page 318 9a © Tribalium88/Shutterstock.com, 9d © Alex White/stock.adobe.
com
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How to use this book

Throughout this book you will see the following features:
Industry tips are particularly useful pieces of advice that can assist you in your workplace or help
you to remember something important.
INDUSTRY TIP
Any electricity that is not used after it has been created with renewable energy can be sold back to the
National Grid. This means that there is not only a saving on the cost of the electricity, but also a profit to
be made.
Key terms in bold purple in the text are explained in the margin to aid your understanding. (They
are also explained in the Glossary at the back of the book.)
KEY TERM
Tamping: the process of gently tapping the surface of wet concrete with a batten or plank
after it has been laid. Tamping releases trapped pockets of air in the concrete and causes
them to rise to the surface, therefore strengthening the concrete.
Health and safety boxes flag important points to keep yourself, colleagues and clients safe in the
workplace. They also link to sections in the health and safety chapter for you to recap learning.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

Always read and follow the paint manufacturer’s instructions on how to transport, use, store
and dispose of their products. They may recommend that you wear personal protective
equipment (PPE) to protect your skin, eyes and lungs from the effects of chemicals in some
paints, stains and preservatives. Some products may also be highly flammable, therefore you
should avoid smoking or using naked flames around them.
Activities help to test your understanding and enable you to learn from your colleagues’
experiences.
ACTIVITY
Research the areas of the United Kingdom that will be affected by rising sea levels in the next
10 years and the steps being taken to protect those areas from flooding.
Improve your maths items provide opportunities to practise or improve your maths skills.
Improve your English items provide opportunities to practise or improve your English skills.
At the beginning of each chapter, there is a table that shows how the main headings
in the chapter cover the learning outcomes for each qualification specification.
At the end of each chapter, there are some Test your knowledge questions and Practical tasks.
These are designed to identify any areas where you might need further training or revision.
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CHAPTER 1
PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION,
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Planning and organising building work in the construction industry requires the co-ordination of many different
tradespeople, materials and equipment. Delays caused by poor communication can often lead to missed
deadlines and have financial implications. Carpenters and joiners are part of the building team; therefore, they
must have a sound understanding of the methods and documentation used in the construction industry.
You should also recognise the systems used to construct various elements of a building, from the foundations
to the roof, and the impact that construction has on the environment.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn about: 4 construction of internal and external walls
1 how to identify information used in the workplace 5 construction of floors
2 environmental considerations in construction 6 construction of roofs
3 construction foundations 7 how to communicate in the workplace.
1 HOW TO IDENTIFY
INFORMATION USED IN THE
WORKPLACE
Many different sources of information are used in the construction industry to
make sure that things are built accurately, safely and to Building Regulations.
This section looks at different types of drawings that are used and interprets
some of the information that can be obtained from them, as well as the written
documentation that supports the technical drawings and their uses.
Sources of information used in

construction
Drawings and Building Regulations
It is particularly important in the construction industry to give the correct
information at the right time to workers and ensure that it can be easily
interpreted. Architects, engineers and designers produce technical drawings
to communicate building information that meet British Standards. This means
that any symbols, hatching or abbreviations drawn to represent materials or
components are consistent and understood by everyone in the building team.
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It is impractical to produce some building drawings at full size, so they are scaled
KEY TERMS
down so that they can fit onto a sheet of paper.
First fixing: the primary
work completed in a The types of drawings that carpenters and joiners commonly use are known as
building before the ‘working drawings’. These are referred to when calculating costs and the quantity
walls and ceilings are of materials required for producing work. Carpenters may also refer to them for
plastered, such as the measurements of partition walls, floors and roofs during the first fixing stage
installing windows, door
of building work, and again when they are fitting kitchens, doors and so on at the
frames and stairs.
second fixing stage. However, joiners may use working drawings to price work,
Second fixing: carpentry
work completed after the
estimate quantities of materials and produce full-size setting out rods to make
walls and ceilings have joinery items, such as windows, doors and stairs.
been plastered, such Drawings provide an easy and accurate way to communicate information from
as installing skirting,
one person to another through a visual representation of an item or object.
architraves and doors.
Construction drawings are often created with two dimensions (2D): length and
width. However, they can also be drawn in three dimensions (3D): length, width
and depth.
Copies of large technical drawings are sometimes (though increasingly rarely)
referred to as blueprints, because the method traditionally used to print them used
white lines on a blue background.
Most building projects require different types of drawings to be drawn and
submitted to the local authority for approval before work can start. The
application usually includes plans of the area, the proposed construction site and
detailed elevation drawings of one or more buildings. All proposed construction
work must be completed to industry-recognised Building Regulations. These
regulations provide detailed information on every aspect of building work, from the
foundations to the roof.
Specifications and schedules

ACTIVITY
Because it is not always possible to include all the information needed on a
Use the following link to
look at the main areas
drawing, it is usually written down in a document known as a specification.
covered by Building Specifications are usually produced by an architect, engineer or designer. They
Regulations in the UK: include details of products, materials, dimensions and the standard of work
www.gov.uk/guidance/ expected. Figure 1.1 is an example of a specification.
building-regulations-and-
To further support the drawings and specification, schedules are usually created
approved-documents-
index for large construction projects. A schedule is a chart containing details about a
particular aspect of a project; for example, doors, windows, kitchens and sanitary
items such as baths, showers and toilets. Schedules can be useful when estimating
and ordering materials; they may also be referenced when the items are being
installed. The components on a schedule are usually identified on the drawings
with references. For example, a door on the plan could be labelled ‘D1’. In the
example schedule shown in Figure 1.2, D1 is referenced along with other useful
information.
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Chapter 1 Principles of building construction, information and communication
Specification
102 External cavity walling
Walling below ground:
- Type: Cavity wall, concrete filled.
- Masonry units: Common bricks.
- Mortar: Class M6 mortar.
DPC at ground floor: Flexible cavity trays.
Walling above ground:
- External leaf above ground:
Masonry units: Facing bricks.
Bond or coursing: Flemish bond.
- Internal leaf above ground:
Masonry units: Aerated concrete blocks.
- Mortar:
Type: Class M4 mortar.
Joint profile to
external faces: Bucket handle.
- Wall ties: Insulation retaining wall ties.
- Cavity insulation: Full fill cavity insulation.
- Ventilation components: Air bricks and sub-floor ventilation ducts.
Openings:
- Lintels:
Type: Manufactured stone lintels.
Cavity tray cover: Flexible cavity trays.
- Cavity closers: Flexible insulated DPCs.
- Sills:
Type:
DPC below: Manufactured stone sills.
Abutments: Natural stone sills.
Cavity trays and DPCs: Precast concrete sills.
Flashings built into masonry: As drawings.
p Figure 1.1 Example specification
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Master Internal Door Schedule
Ref Door size S.O. S.O. Lintel FD30 Self- Floor level
width height type closing
D1 838 × 1981 900 2040 BOX Yes Yes GROUND FLOOR
D3 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX No No GROUND FLOOR
D4 838 × 1981 900 2040 N/A Yes No GROUND FLOOR
D6 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX Yes Yes FIRST FLOOR
D8 762 × 1981 824 2040 N/A Yes No FIRST FLOOR
D10 762 × 1981 824 2040 N/A No No FIRST FLOOR
D11 686 × 1981 748 2040 N/A Yes No SECOND FLOOR
D12 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX Yes Yes SECOND FLOOR
D13 762 × 1981 824 2040 100 HD Yes Yes SECOND FLOOR
BOX
D14 686 × 1981 748 2040 N/A No No SECOND FLOOR
p Figure 1.2 Example door schedule
Programme of work
A well-organised building project will have a start date and an expected completion
date agreed in writing between a construction company and the client; this is
known as a contract. They may also agree to have a penalty clause built into the
contract stating that if the work is not completed on time, the contractor will need
to pay compensation to the client.
To complete the building project on time, a document known as a programme
of work is produced. The programme contains a list of all the activities that need
to be completed and a breakdown of the number of weeks in which to complete
them. Each task has an amount of time allocated to it so that the construction site
manager can organise materials, resources and the tradespeople to arrive on site in
the correct order and at the right time.
Time (days)
Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Prepare the ground
Spread foundations
Lay cables for services
Build walls up to DPC

Proposed time in green
p Figure 1.3 Example programme of work (Gantt chart)
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If materials are delivered to site too early there may not be enough room to store
them; they may also get lost, damaged or stolen. INDUSTRY TIP
Additional documents used to communicate information in the construction Materials are best ordered
industry are outlined in Table 1.1. ‘just in time’ for a building or
q Table 1.1 Documents used to communicate information in the construction industry joinery project. This means
that they are requisitioned
Document Description with enough lead time
Bill of quantities A bill of quantities is a document produced by a quantity surveyor between the order being
(further information about the quantity surveyor’s role is given later in this placed and the time they will
chapter). It contains a breakdown of all the different aspects of a building arrive at the site or workshop.
project contained on the working drawings and specification. The bill of
quantities forms part of a package of documents, including the drawings
and specification, that are sent to potential contractors so that they can
price for a job. This is known as the tendering process. The contractors KEY TERMS
complete the bill of quantities by providing unit costs and labour rates
against each aspect of the work, so that a total cost can be calculated Lead time: the time
and returned to the client. between the start of
a process until its
Delivery note Materials and products that are delivered to the workplace will be
conclusion.
accompanied by a delivery note from the supplier. A delivery note is a
bit like a receipt for the goods; however, it is usually on the company’s Labour: a term used to
headed paper (with a logo and address). It contains information about describe physical work.
the quantity of materials that have been delivered, the delivery address
and a reference number. The delivery note should be signed by the
person receiving the goods after they have checked that:
l no items are damaged ACTIVITY
l the correct type of materials have been delivered
Create a simple
l no materials are missing
programme of work for
l the correct quantity of materials have been delivered.
your next task, with a
Invoice An invoice is like a delivery note. An invoice is given by suppliers to breakdown of the stages
people who have received goods or services on credit, showing a
of work and the number of
breakdown of the costs they are expected to pay.
minutes/hours/days that it
Job sheet Job sheets are usually issued by supervisors or managers to employees. should take to complete.
They are documents detailing work to be carried out and sometimes
materials to be used, and an allocated timescale.
Requisition order A requisition is a document used to formally request materials from
suppliers. They are used to keep a record of purchases made for each
job, and control who can use a credit account with their suppliers.
Site diary A site diary is normally completed by a construction site manager,
to record day-to-day events that have happened. This could include
weather conditions, deliveries and site inspections.
Statement A statement is a document sent by a business to people or businesses
that have credit accounts with them. The statement lists all the invoices
that have been sent that month, the amount of credit for each one and a
total amount of money expected to pay. Statements usually must be paid
within 30 days of receiving them.
Timesheet Hours worked on every job are usually recorded by employees daily on
a timesheet. This information is then used to calculate wages and to
estimate labour costs for future contracts.
Architect’s When an agreement has been made between a contractor and a client to
instruction undertake work, they usually sign a contract. If a change is made to the
terms of the contract during completion of the work, then a document
known as a ‘variation order’ must be completed before progressing.
Agreeing changes in writing during the project avoids conflict between
the client and contractor at the end of the project.
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It is important to look after and store records and other forms or written
information correctly to prevent them being lost or damaged. Some documents
may contain personal information or confidential data and must therefore be stored
where they cannot be viewed by other people who are not authorised, in accordance
with data protection legislation, such as the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) 2018. Examples of confidential documents include bank statements, health
records, accident report forms and employment records. GDPR also requires that
personal data must only be used for the purpose for which it was collected.
Scale used with drawings

It is not possible to draw buildings and other structures at full size on a sheet of
paper, so they are scaled down. Several different scales are commonly used in the
construction industry to produce drawings in true proportion. A full-sized drawing
such as a setting out rod (see Chapter 4) is produced at a scale of 1:1 (‘one to
one’), more commonly called ‘full size’. This means that every millimetre drawn
represents one millimetre in the real world. To reduce this scale further to, say, 1:2
means that every millimetre drawn represents two millimetres in the real world.
Scales can be measured directly off a drawing with a scale rule, or by measuring
with a standard ruler and multiplying the measurement by the scale. Table 1.2
gives examples of some of the technical drawings used in construction, the scales
used to produce them and their purposes.
q Table 1.2 Examples of technical drawings used in construction, the scales used to produce them and their purposes
Technical drawings used in construction Scale(s) Uses

Construction drawings
Setting out rod 1:1 A full size setting out rod is
typically used by bench joiners to
Rod no. 25 Contract no. 8 7/12/14 Penburthy House Internal door 2 No. req. 2 off
mark out joinery components.
Width rod
Height rod
Assembly drawings 1:5, 1:10, 1:20 Assembly drawings provide

detailed sections of how
Detail showing typical exterior corner detail components fit together, such as
Exterior the joint between two walls where
Breather
External walls cladding membrane they meet at a corner.
paper
Exterior
cladding
Wall plate
stud Vapour control
membrane on the
Breather inside of the
membrane timber frame
paper
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Construction drawings
Component range drawings 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, 1:10 A component range drawing
400 mm 2970 mm illustrates a full range of a
particular component. For
example, a ‘Window component
1030 mm
1030 mm
range drawing’ would show views
of every window for a particular
building and their dimensions,
W1 W2 and the positions of any
970 mm 970 mm openings.
600 mm
600 mm
W3 W4
Planning drawings
Section drawings 1:10, 1:20, 1:50 Section drawings illustrate
various views through a building
or structure. They are used to
see how different elements fit
together in relation to the whole
job. A section through a building
might illustrate the depth of the
foundation, the heights of the
windows and the pitch of a roof.
Elevation drawings 1:10, 1:20, 1:50 Typical elevation drawings show

the views of a building from
every angle. They provide a true
representation of a building by
illustrating the positions of the
doors, windows and roof shape.
Elevation drawings may be used
by joiners to measure joinery
items for estimating purposes.
Floor plans 1:50, 1:100, 1:200 Floor plans show the

arrangement of the walls to form
rooms on each level of a building.
They also illustrate the positions
of doors, windows, stairs,
kitchens, bathrooms and so on.
Carpenters may refer to floor
plans when they are hanging
doors, so that they know which
way they swing. Some floor plans
may also illustrate heating and
ventilation ducting.
➜
7
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Location plans
Site plans 1:200, 1:500 A site plan is a bird’s eye view
of the building plot, or multiple
PRESENT FRONT
LOT LINE plots on bigger construction
PROPOSED FUTURE
SIGN 30’ SETBACK sites. They illustrate the boundary
FRONT LOT LINE
(WIDENED SR23) (perimeter) of the site, roads,
parking, footpaths, waterways
and existing trees. Site plans
show services, also referred to as
‘utilities’, such as:
l mains water pipes
l drains
ADJUSTED LOT LINE
l electrical cables
(20’ S. OF BUILDING)
l gas
l communication (telephone,
internet and cable television
connections).
Block plans 1:1250, 1:2500 Block plans are usually produced
to illustrate a building plot in
relation to the surrounding area.
These drawings are used by the
client when submitting plans for
approval to the local authority’s
planning department.
Drawing symbols and hatchings

Usually, when location plans are drawn, they are arranged to make the best use
of the paper size, and the top of the drawing is not necessarily the direction of
north. The true direction of north in relation to the site is usually illustrated on the
drawing with a symbol. Drawing symbols, hatchings and abbreviations are often
used by architects and other designers to represent different materials and objects.
They are also used to prevent drawings from becoming cluttered with excessive
written information.
It is important that drawing symbols, hatchings and abbreviations are standardised,

so that everyone recognises and understands them. The British Standards Institute
(BSI) provides the benchmark for the drawing symbols used and understood by
everyone in the building industry. Table 1.3 and Figure 1.4 illustrate some of the
basic symbols, hatchings and abbreviations used.
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q Table 1.3 Examples of basic symbols, hatchings and abbreviations used on technical drawings
Drawing symbol
Toilet
Hatching
Brickwork
C/C – Centre to centre PSE – Planed square edged (timber)
DPC – Damp-proof course PAR – Planed all round (timber)
Abbreviations DPM – Damp-proof membrane BLK – Blockwork
H/W – Hardwood FFL – Finished floor level
S/W – Softwood MDF – Medium density fibreboard
WB
Sink Sinktop Wash basin Bath Shower tray
WC Window Door Radiator Lamp
Switch Socket North point Sawn timber (unwrot) Concrete
Insulation Brickwork Blockwork Stonework Earth (subsoil)
Stairs up
1234567
Stairs down
Top Bottom 1234567
Side
Cement screed Damp-proof course/ Hardcore Hinging position of windows Stairs up

membrane and down
Timber – softwood. Timber – hardwood.

Machined all Machined all round
round (wrot) (wrot)
p Figure 1.4 Drawing symbols and hatchings
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Datums used in construction

INDUSTRY TIP
A datum is a reference point from which all other levels are taken and transferred.
Laser levels that produce a When a site is set out for the construction of a building, a reference point known as
green line are clearer to see a temporary benchmark (TBM) will be set up on site. The height of the temporary
and more accurate than those benchmark will be recorded as the number of metres it is above the mean average
that produce red lines. sea level at Newlyn in Cornwall, UK. This point is used because of its relatively
stable coastline. The heights of the foundations, windows, floors and roof can all
be referenced back to this universal point. Many years ago, permanent ordnance
ACTIVITY benchmarks (OBM) would have been marked on public buildings and churches, and
Mark a 1 metre high the heights recorded on an Ordnance Survey map. Today most construction sites
datum around a room or are set out by a surveyor using GPS (the Global Positioning System).
workshop and take reduced
heights at several points Carpenters and joiners use a datum as a reference point to install first and second
to determine the actual fix work. A temporary line is often transferred around a room, approximately 1 m
floor level values. (Make above the floor level, either with a long spirit level or a laser level. The datum
sure you have permission line is then used as a reference to mark the heights of, for example, door frames
to mark the wall before
completing this exercise.)
and kitchen units. It is far more accurate to use this method than it would be to
measure the heights from the floor, especially if the floor is unfinished or uneven.
Laser beam
p Figure 1.5 Datum line p Figure 1.6 Temporary benchmark
p Figure 1.7 Ordnance benchmark p Figure 1.8 Laser level
10
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2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN CONSTRUCTION
Construction is one of the biggest industries in the UK. A huge amount of CO2
(carbon dioxide) is generated when manufacturing and transporting the materials
used in the construction industry. This carbon dioxide and the other greenhouse
gases released into the atmosphere as a result of manufacturing and construction
are harmful to the environment and contribute to global warming. Global warming
is the effect of the Earth’s atmospheric temperature rapidly rising because of an
increase in the levels of carbon dioxide and other pollutants.
About 10% of the land area on Earth is covered with snow and ice, which helps to
reflect the heat from the Sun and regulate the Earth’s temperature. As the Earth’s
surface and air temperatures rise, the ice caps are beginning to melt, causing rising
sea levels and coastal flooding. Global warming also affects our weather, with more
extreme dry and wet periods throughout the year causing flooding and droughts.
The changing climates and warming seas also impact on wildlife and their habitats,
many of which cannot adapt and survive in the changing conditions.
ACTIVITY
Research the areas of the United Kingdom that will be affected by rising sea
levels in the next 10 years and the steps being taken to protect those areas from
flooding.
Sources of energy
Energy is a term used for a source of power. Most buildings use electricity and gas
as sources of power for heating, lighting, electrical sockets and running appliances
such as ovens and fridges. Mains electricity comes from the National Grid. This
source of energy is made in thermal power stations around the country. The
energy is created at the power stations by burning coal or oil to generate steam,
which is then used to drive turbines. Coal and oil are known as fossil fuels, which
means they are sourced from the Earth, having been naturally created in the
ground over millions of years. Fossil fuels are therefore not renewable and are
damaging to the natural world. The demand for coal, gas and oil is on the increase
as the world’s population grows; however, these resources are starting to run out.
For this reason, alternative sources of renewable energy are increasingly being used
to fuel and power buildings and vehicles.
11
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q Table 1.4 Renewable sources of energy

KEY TERM
Infinite: used to describe Source of power Description
something that will last Wind Wind is an infinite source of power that is used to
indefinitely (forever), turn a wind turbine to generate electricity. Groups
such as water. Natural of large wind turbines, known as wind farms, are
materials like oil, coal often used in coastal areas and at sea where the
conditions are suited to this source of energy.
and gas are finite
resources, which means
that they cannot be
replaced once they have
been used.
INDUSTRY TIP
Any electricity created with
renewable energy that is
not used can be sold back
to the National Grid. This
means that people who use
renewable energy can not
Sun (solar) The Sun’s heat can warm the water contained
only save on the cost of the in solar panels to provide a source of heating.
electricity, but also make a Alternatively, PV (photovoltaic) panels can be used
profit. to convert sunlight into electricity.
Water The natural movement of water can be used to

create power. An early example of this is the wheel
INDUSTRY TIP on a water mill. There are now more efficient
methods of creating power (electricity), using
Do you know that petrol turbines on the surface of and below the sea. This
and diesel are made from is called tidal power. Water can also be used to
generate electricity as it flows through the turbines
refined oil? Do you know that
in a hydroelectric dam.
plastic is also made from
oil? You could help to reduce
the amount of oil you use by
Biomass heating A biomass boiler generates heat by burning
car sharing or using public
recycled wood pellets. The energy is then used to
transport and by recycling heat water and provide heating through radiators or
your plastic waste where an underfloor heating system.
possible.
You can reduce the amount of
energy consumed for lighting
in your home and workplace
by switching to LED lights.
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Source of power Description

Ground source heating A small amount of heat can be absorbed from the
ground through a fluid in buried pipes. The low
heat captured in the fluid can be raised to a higher
temperature through a compressor; this is used to
heat a building and provide hot water.
Air source heating Air source heating uses a similar principle to a

refrigerator, but in reverse. An air source heat pump
raises the level of heat in the air and pumps it into
the building. This system does require electricity
to operate the pump; however, it will reduce the
amount of energy needed to heat and power the
building.
Sustainable materials
Using building materials that can be found locally will reduce the amount of carbon
produced in comparison with transporting the materials from further away. We
should consider where the materials that we use to build with have come from
and what impact their use will have on the environment. For example, timber is a
sustainable resource that is often used in construction; however, if it is transported ACTIVITY
from a rainforest in Brazil then its use has a negative impact on the planet. Trees Make a list of all the parts
are good for the Earth and our health because they absorb carbon dioxide and of your home that you
produce oxygen. For this reason, we need to replace the trees that are cut down. consider to be sustainable
In some regions of the world, huge areas of trees and rainforest are being cleared and energy efficient, and
for other uses without replacing them: this process is known as deforestation. The the parts of your home
that could be made more
timber that we use should come from a managed source, which means that for
sustainable.
every tree used at least one is replanted.
Features of a building that improve

efficiency
The energy that we use in our homes can be expensive, and the price continues to
rise as the demand for it increases. Apart from using one of the alternative energy
sources outlined above, we can also reduce the amount of energy used to heat a
building by insulating it. Building design is extremely important for any sustainable
home; for example, maximising natural light with large energy efficient windows
or skylights can reduce the need for artificial lighting. The building can also store
the energy from the Sun during the day to keep it warm in the night, therefore
reducing the amount of energy that is needed for heating. A well-designed building
must also be a healthy environment for the occupants, with a good source of clean
fresh air ventilating the spaces through ventilation systems or naturally through
doors and windows.
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Figure 1.9 shows the areas of a building where most heat is lost.
Roof 26%
Through the
walls 33% Windows 18%
Floors 8%
Draughts 12%
Doors 3%
p Figure 1.9 The areas of a building where most heat is lost
Later in this chapter, we will look at the main components of a building and where
insulation is used to prevent heat loss and conserve energy. Table 1.5 illustrates
some of the most commonly used types of insulation.
q Table 1.5 Most commonly used types of insulation
Type of insulation Description

Draught excluder Energy efficient doors, frames and windows will
be sealed with draught excluder to prevent warm
air leaving the building and cold air entering. Many
different types of draught excluders are available;
however, they are generally made of foam or soft
rubber.
Double or triple glazing All modern homes are constructed with double or
triple glazed windows and doors, with either two or
three panes of glass. 18% of heat generated in a
building can be lost through its windows.
➜
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Type of insulation Description

Mineral wool Mineral wool is made of molten rock woven into
slabs or rolls of bulk insulation. Bulk insulation
traps air within the material to retain heat.
Blue jean and lamb’s wool Blue jean insulation is made from recycled denim
and lamb’s wool is made from the wool of sheep.
Both types of insulation work by trapping pockets
of air in them to retain heat. Thicker layers of these
types of insulation are needed to achieve the same
insulation levels that can be achieved with reflective
foil.
Reflective foil insulation board Manufactured from rigid polyisocyanurate (PIR),

with foil faces. The reflective foil insulation boards
prevent heat loss by reflecting heat off the foil
surfaces back into the building. Standard sheet
sizes are 1200 mm × 2400 mm, and vary in
thickness from 12 mm to 150 mm.
Multifoil reflective insulation Multifoil insulation works in a similar way to the

reflective foil insulation board; however, it comes on
a roll and is substantially thinner.
We rely heavily on the use of electrical devices to make our lives easier. Appliances
such as televisions, washing machines, tumble dryers and dish washers consume
a lot of energy. Some of these products are available with energy-saving features,
which make the products cost more to purchase but over time they will save you
money.
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For example:
l energy-saving washing machines only use a cold-water supply and consume
less water, which results in reduced waste
l low-energy light bulbs and fittings that take LED bulbs use up to 90% less
power than conventional lighting and have a longer lifespan.
The water that runs through the pipes in our homes to the taps is clean drinking
water, but we do not always drink it. Water is also used to shower, wash the car,
water the grass and flush the toilet. A huge amount of energy is used to filter,
clean, purify and pump water to our doorsteps, therefore we should use it wisely
without wasting it. The rainwater that lands on ours roofs and down through the
guttering system can be saved and reused. This is known as brown water. The
recycled water can be used to water plants and grass in the garden or flush our
toilets; this system is known as ‘rainwater harvesting’. Again, this is a simple design
idea that will reduce the consumption of water, reduce bills and save energy.
Waste management
Disposing of construction waste is an extremely expensive business. To reduce
the amount of waste disposed, multiple skips and bins are usually provided on
construction sites to segregate waste according to the materials they are made
from. Skips and bins that only contain one type of material are usually cheaper
to hire, use and empty than one filled with mixed waste. Glass, metal, bricks and
blocks, plasterboard and timber are examples of materials that are either reused
or recycled in the construction industry. Plasterboard should not go to landfill sites
with other waste materials because it contains gypsum, which can produce toxic
hydrogen sulphide gas if it is mixed with other biodegradable materials.
In the past, waste was usually sent to landfill sites, where it was buried in the
ground. The problem with this method of waste disposal is that many of the
materials do not break down (degrade) in the soil, and those that do break down
create dangerous gases that are harmful to the environment.
Wherever possible, you should try to reduce the amount of waste produced by:
l not over-ordering materials
l accurately measuring and cutting
KEY TERMS l storing materials correctly to avoid damage
Dead load: the weight of l reusing materials whenever possible
all the materials used to l recycling waste.
construct a building or
structure.
Live loads: the additional 3 CONSTRUCTION OF
weights that a foundation
supports after it has FOUNDATIONS
been constructed and is
in use. People, furniture, All structures and buildings must be constructed on a solid base, known as a
wind and snow are just ‘foundation’, to prevent them from sinking into the ground and becoming unstable.
some of the live loads
The shape and size of a foundation must be accurately calculated and designed
that a building has to be
designed to support. by a professional structural engineer, to ensure that it will support the dead load
of the building and the live loads that will also be imposed upon it. In addition
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to these weights, the type of foundations used may be influenced by the ground
conditions and the type of soil. The construction site may also be on a slope,
next to a river or a road with heavy traffic, which could affect the strength of the
foundations.
This section looks at the different types of foundations commonly used to
construct low-, medium- and high-rise buildings, as well as the materials used and
how to calculate the quantities required.
p Figure 1.10 Low-rise (top left), medium-rise (bottom left) and high-rise (right) buildings
Types of foundation
The conditions on the ground we walk on vary dramatically and can have a huge
influence on the type of foundation used. The strongest and most stable ground is
made of rock, such as granite and limestone, but this can be extremely hard and
sometimes expensive to dig through when building. Firm clay is an example of poor
soil conditions that is likely to expand and swell, causing an upward movement
in the ground; this is referred to as ‘ground heave’. Other soils that contain gravel,
sand and peat are also known to be unstable, and therefore require deeper or more
costly foundations.
Before any building work can start, samples of soil are usually taken from the
building site and tested to determine which type of foundation is most suitable.
There are four main types:
l strip (including wide strip and deep fill foundations)
l raft
l pile
l pad.
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Strip foundation
Low-rise domestic buildings, such as bungalows and houses, will usually have a strip
foundation to support the weight of the building. A strip foundation consists of a
trench dug into the ground at a depth required by the local planning authority or as
KEY TERMS
soil sample testing determines, depending on its bearing capacity. Once the trench
Building control officer: has been approved by the building control officer, it can be filled with 150–500 mm
a professional who
of concrete. Once the concrete has set, the bricklayers will start to build the walls
represents the local
authority’s planning of the structure out of the trench to approximately 150 mm above the ground level.
department or an The bricks and concrete blocks used below the ground level are likely to absorb
independent organisation. water, therefore special engineering bricks and trench blocks are used to prevent
Part of their role is to moisture or frost damage. At this height, a damp-proof course (DPC) is laid on
visit construction sites top of the brickwork before any further brickwork is laid. The term used for the
and monitor the standard
foundation and brickwork up to this level is known as the substructure.
of the building work at
various stages throughout
the project, to make sure
it meets with national
Building Regulations.
Damp-proof course: a
layer of plastic, supplied
on a roll, used to prevent
damp rising from the
ground through the
brickwork.
p Figure 1.11 Strip foundation
HEALTH AND SAFETY Wide strip foundation

A trench for a foundation
is considered a confined If the ground conditions are found to be weak while digging a trench for a strip
space and can be an foundation, you should either dig deeper until firm ground is reached, which could
extremely dangerous place be expensive, or increase the width of the trench and reinforce the concrete with
to work. One cubic metre steel. A reinforced foundation is known as wide strip.
(1 m³) of soil weighs
approximately one tonne.
The sides of a trench
have the potential to
collapse; it could flood;
oxygen levels in a trench
can be reduced. You
should only work in a
trench as a last resort
after a risk assessment
has been completed and
all the necessary safety
precautions have been
taken.
p Figure 1.12 Wide strip foundation
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Trench fill foundation

Sometimes, the depth of a strip foundation needs to be increased until firm, stable
ground is reached. In this case, it might not be practical or safe to work in a deep
and narrow trench, so it may have to be filled with concrete to just below the
ground level. This is known as a trench fill foundation.
p Figure 1.13 Trench fill foundation
Raft foundation
When the soil has a weak load-bearing capacity to support a building with strip
foundation, a raft foundation may be used. A raft foundation is not only built
KEY TERM
directly underneath the load-bearing walls, but also extends across the entire Subsidence: when the
footprint of the building. This type of foundation is reinforced with steel as well weight of a building or
structure sinks into the
as concrete, to prevent any uneven subsidence causing cracks in the foundations
ground.
and walls.
Foundation
Hardcore
concrete
p Figure 1.14 Raft foundation
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Pile foundation
Pile foundations are commonly used for multi-storey, high-rise buildings or where
the soil is not strong enough to support the weight of the building. Piles are made
by drilling holes deep in the ground, filling them with concrete and reinforcing
them with steel. These are referred to as ‘replacement’ or ‘non-displacement’ piles.
Alternatively, hollow piles can be knocked into the ground with a pile driver and
reinforced with concrete and steel. These are referred to as ‘displacement’ piles.
ACTIVITY
Follow the link below to
watch an animation on
how pile foundations are
constructed:
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=aAZoTG0EY3U
p Figure 1.15 Pile foundation
KEY TERM
Pad foundation
Industrial buildings and warehouses are usually built with cost-effective large steel
Pier: a brick, block or
concrete pillar that is not
frames, infilled with low high walls and insulated panelling. Most of the weight
connected to a wall. in these types of buildings is supported where the steel frames meet the ground;
therefore, the ‘pad’ foundations are constructed at these points. Pad foundations
may also be used to construct independent structures such as detached piers.
Brick pillar
INDUSTRY TIP
Tree roots can cause damage
to foundations, driveways,
footpaths and underground
pipes; therefore, you should
never plant trees too close
to a building without
considering the local authority Pad foundation
requirements and how big the
trees could eventually grow.
p Figure 1.16 Pad foundation
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Materials used in concrete foundations

Concrete is made from aggregate, cement and water, and sometimes reinforced
with steel. Aggregate is a technical term for different sized crushed rock; this can
vary from sand (known as fine aggregate) to gravel or crushed stone (known as
coarse aggregate). As soon as the cement and water are mixed, they form a paste
which covers the aggregates and binds them together like glue. Once water is
added to cement, it causes a chemical reaction that makes it harden or cure; this
process is called hydration. The fine and coarse aggregates are more stable than
cement, therefore they strengthen the concrete and prevent it from cracking.
Most buildings and structures such as bridges rely on the strength of concrete to
support them. If the ratio of materials mixed is wrong, the concrete will crumble
under load and crack. The correct ratios of materials for concrete are:
p Figure 1.17 Course aggregates
l concrete strength grade M5 = 1 part cement + 5 parts sand + 10 parts gravel
+ water
l concrete grade M10 = 1 part cement + 3 parts sand + 6 parts gravel + water KEY TERMS
l concrete grade M20 = 1 part cement + 1.5 parts sand + 3 parts gravel + water. Mortar: a building
material produced when
The amount of water added to the mixture depends on how much water there is building sand, cement
already in the aggregate. If too much water is added it will weaken the mix, but if and water are mixed
too little is used it will make the concrete difficult to work with. together. Mortar is the
glue that sticks or bonds
Chemicals known as additives can be included in concrete mixes to control setting bricks and concrete
times, increase the durability of the concrete, reduce potential cracking due to blocks together to build
excessive water, and so on. It may also be necessary to increase the curing time of walls.
concrete in the colder seasons to prevent cracking or to slow down curing times to Tamping: the process
allow large quantities to be poured and levelled in warmer conditions. Plasticiser is of gently tapping the
an additive that is often used in concrete and mortar to make these materials more surface of wet concrete
flexible and easier to work with by decreasing any friction as they are used. The with a batten or plank
after it has been laid.
standard ratio of mortar mix is 4 parts building sand to 1 part cement plus water
Tamping releases
until it sticks together, but is not too dry. Plasticiser is usually added to mortar to trapped pockets of air
reduce the amount of water needed by trapping air in the mix, making it more in the concrete and
workable (easier to work with). causes them to rise to
the surface, therefore
Large amounts of concrete for foundations, floors, walls and so on can be strengthening the
pre-mixed and delivered to site in a concrete mixer truck. The concrete can then concrete.
be offloaded down a chute into wheelbarrows or directly where needed. It can also Vibrating concrete poker:
be pumped from the truck through a flexible pipeline when access is difficult, for a power tool used to
example at the back of a property. Smaller amounts of concrete can be mixed with remove pockets of air
a cement mixer or by hand; however, it is slower to do this and the ratios could vary. from freshly poured
concrete. When the
Wet concrete contains pockets of air that could weaken it, so these air pockets vibrating poker head is
have to be removed before the concrete cures. There are several methods that submerged into the wet
can be used to remove air pockets; each one involves vibration so that the air rises concrete the vibrations
to the surface to compact the concrete. Tamping the top of the concrete with a cause any bubbles
present to rise to the
sturdy plank of timber will remove some of the air and help to level the surface; surface.
using a vibrating concrete poker is more effective.
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ACTIVITY
Concrete is not very sustainable or good for the environment. Use the internet to
research alternative materials that could be used to construct the foundations for
a building.
Calculating the volume of concrete used in a single

strip foundation
It is important to accurately calculate the amount of concrete needed for a project,
such as a strip foundation. Information required to work out the quantity of
materials needed can be obtained from the architect’s drawings and specification.
Underestimating the amount of materials required could mean that you may price
too low for the job. It could also mean that you run short of concrete, which could
cause a delay in the programme, and if you are unable to get the remainder of
the concrete to complete a job on the same day, the foundation would have to
be joined, which could cause a weakness. Overestimating the amount of concrete
needed for a foundation could impact on your profits and result in difficulties
disposing of the unwanted material.
Volume
The volume of concrete is measured in cubic metres and is calculated using the
following formula:
Length × width × depth = m³
Example 1
Figure 1.18 shows a simple strip foundation.
9m
0.2 m
0.45 m
p Figure 1.18 A simple strip foundation
Volume of concrete required = 9.00 × 0.450 × 0.200
Answer = 0.810 m³ of concrete
Example 2
Figure 1.19 shows a strip foundation for a small building.
12 m
0.45 m
A 0.25 m
D
B 7.3 m
p Figure 1.19 A strip foundation for a small building
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To calculate the volume of concrete needed for this foundation you can apply the
same method used for Example 1. However, you need to be careful not to include
the widths of the foundation for the two end lengths.
Volume of concrete required for A and C =
12 m × 0.45 m × 0.25 m
= 1.35 m³ × 2
= 2.7 m³
Volume of concrete required for B and D =

7.3 m – (0.45 m + 0.45 m = 0.9 m)
= 7.3 m – 0.9 m
= 6.4 m × 0.45 m × 0.25 m
= 0.72 m³ × 2
= 1.44 m³
Total volume of concrete required = volume of concrete required for A and C +

volume of concrete required for B and D
Total volume of concrete required = 2.7 m³ + 1.44 m³
Answer = 4.14 m³ of concrete
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Calculate the volume of concrete needed for the raft foundation shown in
Figure 1.20.
9.75 m
0.4 m
8.65 m
p Figure 1.20 Pad foundation
KEY TERM
Load-bearing: supporting
4 CONSTRUCTION OF INTERNAL a weight. Elements of a
building that are load-
AND EXTERNAL WALLS bearing could include
a floor, wall, roof or
The purposes of the external walls of a building are to support the weight of the chimney. Internal or
upper floors and roof, as well as keep the interior secure, warm and dry. Internal external load-bearing
walls can also be load-bearing; other internal walls are simply used to divide up walls should never
be removed without
spaces and offer privacy. This section looks at the key differences between internal,
consulting a structural
external and load-bearing walls. We also analyse the materials used to construct engineer first.
them, and various wall finishes.
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ACTIVITY Types of internal and external walls

Investigate rammed earth External walls
walls and write a short
Solid walls
report on the advantages
and disadvantages of this Solid walls with a single layer (known as a ‘skin’ or ‘leaf’) have been used to
method of construction. construct buildings for many years, and examples may still be found today in older
properties around the country. Solid walls can be made from:
l stone
l timber
l straw bales
l concrete
l masonry (bricks and blocks)
l cob (a mixture of soil, clay and straw)
l rammed earth.
Although the mass of a solid external wall can provide excellent thermal insulation
in the winter and keep a building cool in the summer, moisture and damp can
often still penetrate through these walls. If a building becomes damp on the inside
it creates not only an unhealthy environment to live and work in, but it can also
cause damage to the structure. To prevent this from happening, a second inner wall
needs be built with a space between, typically 100–150 mm, which is known as
p Figure 1.21 Solid wall a ‘cavity’. The internal cavity walls usually support the roof and upper floors of a
building.
Masonry cavity walls

The inclusion of an inner wall prevents water travelling from the outer skin to
the inner skin. Any water that passes through the outer wall will travel down the
internal surface and be directed out of the cavity by a cavity tray and weep holes.
KEY TERMS The inner and outer walls are connected with stainless steel wall ties so that they
Thermal insulation: a act as one wall, thereby increasing the wall’s stability. The wall ties are designed
product used to retain with a twist in them, so that water cannot travel or bridge from one wall to the
the heat in a building, other to cause damp. The cavity between the two walls should also be partially
therefore making it filled with thermal insulation while still allowing an air gap to ventilate the space.
more energy efficient. Sheets of rigid insulation are held tight against the external face of the inner
Other types of insulation
wall with plastic retaining clips that fit over the wall ties. If the insulation is not
include sound insulation
and fireproof insulation. retained against the inner leaf, moisture could travel across the cavity to cause
Loose fill: insulation used damp and mould growth.
in a cavity; commonly If the wall already exists in an older property that was built without insulation
made from water- in the walls, small holes can be drilled in the wall and loose fill insulation can be
resistant polystyrene
beads.
injected. However, care should be taken to ensure this does not create a path for
moisture to pass from the outside to the inside walls.
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Decorative finish
INDUSTRY TIP
Inner leaf
Bricks can be either solid,
perforated or frogged.
Wall tie
Hollowed bricks are shaped
with holes in them to reduce
Insulation their weight; frogged bricks
have a cavity on one face.
When you lay frogged bricks,
the cavity must be facing
upwards, so that it can be
Floor filled with mortar to construct
a strong wall.
KEY TERMS
Mortice and tenon joint: a
Outer leaf traditional woodworking
joint used to build
frames. For further
p Figure 1.22 Cavity wall information about this
joint see Chapter 4.
Watertight: used to
ACTIVITY
describe a stage of
Use the internet to research different ‘brick bonds’. Make sketches of the three building, usually when
most used brick bonds to illustrate the arrangement of the bricks. the walls and roof have
been constructed and
waterproofed, at least
Traditional timber frame with breathable felt. All
Using timber to construct walls is a more sustainable method of construction than the doors and windows
using concrete bricks and blocks. Traditional timber-framed buildings consisted of should be installed at this
stage, or the openings
large timber beams, morticed and tenoned together at the joints, to form the main
in the walls need to
structure. The spaces in between the wall beams were usually filled with brickwork be covered to protect
or wooden strips and plastered with a mixture of wet soil, clay and sand known the building from the
as wattle and daub. Heavy timber-framed buildings are sometimes constructed weather.
these days to achieve a similar appearance, although modern materials and strict Breathable felt: a
building standards mean they are better insulated and more energy efficient. lightweight waterproof
material used in roofing
Modern timber frame and external wall
construction. Water
Cavity walls can be constructed with a combination of timber inner walls and a cannot penetrate through
brickwork or blockwork outer skin. The benefit of this system is that all the walls, the felt from the outside
upper floors and roof can be prefabricated in a factory in sections and delivered face, but air from the
to site for assembly by the carpenters. This system reduces construction costs and inside can pass through
allows the building to be made watertight very quickly, so that any poor weather it to provide ventilation to
will not delay the work schedule. a building.
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Stainless
steel wall tie
Structural timber frame
Plasterboard
Vapour control layer
Sheathing board
Thick insulating
quilt – CFC-free
Waterproof
breather
membrane Masonry outer
cladding
Ventilated cavity
p Figure 1.23 Timber frame cavity wall p Figure 1.24 Traditional timber frame
HEALTH AND SAFETY Internal walls

Mortar contains cement Partition walls
which can cause A partition is a wall used to divide a room into smaller spaces. Load-bearing
burns to your skin. You partitions are commonly made from dense concrete blocks that run at 90° to the
should always follow
floor or the ceiling joists above. Non-load-bearing walls usually run parallel to the
the manufacturer’s
instructions/risk joists. These types of walls can be made from lightweight concrete blocks, timber
assessment when using or metal studs. The main parts of a stud partition are the head plate (top), the
mortar and take the sole plate (bottom) and the vertical studs in between. In a timber stud partition,
necessary precautions, the wall is strengthened further with short pieces of wood called noggins, which
such as wearing protective are fixed in between the vertical uprights. It can be difficult to fix heavy items,
gloves and safety
such as kitchen units or a basin for a bathroom, on a stud partition wall because it
googles and washing
your hands after use. For is hollow. You can use hollow wall fixings, but the best fixings are secured directly
further information on into the studs or noggins. If the rows of noggins are not where you need them
risk assessments, see to be, then additional noggins should be added at the correct height before it is
Chapter 6. covered in plasterboard.
Metal stud partitions are surprisingly cheap and quick to erect. They also do not
ACTIVITY contain any natural defects, unlike timber. (More information on timber defects can
Make a list of the different
be found in Chapter 4.)
types of plasterboard that The framework of a stud partition wall usually has plasterboard sheets screwed
could be used to cover on both sides to strengthen it and to provide a smooth surface to receive plaster.
a stud partition wall and
explain their purposes.
Alternatively, the joints between the plasterboard are covered with a special tape
and filled to cover the gap; this is known as ‘dry lining’.
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Puncheon
Head plate ‘H’ section
Noggins stud
‘C’ section
stud
Head
‘U’ section
door and
wall studs
Studs
‘U’ section for

Sole plate
soles and heads
p Figure 1.25 Timber stud partition wall p Figure 1.26 Metal stud partition wall
Whenever possible, service pipes and cables should be hidden from view in a
KEY TERMS
building. This can be achieved by running them between joists in a ceiling or floor
to the point where they are needed. In solid walls, the pipes and cables are either Trunking: a hollow plastic
tube or box section,
fixed on the face of the wall and covered with plastic trunking/conduit, or they
commonly used by
are chased into it. Services can easily be hidden in the hollow of metal and timber electricians and plumbers
stud partition walls. to hide pipes and cables.
Some trunking has a
removable cover for easy
ACTIVITY access and maintenance
Carpenters and joiners frequently fix materials to different types of walls so to the services.
need a good understanding of a range of fixings and their uses. Can you match
Chasing: channelling out
the possible fixings to the different types of walls given below?
a wall to allow pipes and
Types of walls: cables to be buried in it
a Timber stud partition wall and covered with plaster.
b Concrete block partition wall
c Metal stud partition wall
d Brick and block cavity wall
Wall fixings:
1 Brown plastic plug with a screw
2 Concrete screw
3 Wood screw
4 Cavity fixing
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External walling materials and

components
The main building resources used to construct cavity walls are illustrated in
Table 1.6, together with a brief description of their purposes.
q Table 1.6 Building resources used to construct cavity walls and their purposes
Wall building material Description

Brick A standard brick measures 215 mm long × 102.5 mm wide × 65 mm high. Clay is the main
The frog
material that bricks are made from, but they can also be made from concrete or calcium
silicate. Decorative bricks are referred to as ‘face bricks’ and are available in a range of
different textures and colours, including cream/yellow, orange, blue and red. Coloured dyes
can also be added to the mortar that is used to bond the bricks together for different effects.
Engineering bricks are heavier and stronger than face bricks and are non-porous. These are
mostly used in the substructure of a foundation or in structural columns.
Block A standard concrete block measures 440 mm long × 100 mm wide × 215 mm high. Blocks
are less expensive than bricks and quicker to build with; as a result, they are often used
in positions where appearance does not matter or when they will be covered with other
materials. There are three different densities of concrete blocks: ultra-low, medium and high
density.
Stone Limestone, granite and sandstone are types of stone that can be used to construct external
walls. Building stone walls is more expensive than masonry walls because the stone is usually
irregular in shape and therefore is more difficult to lay, compared with square bricks and
blocks.
Timber Timber used for external walls must be of structural grade, therefore free from any significant
defects, such as dead knots and splits. The most used structural grade softwood is C16 and
C32. (Further information on timber grading is given in Chapter 4.)
Timber that may be exposed to the weather or damp conditions must be pressure treated
with a preservative: this is known as tanalised timber. Structural timber that has been planed
smooth and has radiused (rounded) edges is referred to as Canadian lumber stock (CLS).
Insulation Building Regulations state that insulation must be used in walls, floors and roofs to prevent
heat loss and make buildings more energy efficient. Many different types of insulation are
used in the construction industry, but the main two are reflective foil insulation and mineral
wool (known as bulk insulation). Rigid sheets of reflective foil insulation are commonly used
in cavity walls and roof spaces, whereas mineral wool is rolled out between floor and ceiling
joists. Reflective foil insulation works by reflecting heat off the surface of the material back
into the building. Mineral wool retains heat by trapping air in the material to keep a building
warm.
➜
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Wall building material Description

Damp-proof course (DPC) A damp-proof course (DPC) is built into the external walls of a building, 150 mm above
ground level. The DPC prevents moisture being sucked up from the ground through the
brick, blockwork and stone walls, a process known as rising damp. DPC is made from plastic
and supplied on a roll, typically 100 mm or 112.5 mm in width to suit the thickness of the
wall. DPC can also be used vertically to prevent moisture bridging the cavity where there are
openings for windows and doors in the external walls.
Wall ties Wall ties are used to hold the inner and outer leaves of a cavity wall together to strengthen
it. They are positioned in between the mortar joints in a masonry wall as it is being built; they
can also be used in timber frame construction. Building Regulations state that the maximum
spacing for the wall ties should be no more than 900 mm horizontally and no more than
450 mm vertically.
Lintels Internal and external brick and block walls will have openings in them for doors, windows
and walkways. The masonry above these openings is usually supported with a beam known
as a lintel. Nowadays, lintels are made from reinforced concrete or prefabricated (shaped)
galvanised steel. In older buildings, lintels will have been made from stone or heavy timber;
however, these can be expensive and the timber can decay over time. Sometimes the tops of
the openings in external walls are shaped with arches and curves to create an architectural
feature. The brickwork around these shapes can be arranged so that it is self-supporting,
therefore lintels are not always required.
Render Render is similar to mortar; it is used to plaster external masonry walls to make them flat
and suitable for a decorative paint finish. Internal masonry walls, such as those made from
concrete blocks, may have render applied to them as a base before finishing plaster is used
to make the wall surface smooth.
KEY TERMS ACTIVITY

Non-porous: when water cannot soak through a material or Perform an experiment with two types
building component. of insulation: reflective foil and mineral
Bridging: when moisture travels through a cavity wall in the wool. Put on a pair of protective gloves
materials used to construct it. Poorly installed cavity wall before placing your hands on the surface
insulation and wall ties are examples of materials that can of the mineral wool, then do the same
result in water bridging a cavity in a wall. with the reflective foil insulation. Write
a short report to explain what you
experienced and why.
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Lintel Lintel
p Figure 1.27 Brickwork openings in walls: arched (left) and square (right)
IMPROVE Brick bonds

YOUR ENGLISH When bricks and concrete blocks are laid by bricklayers, they are arranged so that
A DPC is an the vertical joints are staggered. If all the bricks and blocks were aligned, this would
‘impermeable’ material, make the wall or column weak and the mortar joints would crack.
which means that water The arrangement of the brickwork is known as the bond in the construction
cannot pass through
it. Write a sentence
industry. Several different types of brick bond are commonly used in house
describing another building; the simplest method is known as the stretcher bond. This bond is where
building material that each course of bricks or blocks is positioned centrally over the vertical joints in the
includes this word. Check row below.
your answer with your
teacher or tutor.
KEY TERM
Courses: arrangements of
bricks and blocks laid in
rows by bricklayers.
INDUSTRY TIP
Mortar can be made with
lime rather than cement and
is often used for sustainable
homes because it is less
harmful to the environment
when it is made this way.
p Figure 1.28 Stretcher bond
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Internal walling materials and components

The main building materials used to construct internal walls are illustrated in
Table 1.7, with a brief description of their purposes.
q Table 1.7 Building materials used to construct internal walls
Material Description
Timber (stud) Timber stud walls are constructed with a series of vertical uprights, known as ‘studs’, nailed
between a ‘head’ (top plate) and the ‘sole plate’ (bottom). The studs are spaced out to suit
the plasterboard wall covering, typically either 400 mm or 600 mm between the centres.
Rows of short noggins are fixed mid-height between the studs to prevent them from twisting.
Timber internal walls are constructed with rough sawn fir, spruce or pine. This often varies
in width and thickness, which can make it difficult to install. It is preferable to build timber
walls with CLS because of its uniform size; CLS also has smooth surfaces and rounded
edges, which make it more comfortable to handle.
The most commonly used rough sawn timber sizes are 75 mm × 50 mm and
100 mm × 50 mm, which are often referred to by their imperial sizes of 3” by 2” and 4” by
2”. CLS is slightly smaller than these dimensions because it is planed. It can also vary in size
by a few millimetres between different suppliers; it is approximately 63 mm × 38 mm and
89 mm × 38 mm.
Metal (stud) Metal stud walls are similar in many ways to timber stud walls, in that both have a head,
sole and studs. The main difference between the two types of walls is that metal studs do
not usually have noggins to support them. The metal head and sole plates are ‘U’ shaped
to allow the vertical ‘C’ shaped studs to slide in between them, before they are fastened
together and the plasterboard is secured to each side.
Low density blockwork The low density of these concrete blocks means that they are lighter than standard concrete
blocks and easier for the workers to handle, thus creating a lower risk of manual handling
injuries. These blocks are designed to improve the thermal insulation of internal and external
load-bearing walls that are up to two storeys high.
Render Render is made by mixing sand, cement and water together. The first coat (known as the
scratch coat) is applied to the surfaces of walls in a layer that is 10–15 mm thick with a
trowel by a plasterer and levelled out with a straight edge. Further thinner coats of render
may be applied on top if needed. Cement render can take a long time to dry fully before it
is plastered, which is why alternative methods of finishing internal walls are now sometimes
preferred.
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Plaster Various types of plaster can be used to finish the surface of a wall so that it is perfectly flat
and smooth. Some plasters are designed to be applied to cement-rendered walls reasonably
thickly, while others are used to cover plasterboard to only 3 mm thick. Plaster is usually
supplied in a powder form and mixed with water until it is completely smooth and ready for
use. Ready mixed plasters are available in tubs and can be used to repair small holes in
previously plastered walls.
Plasterboard Plasterboard, also known as drywall, is the sheet material used to cover stud partitions and
concrete walls. Plasterboard is made from gypsum plaster and covered with a layer of paper
on both sides to improve its strength. A standard sheet of plasterboard is 2400 mm ×
1200 mm × 12 mm, although other sizes are available. Plasterboard can be cut to size by
scoring one face with a craft knife and bending it along the cut to snap the board cleanly in
two. It is usually fixed to stud partition walls with drywall screws or glued to concrete walls
with plasterboard adhesive. The plasterboard provides a flat, smooth surface to the wall that
can then be plastered or decorated.
Calculating the area of a wall

INDUSTRY TIP
You may need to calculate the area of a wall accurately for many reasons, such as
Plaster contains chemicals to estimate how many sheets of plasterboard are required or how many wall tiles
known as retarders that are needed for a kitchen or bathroom.
prevent it from drying too The area of a wall can be calculated by multiplying its length by its height
quickly when it is being
(L × H = area), which is expressed in square metres (m²). This is demonstrated
applied. However, if the use
using the following examples.
by date on the packaging
of the plaster has been
Example 1
exceeded, it will set fast,
making it difficult to achieve Calculate the area of the wall shown below.
a smooth finish. 2.6 metres
2.4 metres
2.6 metres (long) × 2.4 metres (high) = area m²

2.6 m × 2.4 m = 6.24 m²
The area of the wall is 6.24 m².
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Example 2
Calculate the area of the wall below.
4.9 m
45°
3m
5.3 m
To find the answer to this question, you must multiply the length of the wall by its
height and then subtract the area of the missing corner.
Area of the wall including the missing corner
5.3 metres (length) × 3 metres (height) = area
5.3 m × 3 m = 15.9 m²
The area of the wall including the missing corner is 15.9 m².
Area of the missing corner
To find the area of the missing corner, you must first subtract the length at the
top of the wall from the length at the bottom of the wall to find the length of the
missing corner.
5.3 m (length at the bottom) – 4.9 m (length at the top) = 0.4 m² (the length of
one side of the missing corner)
0.4 metres × 0.4 metres = 0.16 m²
0.16 m² is the area of the square illustrated in the corner, not the area of the
missing triangle, therefore you must divide your answer by two.
0.16 m2 ÷ 2 = 0.08 m²
The area of the missing corner is 0.08 m²
Area of the wall shaded
15.9 m² (total area of the wall including the missing corner) – 0.08 m²
(area of the missing corner) = 15.82 m²
4.9 m
0.4 m Missing corner
0.4 m
3m
5.3 m
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

How many full sheets of 2.4 m × 1.2 m plasterboard are needed to cover both
sides of the stud partition wall illustrated below?
15.7 m
1m
KEY TERM
Backing plaster: an 3m
alternative material to 2m
Door opening
traditional cement render.
Browning, Bonding coat
and Hardwall are three
examples of backing
plasters that can be used
on masonry walls to make
them flat, before applying
the finishing coats of Paint systems for new plaster
plaster. Backing plasters Before decorating a freshly plastered wall, you must first make sure that it has
dry much faster than
cement render and are
dried fully. If it has not, then this could cause a problem with paint or wallpaper
often preferred for use on sticking to it. Wet plaster on top of plasterboard can take between 2 to 3 days to
internal walls. dry out; this will depend on the climate, and the thickness of the plaster. Plaster
Porous: a porous surface that has been applied to cement rendered walls or where backing plaster has been
or material absorbs used will take much longer to dry.
moisture because it
contains lots of small The surface of a newly plastered wall will be porous, which can result in the paint
holes. not sticking to it. To overcome this problem, the wall must be sealed with a mist
coat of emulsion paint. A mist coat of paint is simply a diluted mixture of 70%
emulsion paint and 30% water. The water in the mist coat soaks into the plaster to
HEALTH AND SAFETY seal it, making it less absorbent and as a result creates a good foundation for the
Always read and follow topcoats of paint.
the paint manufacturer’s
instructions on how to An alternative to using a mist coat is to use a breathable (also known as
transport, use, store and microporous) paint that has been specially designed for newly plastered walls.
dispose of their products. As these paints do not have to be watered down like a mist coat, they do not drip
They may recommend as much. Another advantage of breathable paint is that it allows the plaster to
that you wear personal continue drying after it has been applied to the walls. The main disadvantage is
protective equipment
that these paints are usually more expensive.
(PPE) to protect your
skin, eyes and lungs from After the first coat of paint has dried, you will be able to see any areas of the wall
the effects of chemicals that need to be filled and sanded before the topcoats of paint are applied. The type
in some paints, stains
of emulsion used for the final coats of paint will largely depend on the areas in
and preservatives. Some
products may also which it is to be used.
be highly flammable, l Matt is commonly used for walls and ceilings, and its non-reflective finish
therefore you should avoid
makes it ideal for use in areas that have an uneven surface.
smoking or using naked
flames around them. l Eggshell, as the name suggests, has a low sheen similar to the shell of an egg.
Eggshell is perfect for bedrooms and living rooms.
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l Vinyl silk has a shiny, washable finish, making it ideal for communal areas
such as hallways and staircases. Light will reflect off the surface of vinyl silk,
therefore it is not recommended for use on walls with an uneven surface.
l Satin provides a soft-sheen finish that is harder wearing than matt emulsion.
The painted surface can be maintained by lightly wiping over with a damp cloth. KEY TERMS
Emulsion can be applied with a roller, and a brush when cutting in, or a spray gun. Cutting in: carefully
The disadvantage of spraying is that you will need to prepare the area by painting up to a surface
masking up (covering) to protect some surfaces from over-spray, which can with a different colour,
paint, stain or material
be time-consuming, but spraying does provide a better finish.
using a brush.
Masking up: protecting
5 CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS areas of a wall, floor or
ceiling from paint with
masking tape and paper.
Floors provide a flat, level surface to live and work on. There are two main
categories of floors: the ground floor and upper floors. Ground floors are Domestic building: a
property that no more
constructed completely differently to upper floors, as they prevent moisture rising than one family lives in,
from the ground beneath and insulate the building against heat loss. Upper floors such as a house.
usually span longer distances unsupported compared with ground floors. They also
have openings left in them for staircases.
This section looks at some of the methods and components used to construct
floors in domestic buildings.
Types of floors
Ground floors
There are two methods used to construct ground floors, known as solid and
suspended.
Solid concrete floors may be used if the construction site is relatively flat rather
than inclined (sloped), because less material will be needed to level the floor.
Concrete cures at a rate of 1 mm per day. Therefore, if the concrete layer in a solid
floor is 100 mm thick it will take over three months for it to harden fully. Although
it is possible to walk on a solid concrete floor after 24 hours, it is still susceptible to
damage, therefore suspended floors are often preferred because they are quicker to
install and can be used straight away.
Suspended ground floors used to be constructed with timber joists spanning
between walls, supported from below by low height walls, known as sleeper
walls. You will find many examples of this method of construction in homes today.
However, the ends of the timber that are built into the walls often rot because
of poor ventilation and the high level of moisture trapped under the floor. New
suspended ground floors are now often built with reinforced concrete beams,
with concrete blocks placed in between them. This system is known as block
and beam. This type of floor does not have the maintenance problems of timber
floors; they also have an added advantage in that they can be walked on as soon
as they have been positioned. The space under a suspended hollow floor should
be ventilated through air bricks built into the external walls, to prevent a build-up
of moisture. It is important that the air bricks are kept clean and not covered by
raising the ground level outside or building over them.
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Joist supported
on hangers
Honeycombed
DPC min 150 mm
sleeper wall
above ground level
Slab on hardcore or blinding

on polythene membrane
p Figure 1.29 Suspended ground floor
Upper floors
Upper floors are constructed by site carpenters with timber beams known as joists
KEY TERMS
that span from one load-bearing wall to another. Timber joists on upper floors are
Joist hangers: metal less likely to decay as they would on the ground floor because they are further
brackets shaped to
away from the moist ground. The joists in upper floors are supported with metal
support the ends of
timber floor joists. joist hangers secured to load-bearing walls.
Notch: a shallow recess Engineered timber joists have been developed in recent years as an alternative
cut into a piece of timber. to solid timber joists. Eco joists and ‘I’ beam (TGI joists) are examples of
Concrete slab: the solid manufactured/engineered joists made from materials such as orientated strand board
mass of concrete poured (OSB), plywood and metal. Engineered joists can span longer distances without
to create a floor.
being supported from below. Pipes and cables (for use in services) can also be passed
through the engineered joists, without weakening them with holes and notches.
The block and beam system described for use on ground floors can also be used for
upper floors. A solid concrete slab reinforced with metal can also be built on upper
floors; however, both of these types of floor are much heavier than timber floors
and would therefore need bigger foundations to support them.
p Figure 1.30 Suspended upper floor
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Ground floors and upper floors built with timber joists are usually covered with
sheets of chipboard panels, to provide a flat level surface. The underside of upper
floors is normally clad with plasterboard, fixed with drywall screws to hold it
in position, to create the ceiling. Suspended floors are sometimes insulated to
improve their thermal and sound insulation.
Components of solid concrete ground

floors
The main building resources used to construct solid concrete ground floors are
illustrated in Figure 1.31 and described in Table 1.8.
Screed
Insulation
Concrete
DPM
Sand blinding
Hardcore
p Figure 1.31 A section through a solid concrete floor
q Table 1.8 Main building materials used to construct solid concrete ground floors
Hardcore Hardcore provides a firm base to support a solid concrete ground floor. It is usually made of
solid materials that will not be affected by water, such as reclaimed/recycled brick rubble, tiles,
crushed rock and gravel. Alternatively, a granular (gritty or coarse) material referred to as MOT
Type 1 can also be used for the sub-base.
The hardcore layer must be compacted down with a machine known as plate compactor to
prevent it from moving and cracking the completed solid floor.
Sand blinding A layer of sand is spread over the hardcore base to prevent any sharp edges from puncturing
the damp-proof membrane.
Damp-proof membrane (DPM) A layer of thick plastic sheeting known as a damp-proof membrane (DPM) is spread over the
sand blinding to prevent moisture and weeds coming through the floor.
Oversite concrete Concrete is poured over the DPM to a depth of at least 100 mm; it is sometimes reinforced
with metal to create a strong base. Although the oversite concrete will be reasonably level, it
will not be perfectly flat.
Insulation Sheets of rigid reflective foil insulation are laid on top of the oversite concrete to improve the
thermal efficiency of the floor. The layer of insulation prevents heat from being absorbed into
the ground.
Screed Screed provides a perfectly level and flat surface to the solid floor. There are two different
types of screed that can be used, known as dry mix screed and liquid screed.
Dry mix screed is made of 1 part cement and 3 parts sand with a small amount of water to
bond them together. The dry mix screed is laid by hand with a towel and a straight edge to
make sure that it is flat and level.
Liquid screed is a watery cement-based product that is pumped through pipes to the areas
where it is needed. Just like water, the liquid screed is self-levelling and fills any air pockets
that could be left if using with the dry mix screed instead.
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INDUSTRY TIP IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Use the internet to look at videos of liquid screed and dry mix screed being
Underfloor heating is installed. Write a short paragraph about the benefits of each method.
more energy efficient than
radiators because it heats
an entire room from the floor. Components of timber floors
Underfloor heating is usually The main building resources used to construct timber ground floors and upper
created by laying hot water
floors are described in Table 1.9.
pipes on top of the insulation.
When the water is pumped
q Table 1.9 Main building materials used to construct timber ground floors and upper floors
through the pipes it heats the
floor above. Material Description
Oversite concrete Oversite concrete is the solid base that is constructed
under the footprint of a building. It provides a foundation
KEY TERM for the sleeper walls, prevents weed growth and stops
moisture entering the building.
Footprint: the area of
Sleeper walls (also referred to as Sleeper walls are low height walls built underneath timber
ground that a building is
honeycomb walls) suspended ground floors to support the joists mid-span.
constructed on. The bricks in these walls are arranged so that they have
spaces between them to allow air to flow through the
void under the floor.
Wall plates Wall plates are fixed to the top of the sleeper walls to help
spread the weight of the joists evenly across them. Wall
plates are made of timber; therefore, the joists can easily
be nailed to them to secure them in position.
Damp-proof course (DPC) A damp-proof course is laid between the top of the
sleeper walls and the underside of the wall plates. The
DPC protects the timber wall plates and floor joists from
moisture being drawn up from the ground through the
walls.
Joists Joists are the structural timber beams that ground floors
and upper floors are built on. They can either be solid
timber or manufactured engineered beams. The joists
are usually spaced out between 400 mm and 600 mm,
to suit the size of the floor covering and plasterboard
below.
Insulation Mineral wood insulation is commonly used to insulate
between floor joists to improve the floor’s thermal
efficiency. Suspended floors can also be insulated to
reduce sound passing through them and to protect them
from fire.
Floor covering Narrow softwood boards were commonly used to cover
floor joists; however, these can be expensive and time-
consuming to fit. Nowadays large chipboard sheets
are used to create floors. The chipboard edges are
profiled with a tongue and groove that allow them to be
connected together to create a strong joint.
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6 CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS
The timber framework of roofs is usually constructed by site carpenters before
roofers weatherproof it with felt, slates and tiles to keep the building dry. This
section looks at basic roof shapes and the components of a roof. Some basic
maths is used to calculate the materials needed for some roof components. As you
progress through your training as a carpenter or joiner, you will learn more about
roofs and how to build them.
Types of roofs
A roof is used to keep a building dry. It is also designed to keep us warm in the
winter and cool in the summer. So why are roofs different shapes? Usually this is
down to the cost of constructing them and the design of the building.
Flat roofs
The simplest and most cost-efficient roof is a flat roof. Despite the name, flat roofs
have a slope, known as a fall, to allow water to run off the roof surface into the
guttering and the drainage system below. The maximum pitch of a flat roof is 10°;
if the angle of the roof is greater than this it then becomes a ‘pitched roof’. Flat
roofs cannot be tiled or covered in slates because the pitch is too low. Therefore,
they are protected from the elements with one of the following materials:
l bitumen felt
l lead p Figure 1.32 Flat roof
l copper
l zinc KEY TERM
l rubber (Ethylene Polypropylene Diene Monomer – EPDM) Pitch: describes an angle
l fibre glass or slope. The term is
l green flat roof. often used by carpenters
and joiners when
Bitumen felt is mostly used for sheds and outbuildings because it is cheap and not referring to roofs and
as durable as alternative products, though it needs regular maintenance to prevent stairs.
leaks. Lead and copper coverings can last hundreds of years, but these materials are Listed building: an old
expensive and highly skilled craftsmen are required to install them. These materials structure that has special
are now generally used to maintain older historical structures, such as churches architectural or historical
interest. When a building
and listed buildings.
or structure becomes
EPDM is a modern alternative flat roof covering to bitumen felt. The rubber is listed it is registered
supplied on a roll, cut to length with a craft knife and glued to the sheet materials on the British Listed
(known as decking) underneath it. A flat roof covered with EPDM has an expected Buildings database,
whose purpose is to
lifespan of over 50 years. protect and maintain
Fibreglass roofs are extremely strong, but the materials are more expensive than buildings for future
the EPDM and their expected lifespan is substantially shorter. generations. It is a
criminal offence to carry
Zinc is a lightweight metal that is resistant to corrosion, making it ideal for flat and out any work on the
pitched roof coverings. It is a malleable (soft) metal that is fitted to roof structures inside or outside of a
in sheet form because it can be easily shaped, curved and cut to fit. Zinc has the listed building without
the consent of the local
added benefits of having a long lifespan, being entirely recyclable and using less
planning office.
energy to produce compared with other roof materials.
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A green flat roof is a living roof, consisting of a layer of vegetation planted over a
waterproofing membrane below. There are many environmental benefits of using a
green roof, including absorbing pollution and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A
green roof also has the added benefit of regulating the temperature of a building by
keeping it cool in the summer months and warm in the winter.
Pitched roofs
A basic pitched roof has a single slope above 10° on one face. This is known as a
KEY TERM
mono-pitch, or a lean-to if it is against an existing building. Where the width
Rafters: the main or span of a building is too great, it may be more economical to divide the roof
structural timbers in a
with two pitches known as a double roof. As the length of the rafters for a roof
roof; they are used to
support the roof covering. increase to suit longer spans, the size of the timbers also must increase, or the
roof must be supported with heavy timber or steels known as purlins.
A building that has an external end wall that extends to the top (apex) of the
roof is known as a gable-ended roof. This type of roofs is often used because it is
simple and quick to erect.
p Figure 1.33 Gable-ended roof p Figure 1.34 Lean-to (left) and mono-pitch (right) roofs
Where a building changes direction on plan (the view from above), the surfaces
of a pitched roof will meet on the inside to form a valley and on the outside to
form a hip. Hip and valley roofs are more complex to construct and therefore more
expensive; however, they do add character to a building to make it more desirable.
Valley
Pitched Eyebrow Hip
p Figure 1.35 ‘Hip and valley’ roof
Some roofs have loft spaces big enough to create additional rooms, providing they
are constructed to Building Regulations, and sometimes with permission from
Flat Segmental
the local authority. Roof windows can be installed between the rafters to provide
p Figure 1.36 Dormer roofs a source of natural light; dormers are a better option because they increase the
headroom.
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Components of roofs KEY TERM

Pitched roofs are traditionally built with pairs of rafters fixed to a wall plate and Wall plate: a length of
a central beam known as a ridge. This method of construction is known as a cut timber positioned on top
roof; it requires carpenters to cut and fix all the roof components on site by hand. of a structural wall so
Although this method is still used to build many roofs and is sometimes preferred that rafters and joists
used for a roof (or floor)
due to the complexity of a roof shape, most roofs are constructed with trusses.
can be nailed to it. Wall
Trusses are prefabricated sections of a roof made in a factory before they are plates provide a good
delivered and erected on site. This method requires less cutting on site and uses fixing point and help to
less timber, which means that trusses can be erected faster and more cheaply spread the weight of the
than cut roofs. roof evenly along the
length of the wall down
25 mm gap left above Node point to the foundations below.
these braces to clear Wall plates used for roofs
diagonal brace are secured to the wall
below with metal restraint
straps, also referred to as
wall plate straps.
p Figure 1.37 Trussed roof
Rafter
Purlin Ridge board
Hip rafter Slate

Cripple jack rafter
Valley rafter
Jack
rafter
Felt
Wall plate
Insulation INDUSTRY TIP
Tiling
batten
All the angles of lengths of
p Figure 1.38 A section through a roof timber needed to construct
a pitched roof can be found
These are some of the main components of a pitched roof. in a book or smartphone app
l Joists are used to create a level ceiling in a roof by spanning from one external known as a Roofing Ready
wall to another. Trusses already have joists built into them, while a cut roof will Reckoner. Once the first rafter
require them to be cut and fixed as the roof is constructed. The underside of has been marked out and cut,
this pattern rafter can then
ceiling joists is usually covered with plasterboard, to provide a smooth and level
be used to mark out further
surface to finish with plaster.
common rafters needed to
l Underlay covers the framework of the roof, under the tiles or slates, to provide build a basic roof.
a second barrier to prevent moisture entering the building. The underlay used
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on pitched roofs is known as a breathable membrane or semi-permeable

membrane. This means that it will ventilate the roof space to prevent the roof
timbers from rotting.
l Timber roof battens, also known as laths, should be evenly spaced and nailed
over the entire roof surface on top of the breathable membrane at right angles
to the rafters. The battens provide support and something to nail the tiles or
slates onto.
l Fascia is the wide board fixed to the rafter feet (known as the ‘eaves’) that
continues around the perimeter of the roof. It is used to protect the lower part
of the roof from the weather and to prevent water penetrating into the building.
The fascia is also used to fix the brackets to secure the guttering.
l Soffits are boards used to finish the eaves on a roof, by allowing the rafters to
project over the external wall and covering the underside of the eaves with a
soffit. Fascia and soffits can be made of timber; however, these require regular
maintenance to prevent them from rotting. Alternatively, low maintenance
KEY TERM plastic (uPVC) can be used.
Verge: the edge of a
l Undercloaking is the fibre cement board that is sometimes fixed to the
pitched roof on a gable underside of the overhanging roof battens along the verge on a roof. Its purpose
end. is to cover and protect the roof battens and also to support the mortar used to
fill the gaps under the slates or tiles to finish the verge.
l Barge board is the continuation of a fascia around the gable end of a roof.
HEALTH AND SAFETY l Slates can either be cut from natural rock from the ground or man-made from
Cement-based boards materials such as fibre cement to give the appearance of real slate at a cheaper
containing asbestos were price. Natural slate has a life expectancy of over 150 years and is often recycled
used for undercloaking from old properties and reused on new builds, therefore is a sustainable building
on roofs up until the year material.
2000, when their use was l Clay tiles have been used for roofs for thousands of years because they
completely banned.
are strong, durable and fire-resistant. Concrete tiles are also available in a
You must make sure
variety of colours and shapes that often replicate natural clay tiles. Both
that an asbestos survey
and risk assessment has types of tiles have a similar life expectancy; the cheaper concrete tiles are less
been carried out on any sustainable, because of the amount of pollution that is produced when they are
buildings constructed manufactured.
before the year 2000 l Shingles are a lightweight, cheaper alternative to traditional tiles, although
before you undertake any they are rarely used in the UK for domestic houses because of the wet climate.
work on them.
Shingles are flat and either square, rectangular or hexagonal in shape, and they
are made from asphalt felt, cedar (wood) or metal.
l Thatch is a natural and sustainable building material that is used to
ACTIVITY weatherproof and insulate a building. Water reed, rushes or straw are typically
Use the internet to used. The dried, tightly packed dense thatch is laid by a skilled tradesman
research other sustainable known as a thatcher. A well-maintained thatched roof could last up to 40 years,
materials that can be used
to cover a pitched roof.
depending on the type of thatch used, the geographical location of the property
and any damage from vermin and birds.
Modern construction methods

This chapter has looked at methods of constructing low, medium and high-rise
buildings, the benefits of using different materials and the impact that these
materials have on the environment.
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Modern construction methods have been developed in recent years to reduce

the amount of construction that takes place on site. These new methods, which
are more efficient and increase productivity, include the use of prefabricated,
sectional and modular parts manufactured in controlled factory environments.
Manufacturing offsite reduces the amount of time spent on site by skilled
tradesmen, improves the quality and the standard of work, and reduces the overall
building costs.
Some common modern methods of construction are:
l prefabrication, where building components or sections are manufactured in
a factory, delivered to the construction site and assembled (for example, roof
trusses)
l sectional/pods, where sections of a building are constructed offsite (for
example, en-suites and kitchens)
l modular, where buildings or homes are constructed in factories and fully fitted
out with internal fixtures and fittings such as kitchens and bathrooms.
Calculating the linear quantity of fascia

board
Carpenters and joiners calculate sizes, costs, materials and time routinely as part
of their work. It is important that you can complete these tasks accurately. In this
section you will learn how to calculate the lengths of fascia board or soffit needed
for a given task.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Metres (m) and millimetres (mm) are the metric units of measurement used in the
construction industry in the United Kingdom.
(Note: although you may have used centimetres (cm) in maths lessons at school,
you should avoid using centimetres in your work as a carpenter or joiner to
avoid causing confusion, as this can lead to mistakes being made.)
Remember:
l 1 metre equals 1000 millimetres (1 m = 1000 mm)
l 1 centimetre equals 10 millimetres (1 cm = 10 mm).
Imperial units of measurement were used in the UK until 1971, but today there
are only three countries in the world that mostly use them: the USA, Liberia and ACTIVITY
Myanmar in South East Asia. Find out which metric
1 inch equals 25.4 millimetres (1˝ = 25.4 mm). units are used to measure
1 foot or 12 inches equals 304.8 millimetres (1ft or 12˝ = 304.8 mm). liquids and weight.
Linear measurement
It is not always practical to obtain the exact lengths of materials required for tasks
such as installing skirting, flooring or fascia. Therefore, the total amount (known
as the ‘linear measurement’) is calculated. To put this into practice, the following
house shapes are used as examples of how to calculate the linear amount of fascia
board needed.
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Example 1
8m
5.5 m
New fascia boards are required for a building that measures 8 m long by 5.5 m
wide. The linear amount of fascia board needed is the same length as the total
perimeter of the building. The perimeter is calculated by adding together all the
lengths of the sides of the building:
2 sides × 8 m long = 16 metres
2 sides × 5.5 m long = 11 metres
16 + 11 = 27 m
The perimeter of the building is 27 m, therefore the total amount of fascia board
required is 27 m.
Example 2
6.2 m (A)
? (B)
9 m (F) 12 m (C)
6.2 m (D)
? (E)
Replacement soffits are required for the building illustrated above. To calculate
the linear amount of material needed to complete the task, you should find the
perimeter of the building by adding together all the lengths of the external sides:
Side A = 6.2 m
Side B = 9 m (F) – 6.2 m (D) = 2.8 m
Side C = 12 m
Side D = 6.2 m
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Side E = 6.2 m (A) + 12 m (C) = 18.2 m
Side F = 9 m
Amount of material needed = A + B + C + D + E + F
= 6.2 + 2.8 + 12 + 6.2 + 18.2 + 9 = 54.4
The perimeter of the building is 54.4 m; therefore, 54.4 m of soffit is required for
the building.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Calculate how many linear metres of fascia are required for the building shown
in the illustration below.
5.5 m (A) 5.5 m (E)
5.6 m (D)
5.6 m (B)
11.2 m (H)
? (C)
? (F)
18 m (G)
Percentages
The amount of fascia board that should be ordered for the previous two examples
is slightly more than calculated, to allow for the joints to be cut on the corners
and to extend them in length (lengthening joints). It would also avoid the need
to use short off-cuts of timber to make up the full lengths required. Usually you
add between 5% and 10% of extra material to the total amount calculated; this is
referred to as the ‘waste’.
There are several ways of calculating a percentage of waste. Four examples are
given below.
Example 1
To calculate 10% of 27 m, you could divide 27 by 10, which would give you the
answer of 2.7 m. Although this is a simple method, it would not work for figures
other than 10%.
27 ÷ 10 = 2.7 m
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Example 2
To calculate 5 % of 72 m, you can divide the whole number (72) by 100 to
calculate 1% and then multiply that by the percentage you are trying to work out;
in this case 5%.
72 ÷ 100 = 0.72 (1 % of 72 m)
0.72 × 5 = 3.6 m
Example 3
Percentages can also be calculated by multiplying them as a decimal by the whole
number.
To calculate the answer to the question 7% of 39 m, you need to know that 7% as
a decimal is 0.07. Therefore:
0.07 × 39 = 2.73 m
Example 4
Multiply the total amount of material required by the total percentage of the linear
length (100%) plus the percentage of the amount of waste to be added on (9%).
For example, if 200 m of fascia has been measured and an allowance of 9% waste
is needed:
200 m × 1.09 m = 218 m of fascia is required including the wastage.
INDUSTRY TIP Paint systems for timber

Most timbers that are left untreated with preservative, paint or wood stain will
When painting with a brush,
decay over time if left exposed to the elements. Fascia, soffits and barge boards
you should always apply
the paint with strokes in on a roof are good examples of where timber is especially exposed to the weather.
the direction of the grain to However, if they are prepared correctly and maintained they should last for many
achieve a professional finish. years.
Paint is usually applied with a brush or roller on construction sites, although these
methods will leave brush marks and a slightly textured finish. Alternatively, the
HEALTH AND SAFETY paint can be sprayed onto timber to give it a perfectly smooth finish. This method
Make sure that you have is normally used for high-class joinery, where the paint can be applied in a spray
read and understood your
employer’s risk assessment
booth with extraction to safely remove the paint mist from the air.
for working at height Approximately 80% of all paints used in the construction industry are water-based,
before carrying out any with the remaining paints being solvent-based. Solvent-based paints are extremely
work where there is a risk
durable and give a better appearance than water-based paints; however, they can
of falling. Working at height
should be a last resort take between 16 to 24 hours to dry and the brushes used must be cleaned with
after all other options have white spirit. The process of making and disposing of paints containing solvents is
been considered to avoid harmful to the environment, so water-based paints are now preferred. In the right
the hazard. See Chapter conditions, water-based paint dries quicker and the equipment used to apply it can
6 for more information on be easily cleaned with water. It also does not smell as offensive as solvent-based
risk assessments.
paints.
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The following list is a step-by-step guide to preparing bare timber to receive a

painted finish.
IMPROVE
YOUR ENGLISH
1 The process for painting some species of timber may be slightly different than Write a short sentence to
for others. The first stage for painting redwood (which is a softwood) is to apply explain the word ‘liberal’
several coats of clear preservative with a brush, roller or spray. It is important as used in step 1.
that the preservative soaks deep into the grain of the timber. You should wait
for each coat of preservative to dry fully before applying further liberal coats.
This stage is only necessary if the joinery is going to be used externally, such as KEY TERMS
for doors and windows.
Touch dry: a surface that
2 After redwood has been painted, the knots can progressively start to show has not fully hardened,
through the painted finish long after it has dried. To avoid the process of such as paint, but has
knots ‘burning’ through the paint, all the knots need to be brushed with a formed a thin dry layer,
substance known as ‘knotting’. The first coat of knotting will be touch dry in referred to as a ‘skin’.
5–10 minutes, although if a further coat is required you should wait at least 30 Timber that is touch dry
can usually be handled
minutes before painting.
with care; soft paint can
3 To achieve a good quality finish, bare timber should be coated with ‘primer’ easily get damaged if it
to seal the grain and allow further coats of paint to stick. Once the first coat is not stored and moved
of primer has dried, it can be lightly sanded to achieve a smooth finish with correctly.
abrasive paper and dusted off, before applying a second coat. Abrasive: having a rough
(Note: if the timber has previously been painted it does not need to be surface that will rub away
repainted with primer. You should start at step 4.) at another surface.
4 Lightly sand the surface of the timber and remove any dust particles with a Dusting brush: a small
dusting brush or vacuum. hand brush used by
painters and decorators,
5 The timber is now ready to receive one layer of undercoat paint, which you
to prepare surfaces to be
can apply with a brush, roller or spray. The undercoat prepares the surface for painted by removing any
the final topcoat of paint and protects it from moisture. If the timber has been loose dirt and dust.
previously painted, it should be sanded and repainted with undercoat so that
the topcoat will adhere to the paint underneath. White primer/undercoat can be
used as base layer before applying a final coat of paint. Grey primer/undercoat INDUSTRY TIP
is preferred to white if the topcoat is a dark colour, as a white base layer may
show (‘grin’) through the finished coat of paint. Paint colours are usually
6 Lightly sand the surface of the timber and dust it off. It is now ready to receive standardised and referenced
the topcoat of paint. The final coat will determine the colour and finish. from either ‘British Standards
You should refer to the specification for this information. In addition to the BS4800’ or ‘RAL’ colour
colour, the specification will also suggest one of the following finishes: matt, charts. For example, 20 E 56 is
a shade of blue on the British
satinwood, eggshell or gloss.
Standards colour chart and
It is easier to apply preservative and several coats of primer and undercoat to RAL 2005 is luminous orange.
all the faces of fascia, soffits and barge board before cutting it and fixing it. Any Use the following links to view
cut ends must be treated before fixing in position to prevent the exposed grain the extensive range of British
soaking up moisture and rotting. Standard and RAL colours
available:
Avoid using paint straight from the tin with a brush, as this will result in a build-up
www.britishstandardcolour.
of dry paint forming around the top and make it difficult to seal it after use. It is com
better to pour some of the paint into a small pot known as a ‘kettle’ and top it up www.ralcolor.com
when needed.
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ACTIVITY
Prepare and finish a piece of bare timber for external use in a colour of your
choice, following the step-by-step process on page 47.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Calculate how much it would cost for one litre of primer, undercoat and gloss
required to paint a length of fascia and soffit. The supplier is offering a 5%
discount on painting and decorating materials this month. What is the total cost
of the paint after the 5% discount has been applied?
7 HOW TO COMMUNICATE IN
THE WORKPLACE
Good communication between people with different job roles in the workplace
HEALTH AND SAFETY plays a particularly important part in the success of any building project. If people
Mobile phones are do not communicate effectively then information is not passed from one person to
an excellent way of
other, which could cause delays and missed deadlines.
communicating with
other people on different We can communicate with each other without saying a word, just from our body
platforms, but they language or with the use of hand signals. Signalling is often used by workmen, for
should not be used for example, to direct construction site traffic and cranes in the workplace. Although
personal calls or contact
during working hours.
these are effective methods, they are not suitable for communicating technical
Mobile phones could be information and they are usually one-way only. Verbal communication is quick,
a distraction for yourself easy and often used, but can be forgotten and misinterpreted. Written information
and others that could and drawings can be clear and effective ways to share building information; they
result in an accident or can also be referred to later if needed.
near miss so should only
be used carefully and This section looks at the various job roles within construction, methods of
when necessary. communication and how to record verbal messages.
Job roles within construction

Everyone involved in a construction project is part of the building team. The most
important person in the building team is the client: without them, there is no
project or money to fund it. The building team consists of various professionals,
technicians, trades people and general operatives. Table 1.10 provides an overview
of the building team and their roles within it.
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q Table 1.10 Overview of the building team and their roles

The building team
Category Role Description
Customer Client A client could be an individual or an organisation. They usually start a building project with an idea,
referred to as a concept, and appoint an architect to produce technical drawings. Most building
projects require sets of plans to be sent to the local authority for planning permission before any
building work can begin. The client is usually responsible for funding the construction project.
Professional Architect Architects are normally appointed by clients to produce technical drawings for a construction project;
they may also provide advice and guidance for them through the building work. They are known as
professionals because they have achieved degree-level qualifications to enable them to perform their
job.
Structural Structural engineers design the strength and stability of buildings and structures, such as bridges and
engineer tunnels.
Building Building control is a department within the local authority responsible for granting permission and
control overseeing construction work to protect people’s health and safety. It is also responsible to enforcing
inspector Building Regulations.
Quantity Quantity surveyors are sometimes appointed by the client to calculate the costs of the building work
surveyor and control the budget.
Civil Civil engineers are similar in many ways to architects. Rather than designing buildings, they plan
engineer roads, bridges, railways and airports.
Construction Construction managers help to prepare the schedule for a building project and oversee the day-to-day
manager running of the site, to make sure that it finishes by the deadline and on budget.
Clerk of The clerk of works represents the client on construction sites to monitor the quality of the work, and
works to make sure that building plans and specifications are followed correctly.
Supervisor If a building project is large enough, there may be supervisors for each trade to oversee the quality of
working as it is completed.
Surveyor Surveyors are responsible for measuring and marking out levels and boundaries on a building plot.
Technician Estimator Estimators are sometimes employed by building contractors and joinery businesses. Their role is to
study plans and specifications sent by the client. They will research building materials, equipment
and labour costs to calculate how much a project is likely to cost. They are then responsible for
returning the estimated costs to the client before any building work starts.
Plant Plant technicians service and maintain construction plant and machinery.
technician
Buyer Buyers are usually employed by the building contractor to source and purchase building materials for
the best price.
Trades- Carpenter Carpenters build, install and fix carpentry work on site such as floors, roofs, doors, kitchens and staircases.
person Joiner Joiners are mainly based in a joinery workshop making staircases, windows, doors and frames. They
sometimes install purpose-made items they have built on construction sites.
Plumber/ Plumbers are responsible for installing and fixing plumbing such as boilers, radiators, underfloor
heating heating systems and bathrooms.
engineer
Electrician Electricians install and fix electrical work, such as fuse boards, lighting, sockets and switches.
Plasterer Plasterers apply surface finishes, such as cement render and gypsum plaster, to ceilings and walls
(internal and external).
Bricklayer Bricklayers lay masonry bricks and blocks to build internal and external walls, columns and archways.
Roofer Roofers cover flat and pitched roofs with felt, roof battens, slates and tiles to make buildings waterproof.
Painter and Painters and decorators apply paints, lacquers and stains to walls, ceilings and woodwork. They also
decorator hang wallpaper.
Plant Plant operators use heavy machinery and industrial vehicles to dig, lift and move materials. Forklifts,
operator bulldozers, dumper trucks and cranes are some examples of ‘plant’ used in the construction industry.
➜
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The building team

Category Role Description
General Labourer Labourers are not required to have specific trade qualifications; they should have a good knowledge
building of health and safety. A labourer’s role is to work closely with tradesmen to complete manual tasks,
operative such as mixing concrete and mortar, moving materials and cleaning up.
KEY TERM Clear and effective communication

Plant: a piece of heavy Communication between colleagues and others in the workplace is vital to
machinery or equipment, maintain a safe working environment and avoid errors. In the construction industry
or a construction vehicle, tradespeople, supervisors and managers work closely together every day. To
such as a dumper truck, do this effectively, they need good working relationships to avoid mistakes and
crane or generator.
confrontation. To keep people informed about developments and progress during a
construction project, site meetings are usually held daily with representatives from
the management team, supervisors and sometimes the client and designers (such
INDUSTRY TIP as the architect). On smaller projects, you may be part of a smaller team, but you
may still have regular meetings, although these may be less formal.
Supervisors are usually
experienced tradespeople
who have been promoted Positive and negative communication with colleagues
from within a company. If and others
you are looking to progress The way we communicate information can have either a positive or negative effect
your career in the future, this on people. Positive communication between managers and workers often makes
could be a route that you workers feel happier and more productive. Negative communication can have the
could consider.
opposite effect. The way that you dress, sit and speak can be interpreted by someone
as either negative or positive. For example, when you go for a job interview you will
want to impress, so you will dress smartly, carry yourself well and speak clearly.
Below are examples of how positive and negative communication can affect the
workforce.
Positive communication in the workplace can:
l prevent accidents and near misses l make you seem friendly and
ACTIVITY l improve motivation approachable
Make a list of all the l improve customer service l encourage helpfulness
positive communication
skills you have and any
l avoid conflict l prevent and avoid errors
communication skills l increase confidence l improve efficiency and productivity
that you think you could l boost morale l break down barriers
improve. l help build relationships and a l build a pleasant working
strong team environment.
Negative communication in the workplace can:
l reduce productivity
l cause mistakes
l damage morale
l cause conflict and confrontation
l cause stress, leading to illness and staff absences
l increase the turnover of staff
l cause an unpleasant working environment.
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Everybody in the workplace should be treated fairly, with respect and be given the
same opportunities. Excluding or discriminating against people because of their
race, gender, religion or sexuality should not be tolerated and is against the law ACTIVITY
(see the Equality Act 2010). Research the Equality
Act 2010 and familiarise
If you feel that you or anyone else is being discriminated against in the workplace yourself with the main
or anywhere else you must tell someone, such as your parents, guardian, carer, points of the law.
support worker, friends, tutor or teacher.
Communication methods used to pass on information

to colleagues
Many different forms of communication are used in the construction industry. You
may be familiar with some of the methods outlined in Table 1.11.
q Table 1.11 Communication methods used in the construction industry
Communication
method Description
Drawing A drawing could be anything from a simple sketch to a full set of plans produced on a computer by an
architect, engineer or designer. Drawings are an excellent way of communicating information quickly and
clearly, and they can also be referred to later.
Joiners may refer to building drawings to produce full size setting out rods, while carpenters will refer to
them at various stages of a building project on a construction site.
Most technical drawings are made on a computer programme known as computer-aided design (CAD)
because they are more accurate than drawings that are produced with a pencil and paper. CAD drawings
are simple to store on a computer and amend. They can also easily be duplicated to share with other
people.
Email Professional people communicate information, such as drawings, quotations and invoices, via email.
Memo A memo (short for ‘memorandum’) is a short written message, normally used to communicate information
within a business or organisation. Memos are often sent as reminders to individual people or groups.
Radio Radios/walkie talkies (also referred to as ‘two-way radios’) are often used on construction sites to
communicate brief information verbally between the workers, supervisors, managers and security staff.
Calls can be made quickly on these mobile devices because you do not have to dial a number; they
transmit directly to each other. You also do not need a phone signal for them to work, so they can be used
in remote locations.
Signs Safety signs, posters and notices are important ways to communicate health, safety and welfare
information to workers and visitors to the workplace.
The main types of safety sign are:
l mandatory (things you must do)
l prohibition (things you must not do)
l warning
l safe conditions (such as first aid)
l fire (such as fire extinguishers).
Safety signs are identified by their shape, colour and pictogram (symbol or picture to represent something).
Some signs and notices must be legally displayed in the workplace, whereas others provide useful
information. The disadvantage of this method of communicating is that it may be ignored.
Telephone/mobile Phones are an excellent way of communicating verbal information quickly in the workplace. Mobile phones
phone need to be charged and have a good signal to work effectively.
Text messages/ Social media is often used by employers to advertise and promote their company to a wide audience. It is
social media also used to network with other businesses and recruit new staff. However, text messages are used as a
quick informal method of writing a brief message to one or more people.
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q Table 1.11 Communication methods used in the construction industry (continue)

Communication
method Description
Verbal Most people communicate verbally every day without thinking about it. When we use this method to pass
information from one person to another, it can be questioned to make sure that it is understood by both
parties. The disadvantage of verbally communicating with people is that there is no record to refer to,
which can often lead to misunderstandings, mistakes or conflict.
Written Written information is an excellent method of communicating because it can easily be understood by
everyone and can be referred to later. Examples of written information used to communicate with others
in the construction industry are given earlier in this chapter. Risk assessments, contracts, site rules and
maintenance records are just some examples of written information that legally must be recorded.
KEY TERM Information to record when taking a message

Networking: professional
There will be occasions when you need to take a verbal message at work and pass
people interacting with that information on to a colleague. It could, for example, be a phone call from a
each other to exchange client, an architect, a timber supplier or a manager, so you need to be prepared
information and create and act responsibly. It can be overwhelming at first for a young or inexperienced
new contacts. person to take a verbal message at work; however, the more you do it the more
confident you will become. On most occasions, all you need to do is speak clearly
and professionally and record the message. Remember that you are representing
ACTIVITY the company.
The next time you are
at work or your training To begin with, answer the phone call with a greeting such as ‘good morning’ or
centre, look around your ‘good afternoon’, and then introduce yourself and the company that you work
workshop to see how for. You may then ask the person calling, ‘How can I help?’. Sometimes you or the
many different methods person calling may be in a noisy environment, so if you do not clearly hear the
of communication are message then politely ask them to repeat it. Whenever possible, you should always
displayed. Are you
familiar will all the safety
record the following details from a phone call:
signs? If not, take a picture l date
of those you do not l time
know and research their
l the name of the person for whom the message is intended
meaning.
l the name of the caller
l the name of the person that received the phone call
l a contact phone number
l message content.
If messages are not recorded legibly and accurately, they could easily be forgotten
or misunderstood, which may lead to people not receiving important information
at the right time.
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Test your knowledge

1 Draw the symbols/hatching to represent the following building
components.
a Brickwork
b Blockwork
c Sawn timber
d Insulation
2 Explain the purpose of a programme of work.
3 Name four different types of foundations.
4 What is the maximum pitch of a flat roof?
5 What is the name of the component in a wall used to support brickwork
and blockwork above a door or window opening?
6 Why is the client the most important person in the building team?
7 What is the name of the product used to stop knots from ‘burning’
through the completed paintwork?
8 Name one situation where a carpenter or joiner might use a datum.
9 Why is it important to insulate a building?
10 What information is needed when you are recording a message?
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CHAPTER 2
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY HAND TOOLS
INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of hand tools are available for use in carpentry and joinery. Most are used for specific tasks, but
some can be used for many different tasks. Choosing which hand tool to use for a specific task can at first be
confusing and daunting, as can be understanding how to correctly use your chosen hand tool.
This chapter discusses the most common types of hand tool in use today, as well as some of the more
traditional types. It will discuss how to safely use the hand tools, along with the type of tasks they are typically
used for. As most hand tools require maintenance, a description of the equipment used and methods of
sharpening and maintaining hand tools are also included.
Hand tools can be expensive but could last you for a lifetime if they are well maintained and stored safely. Not
only will this save you money in the long term, but it will also ensure you to have well-maintained sharp tools
whenever they are required. It also shows that you are a careful and conscientious professional.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn about:
1 types of modern and traditional hand tools
2 how to safely use, sharpen and maintain hand tools
3 how to safely store and transport hand tools.
1 TYPES OF MODERN AND

TRADITIONAL HAND TOOLS
Most types of hand tools have not changed much over the last 100 years or more,
though different materials are now used to make them. Timber, for example,
was originally used in the handles for saws and chisels, but this has largely been
replaced by plastic, which makes these hand tools cheaper to purchase without
affecting their use. The material used for the cutting edge of a tool has progressed,
resulting in better-quality modern tools that achieve and maintain a cutting edge
for longer. Whether you are using old or new hand tools, the same rule applies:
blunt, damaged and poorly maintained hand tools are more dangerous than sharp
well-maintained hand tools. Using the correct sharp and well-maintained hand tool
will allow you to work safer, faster and to a higher standard.
Using hand tools can be dangerous so it is vitally important that you always follow
safe practices. A culture of safety first is not an option but a legal requirement; this
not only ensures the safety of yourself but others around you. Lack of time is not
an excuse for poor safety practices.
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Chapter 2 Carpentry and joinery hand tools
HEALTH AND SAFETY

The following are general safety guidelines to observe when using hand tools and
are covered in more detail alongside the relevant hand tools in this chapter.
l Wear the correct type of PPE (personal protective equipment) for the task as
outlined in the risk assessment.
l Be aware of any loose clothing, jewellery or trailing earphone wires that could
be caught by the tool.
l Ensure the material is securely and appropriately held for the task.
l Always keep your hands, arms, and legs away from the cutting edges of the
tool.
l Always use the correct type of tool for the task. Doing otherwise could lead
to accidents.
l Never try to force a tool; if it will not move or cut easily there is usually a
good reason why.
l Never pass a tool to another person with the cutting edge first; pass them
the handle.
l Keep your work area safe, clean and tidy.
There are many different types and makes of hand tools. The better-quality tools
usually have brass inserts in them to help prevent wear and give an improved
appearance. Hand tools are commonly grouped into the following categories:
l measuring and levelling equipment
l hand tools used for marking out
l saws
l planes
l chisels and knives
l drills, drill bits and screwdrivers
l miscellaneous hand tools.
Measuring and levelling equipment

The task you are working on will determine which measuring and levelling
equipment you will require. A bench joiner would generally need slightly different
types and sizes of equipment to that used by a site carpenter. Typical examples of
measuring and levelling equipment that could be found in the tool kits of either
trade are given below.
Measuring tape
This is commonly referred to as a tape measure and is available in a range of
lengths from 2 m to 10 m. The longer versions can be quite bulky and are usually
Blade lock
used by carpenters. The end of the tape has a hook with a slight amount of
Blade consisting
movement backwards and forwards equal to the thickness of the hook. This of metric and
movement allows for the measurement of both internal and external distances. imperial
measurements
The hook may have large wings for hooking onto either side, the top or the bottom
of the material being measured. Some hooks have a slot in them, which is used
for attaching to a nail or screw head. The hook may also be magnetic to enable Wide hook
with slot
measurement from steel surfaces. It is important to ensure the hook end does not
become damaged or bent as this will affect the measuring tape’s accuracy. p Figure 2.1 A measuring tape
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p Figure 2.2 Using the hook of a tape measure
Figure 2.2 shows how the hook pushes in when measuring from an internal edge
(left) and pulls out to the correct position when measuring from the outer edge
(right).
Figure 2.3 shows how a nail or screw head can be used when no other surface is
available. The nail or screw is driven into the material. The head of the nail or screw
INDUSTRY TIPS is then located in the slot of the hook, which allows for an accurate measurement
to be made from this point.
Regularly check the end
hook of your tape measure to
ensure it moves freely and is
free from distortion.
Check your tape is measuring
correctly by measuring
200 mm from the end of a
piece of timber using the
hook and comparing this
measurement to the one
measured from the 100 mm
mark on your tape.
p Figure 2.3 Using a nail or screw p Figure 2.4 Working from the 100 mm mark on the tape
head with a tape measure
When you are setting out, or when you require an accurate measurement, it is best
practice to work from the 100 mm mark on the tape, as shown in Figure 2.4. Don’t
forget to subtract this 100 mm from the final measurement.
Laser distance measure

This type of measuring tool is used when increased distances are involved, though
it has a slight fall in accuracy over longer distance.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

p Figure 2.5 Laser distance Never shine a laser light at anyone’s eyes: it can cause serious damage.
measure
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Rules
A steel rule is an accurate means of both measuring and drawing straight lines over
shorter distances. They are available in lengths from 150 mm up to 2000 mm.
Scale rules are also available and are used to take measurements from scaled
drawings and to produce them. This can be an inaccurate way of taking a
measurement, particularly when working with larger scales, so all drawings should
have measurements on them. In the past, folding 1 m rules were commonly used
to take measurements. They are available in timber and plastic but are bulky to
carry and are now little used.
A steel rule is also useful when you need to divide material into equal parts. For
example, a tenon (piece of wood with a part sticking out which fits into a mortice
hole) needs to be divided into three equal parts, two parts for the tenon and one
part of the haunch. The total width of the tenon is 70 mm. The number 70 does
not easily divide equally into three, but 75 does (75 ÷ 3 = 25). Position the rule
on the edge of the tenon and angle the rule so that the 75 mm mark sits on the
0
20
0
19
other edge, as shown in Figure 2.6. You can now mark the one-third position,
0
18
0
17
25 mm, for the start of the tenon and the end of the haunch. Use this principle
0
16
0
with any easily divided measurement when you need to work out divisions.
15
0
14
0
13
0
12
0
11
0
10
90
80
70
60
70 mm
50
40
30
20
10
0
Haunch line
p Figure 2.6 Using a steel rule
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

A middle rail on a door measures 190 mm and needs to be divided into three
equal parts for the mortice and haunch positions. What would be one of the
easiest ways to divide it using the method shown in Figure 2.6?
Levels
There are several types of level in a range of sizes. The level is used to check an KEY TERMS
angle, usually the horizontal or the vertical. Some are also capable of reading any
angle, while others can transfer a datum line around a room by means of a laser. Horizontal: flat and level,
such as water would lay.
Spirit level Vertical: hanging straight
down, such as a weighted
The spirit level is used to measure an angle, usually one that is horizontal or vertical. plumb line would hang.
When the bubble is aligned within its marks in the siting chamber, the level will be
either horizontal or vertical depending on which set of marks are being used.
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INDUSTRY TIP
If spirit levels are not treated with care, they can easily become damaged and ‘out of level’,
which then gives false readings. A simple way to check the accuracy of a level is to place it
on a wall and mark a line along it when it is level. Then turn the level through 180° ‘end for
end’ and repeat the process. The newly marked line should match the first line. If it does
not match, then the level is damaged and should be replaced.
p Figure 2.7 Spirit level
Laser level
Laser levels are increasingly available at an affordable price and as a result are more
widely used in modern construction. Better-quality laser levels are self-levelling
and once set up they can transfer horizontal and vertical lines around a room and
over ever-increasing distances. They have multiple uses, but are often used to mark
p Figure 2.8 Laser level out the fixing positions of stud partitions, kitchens and dado rails.
Inclinometers
Inclinometers are like a traditional level but can read any angle. They are ideal for
obtaining angles and transferring laser-accurate angles over long distances.
Water levels
Water levels were once a common site in construction but now are infrequently
used. They consist of a graduated sight tube with an air vent that is attached to a
length of flexible pipe tubing. The tubing is filled with water so that the water level
p Figure 2.9 Inclinometer can be read off against the graduation marks on the site tubes.
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p Figure 2.10 Water level
Hand tools used for marking out

Marking-out tools are just as varied as most other types of tool and some can
perform multiple tasks. The most common marking-out tools you are likely to
require are set out below.
Set square and tee square

The set square and tee square are usually used in conjunction with a drawing
board. It is important to use squares when producing drawings or marking out
material to maintain accuracy and ensure that lines remain parallel. If the drawing p Figure 2.11 Set square (top)
or rod board is inaccurate the finished job could be inaccurate too. and tee square (bottom)
Combination square, try square and mitre square

Try squares allow you to mark a 90° angle and mitre squares are set at a 45° angle.
They have been replaced by the combination square, which has the added benefit
of an adjustable blade.
It is important that if the square is supposed to measure an angle of 90° that it
does so. You can easily check if your square is accurate as follows.
l Place the stock of the square against a straight edge of timber and draw a line
across the timber.
l Rotate the stock of the square through 180° and check the square against the
first line drawn.
l If the two positions line up, your square is true and produces accurate right angles. p Figure 2.12 Mitre square
ACTIVITY
Check the accuracy of your square using this method.
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p Figure 2.13 Combination square p Figure 2.14 Try square
Roofing square
A roofing square is used for larger setting out, roofing and staircase work. It can
also be used in conjunction with a batten that acts as a fence, which is particularly
useful when setting out stairs.
Box square
p Figure 2.15 Roofing square with Box squares are used to square around timber that has already been profiled (that
timber fence is, timber that has had the moulding and rebate machined into it). It is difficult to
accurately mark around profile material with a try square or combination square.
KEY TERM A simple box square could be little more than two pieces of timber fixed together
to form a right angle, or it could be a more complex version used to form angles,
Profiled: material which
such as when forming scribed mortice and tenon joints (a mitre template).
has had a decorative
edge added to one or
more sides. Sliding bevel
You can use the sliding bevel to measure and transfer an angle. First loosen the
blade, then set it to the required angle and tighten it. It is now possible to transfer
this angle to the required object without risking the angle being changed. Sliding
bevels are particularly useful with roofing work as well as producing dovetails.
p Figure 2.16 Elaborate box square incorporating a 45° angle p Figure 2.17 Sliding bevel
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Protractor
Use a protractor to measure an angle or read an angle from a drawing. The larger
the protractor, the easier it is to both read and measure the angle.
Compass
A compass is used mainly to produce smaller curves and radiuses. Better-quality p Figure 2.18 Protractor
compasses have a central wheel that enables easier adjustment and the
production of more accurate and stable curves.
Compasses and dividers can also be used to produce and bisect angles.
Examples of how to do this are given on pages 62–63.
Dividers
Dividers are used to accurately transfer dimensions from a drawing or
setting out rod onto the work piece. They are also used to divide up
distances equally or for scribing arcs onto material.
Trammel heads and beam p Figure 2.19 Compass p Figure 2.20 Dividers
Trammel heads are used to draw larger curves or step off multiple continuous
measurements. The trammel heads are joined with a suitable piece of timber,
called a beam, which is cut to the required length. Trammel heads can be fitted
with either a pencil or a metal point.
Pencils
The type and quality of pencil will affect the quality of the finished drawing or
setting out. The ‘lead’ in the pencil is graphite, which is a form of carbon. Because p Figure 2.21 Trammel heads and
carbon is soft and would easily smudge, the graphite in a pencil is hardened up. beam
The hardness of a pencil is given a code, the most common ranging from 4H,
which is extremely hard, to 4B, which is extremely soft. For general purpose
setting out, a 2H pencil is suitable. Rather than being circular in shape, carpenters’
pencils are flattened to prevent the pencil rolling, which is particularly useful
while working at height. These pencils have a much larger drawing surface area.
Carpenters’ pencils are used mainly for marking-out carpentry tasks such as in
roofing, flooring and studwork, which generally do not need the same degree of
accuracy as setting out a rod board. p Figure 2.22 Different grades of
pencil
Producing and bisecting angles with compasses and
dividers KEY TERMS
Good quality compasses and dividers are useful for producing and bisecting angles. Obtuse angle: an angle of
Most angles that you will work with will be either obtuse or acute angles. more than 90°, but less
than 180°.
The following step-by-step guides outline the stages in producing and bisecting
angles. Acute angle: an angle of
less than 90°.
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Producing a 90° angle

1 Draw a straight-line a–b and mark the position from
which you would like to strike a 90° angle point, c.
2 Open the compass to draw a large circle but not so wide
that it is fully open (the larger a circle that can be drawn,
the more accurate the 90° angle will be). Position the
point of the compass on point c. Make an arc on line a–b
either side of point c, marks 1a and 1b.
2b 3 Open the compass wider and position the point of the
2a
compass on mark 1a and draw arcs 2a and 3a.
4 Reposition the compass on mark 1b, ensuring that the
a
compass is not adjusted, and draw arcs 2b and 3b.
1a c 5 Draw a line through the intersecting points of 2a and 2b,
b
1b point c and the intersecting points of 3a and 3b. This line
3a is 90° to line a–b.
3b
p Figure 2.23 Producing a 90° angle Finding a 45° angle

To find 45°, bisect the right angle in the following way.
1 Position the point of the compass on the intersecting
points of 2a and 2b and draw arc 4a.
2 Position the compass point on the point of 1b and draw
arc 4b.
3 Draw a line from point c through the interception points
of 4a and 4b. This is 45° to line a–b.
This same principle can be used to find 22½°.
2a 2b e IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

4a
Using basic drawing equipment, produce an angle of
a 4b 22½° using the method outlined in this chapter.
1a c
b
1b Forming angles using a circle
d 3a
3b You can also form angles from a circle.
1 Form a circle as shown in Figure 2.25. The larger the circle,
p Figure 2.24 Finding a 45° angle
the easier it will be to draw and produce the different
angles and they will be more accurate.
2 Keeping the compass at the same radius used to produce
the circle, position the point of the compass on the edge
IMPROVE of the circle and draw arc 1a as shown in Figure 2.26.
YOUR MATHS 3 Position the point on 1a and draw arc 1b. Reposition
Using your compass, the compass point on 1b and draw arc 1c, and so on as
produce a 75 mm radius shown in Figure 2.26. The radius of the circle goes into the
circle and divide it into six circumference exactly six times. Each arc sector is equal
sectors. Identify the angles
to 60°.
of each sector.
4 By bisecting an arc sector, you can obtain angles of 15°,
45°, 22½° and other angles.
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1a
6 1
90°
90° 60° 30°
1b 15°
45°
Radius
5 2
4 3 1c
p Figure 2.25 Drawing a circle p Figure 2.26 The radius of the circle goes p Figure 2.27 Producing other angles
exactly six times into the circumference
Bisecting an angle KEY TERM

Any angle can be bisected by following this simple step-by-step guide.
Bisecting: dividing a line
1 Draw the angle to be bisected. or angle into two equal
2 Mark an even distance down each side of the angle with a compass to mark parts geometrically.
arcs 1a and 1b.
3 Position the point of the compass on point 1a and draw arc 2a.
4 Ensuring the compass is not adjusted, position the compass point on point 1b
and draw arc 2b.
5 Draw a line from the centre of the angle through the interception point of arcs
2a and 2b. This will be your bisection angle.
1a 1b
STEP 2 Using a compass, mark an even distance

STEP 1 Draw the angle to be bisected. down both sides of the angle to be bisected.
INDUSTRY TIP
1a 1b
This method is a particularly
useful for finding the cutting
2a 2b
angle when fixing skirting
STEP 3 Use the compass to draw arcs from the first STEP 4 Join the centre of the angle and the point boards.
two points, taking care not to alter the compass. where the arcs intersect. This is the bisection line.
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Marking gauge
A marking gauge can be used to provide a relatively simple way of producing
a parallel line. The marking gauge can be used for marking out joints, such as
halving joints and housings, as well as hinge recesses on doors and frames. Better-
quality gauges have brass inlays inserted into the stock to help prevent wear on
contact surfaces.
Pin Stock
Thumbscrew
Stem
p Figure 2.28 Marking gauge
Mortice gauge
This gauge is like the marking gauge but has two pins, one fixed and one adjustable.
It is mainly used for marking mortices (and tenons) but can be used to mark any
two parallel lines. Better-quality gauges are usually easier to adjust. Take care that
both pins on a mortice gauge remain at the same height after they are maintained,
otherwise the lines produced will not be of equal depth.
p Figure 2.29 Mortice gauge
INDUSTRY TIP
It is more accurate and productive to use gauges to mark out than it is to repeatedly
measure with a tape or rule.
Combination gauge
The combination gauge combines a marking gauge and mortice gauge; one side
has a single pin while the other side has two pins. This type of gauge eliminates
the need for you to have both a marking and mortice gauge. The combination
gauge shown in Figure 2.30 has a fine adjustment screw at the end of the stem
for adjusting the gap between the two pins. It is important that the points of the
p Figure 2.30 Combination gauge pins always remain sharp to provide accurate marking-out lines. If the points do
become blunt, sharpen them with a small needle file.
Cutting gauge
This type of gauge has a cutting knife instead of a pin. The cutting knife is held in
place with a wedge and can be changed around so that it marks either the waste
side towards the stock or the other side away from the stock. This type of gauge
produces clean lines across the grain of the timber. The knife severs the fibres of the
p Figure 2.31 Cutting gauge timber leaving a clean cut, whereas a pin would pull and damage the fibres, leaving
a poor finish. This type of gauge is particularly useful for marking out dovetails.
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2 HOW TO SAFELY USE, SHARPEN

AND MAINTAIN HAND TOOLS
How to use a mortice gauge to form a
mortice and tenon joint
The following guide outlines the process for setting up a mortice gauge to form a
simple square-shouldered mortice and tenon joint.
1 Select the required size of mortice chisel. This is usually as near as possible to
one-third of the thickness of the material that requires to be morticed.
2 Set the distance between the pins to the same width as the mortice chisel.
3 Adjust the stock so the mortice is in the centre of the material. To do this, first
mark small pin pricks from each side; when they fall into the same holes the
mortice is centralised.
4 Fully tighten the thumbscrew and recheck.
The pins of any gauge should always trail the direction of travel, like a trailer
following a car. If you push the gauge away from you, the pins will point towards
you while in use. If you pull the gauge towards you, the pins will point away from
you while you are moving the gauge.
When using the gauge, in whichever direction you choose, firmly hold the stock
against the timber being marked and slightly rotate the pins round and down onto
the surface of the material. They should be in contact with the surface of the ACTIVITY
material. As you move the gauge either towards or away from you, the trailing pins Set up and use a marking
leave slight tram lines in the material, which will be the location of the mortice or gauge to produce a 10 mm
tenon. Remember to start and stop between the lines marked for the mortice or wide mortice 12 mm from
the face edge.
tenon, as any overshoot will leave unsightly lines that will require removing at a
later stage.
p Figure 2.32 Setting the p Figure 2.33 Adjustting the stock so the mortice is in the p Figure 2.34 Starting at the
mortice gauge to the size of centre of the material mortice line gauge down the
the mortice chisel length of the mortice
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Hand-held saws
Though the design of hand-held saws has changed little over the years, new
materials and better production techniques have resulted in cheap, sharp saws.
Set These have the added benefit of specially hardened saw teeth, usually seen as a
black or dark blue line running along the saw teeth.
These hardened saws are generally known as hardpoint saws. The hardening effect
gives the saw teeth an extremely sharp and prolonged cutting life compared to
traditional handsaws, which require constant maintenance, particularly when used
on man-made or hard abrasive materials. On the downside, hard point saws cannot
be resharpened like traditional handsaws. So, when they become blunt, they are
thrown away.
Modern disposable hardpoint teeth saws are general purpose saws that are used to
Kerf
cut either with the grain (rip) or across the grain (crosscut) of the timber. They are
p Figure 2.35 Set and kerf of a also particularly good for cutting man-made materials such as plywood and MDF,
hand-held saw which would quickly blunt a traditional rip or crosscut hand-held saw.
Hand-held saws usually fall into one of the following categories:
l hardpoint saws
l ripsaws
l crosscut saws
l backed saws.
The cutting action of the various types of hand-held saw is different. When cutting
down the grain of timber (ripsaw), the saw teeth are filed and shaped to act as a
series of chisels, each cutting its own groove. When cutting across the grain of the
timber (crosscut saw), the teeth are filed and shaped to act as a series of scoring
knife cuts, which sever the fibres of the timber, producing a clean cut. The number
KEY TERMS of teeth in the hand-held saw also influences the way the timber is cut. A saw with
Set: a saw’s side fewer teeth will have larger teeth, allowing the saw to cut faster than one with
clearance. more smaller teeth. Large saw teeth usually produce a poorer finish.
Binding: when something
is prevented from moving Tooth profiles
freely, such as a door All saws need to have teeth that are sharp to be effective at cutting. The saw also
being prevented from
needs to have side clearance known as set, which stops the saw from binding in
opening fully because
it is binding against the the cut. The total width of the saw cut is known as the kerf and is equal to the
architrave, or the side thickness of the saw blade material plus the set on both sides of the blade.
of the saw sticking and Ripping: Cut
rubbing on the material Cutting with the grain
during the cutting
process.
Kerf: the total width of
the saw cut. 4½ teeth per 25 mm
90°
Chisel edges act

as a series of
chisel cuts
p Figure 2.36 Cutting action of ripsaw teeth
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Crosscutting:
Cutting across the grain
Cut
8 teeth per 25 mm
Knife points sever 65°
fibres to produce a
clean cut across grain
p Figure 2.37 Cutting action of crosscut saw teeth
90°
Flame tooth
profile showing kerf
60°
15°
Top fleam (bevel) is ACTIVITY

larger for softwood
Sketch the tooth profile of
than for hardwood
saw teeth for a hand-held
ripsaw and crosscut saw.
p Figure 2.38 Fleam cut tooth design
The fleam cut tooth design is a traditional design for a Japanese pull saw but is now
modified slightly and used on many hardpoint handsaws.
Hardpoint handsaws
There are many types and lengths of hardpoint handsaws, which are often referred
to as general purpose saws and panel saws. They are used for cutting with the
grain, across the grain of the timber, as well as man-made materials such as
plywood and MDF. Most hardpoint handsaws have a tooth profile based on the
Japanese fleam cut tooth profile; hardpoint teeth are triple-ground and have a fast-
cutting action.
As a rule, use a saw with a high tooth count per 25 mm for finer work and thinner
sheet materials, such as plywood and MDF. A handsaw with fewer teeth per 25 mm
is best used on thicker materials and tanalised (treated) timber. Most hardpoint
handsaws are protected by a low friction, rust-resistant PTFE coating, which makes
them ideal for use when working outdoors and with tanalised timber. Only fleam
cut tooth handsaws can cut on both the push and pull of the cut. They are available p Figure 2.39 Hardpoint saw with
in 500 mm or 550 mm lengths with a tooth count of 8–10 teeth per 25 mm. a plastic handle
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Ripsaw
This type of handsaw is not generally used today. The task of ripping timber down
its grain is usually more efficiently done by machine, either a portable powered
hand-held ripsaw or a fixed bed ripsaw machine. Ripsaws are the largest type of
handsaw used by carpenters and joiners. They are usually around 650–750 mm
long and have very few teeth compared to other types of handsaw, around 5 teeth
per 25 mm. Ripsaws cut on the downward stroke and have teeth that are filed
square to the face of the sawblade. The cutting action of each tooth is like a chisel
action, with each tooth removing a small channel in the timber.
60°
3–5 teeth per 25 mm

650–750 mm
p Figure 2.40 Hand-held ripsaw
Crosscut saw
The hand-held crosscut saw is more common than the ripsaw, but once again it
has largely been replaced by power tools and the hardpoint handsaw. The teeth
of a crosscut saw are smaller than the ripsaw, at about 6–8 teeth per 25 mm, and
are filed to give a fine edge to the teeth, allowing them to sever the fibres of the
timber. If the same tooth design were used as those used on ripsaw, the saw would
jump about during cutting and would tend to rip out the fibres of the timber, giving
INDUSTRY TIP a poor finish to the cut.
To help prevent the saw blade 6–8 teeth per 25 mm

from binding during cutting,
60°
a small amount of candle wax
can be rubbed onto the sides 600–650 mm
of a saw. p Figure 2.41 Hand-held crosscut saw
Backed handsaws
Backed handsaws have either a strip of steel (usually on cheaper versions) or brass
that runs along the top edge of the saw. This metal strip keeps the blade taut and
straight and adds weight to the saw. The best saws have a heavyweight brass back.
Backed saws are used for fine accurate cutting such as cutting joints and can be
used to cut both with and across the grain.
Tenon saw
The tenon saw is a versatile handsaw used to cut joints such as tenons, halving
joints, bridle joints and architrave. The tenon saw is available as a hardpoint saw as
well as the traditional version, which requires regular sharpening and setting. The
tenon saw usually has around 13 teeth per 25 mm and the teeth of non-hardpoint
p Figure 2.42 Hardpoint tenon saw versions are sharpened like crosscut teeth.
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Dovetail saw
The dovetail saw is a smaller version of the tenon saw and is used for finer work,
typically cutting dovetail joints. The dovetail saw has more teeth per 25 mm than
the tenon saw, at around 15 per 25 mm, and is generally shorter in length. Dovetail
saws can be easily damaged if used on work that is too large for them because of p Figure 2.43 Dovetail saw
their thin blades.
Gents saw
The gents saw is a finer version of a backed saw. It has a turned handle and often
finer teeth than a dovetail saw. It should only be used with fine delicate work to
prevent damaging the saw.
p Figure 2.44 Gents saw
Other types of hand-held saws

There are other types of hand-held saws that do not fall easily into any of the
other categories covered but are useful additions to the tool kit.
Coping saw
The coping saw is a type of framed saw which consists of a narrow blade, held
in tension within a steel frame. The coping saw is commonly used to remove the
waste material when cutting dovetail joints and bridle joints. It is also used to
cut scribed moulding profiles such as skirting board and dado rails, as well as for
general curved cutting. The size of the cut is limited by the size of its frame. The p Figure 2.45 Coping saw
tension on the blade should be released after use to prevent straining both the
blade and the frame.
There are two schools of thought as to which way around the blade should go
when fitting a coping saw blade. Some believe that the teeth should point away
from the handle, meaning that the cutting action takes place when the saw
is pushed, so that any splitting will occur at the back of the timber being cut.
However, cutting this way reduces the tension on the blade, increasing the chances
of the blade breaking, so other people believe that it is better for the teeth to face
towards the handle, ensuring the blade is in tension when cutting.
Mitre saw or frame saw

The mitre saw is a variation on the coping saw in that it has a blade held in tension
within a frame, but the blade is hardened and considerably deeper than the coping
saw. This type of saw is held in a framework that has pre-set angles set within the
base for standard angles. It can be used for cutting mitres but is of little practical
use in today’s construction industry, as these types of cut are usually carried out
using power tools. p Figure 2.46 Mitre saw
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Pad saw
Like a lot of traditional hand tools, the pad saw has generally fallen out of use
because the tasks it was traditionally used for are now mostly carried out using
power tools such as the jigsaw. The pad saw is still useful though, particularly when
forming key holes in doors that are required to be ‘key shaped’ and then usually
covered by an escutcheon, as well as for cutting or trimming plasterboard and
where holes are required. Pad saws have a retractable blade that can be adjusted to
p Figure 2.47 Pad saw suit the depth of the required task. These blades cut on the forward stroke and are
extremely easy to bend so great care is required when using them.
Japanese handsaw
The Japanese handsaw produces an exceptionally fine cut. The teeth on this
handsaw are fleam cut, having little to no set. They produce a clean cut, mostly on
the pull stroke, which keeps the thin blade in tension, allowing a straight cut. This
handsaw is used by the bench joiner in workshops where fine, accurate cutting is
required. Great care is required in both use and storage of this type of handsaw to
prevent it being damaged.
p Figure 2.48 Japanese handsaw
Maintaining handsaws
Very few carpenters and joiners sharpen their own saws, as this can be time-
consuming and difficult to do. When the saws become blunt, you can arrange
for them to be sent to a saw doctor for sharpening on a machine. This can be an
expensive process and will require that you have more than one saw of that type,
which is one reason why disposable saws are so popular. A good quality saw that
can be resharpened should last you for your working life if it is taken care of and
well maintained.
Process to follow when sharpening a handsaw

Place your saw in a suitable clamping device with the saw teeth facing upwards.
Ensure that the whole of the length of the saw blade is suitably clamped. You may
use lengths of timber to hold the blade, which in turn is clamped in a vice.
The following stages outline what you should do when sharpening a handsaw. Not
all of these processes are required every time the blade is maintained.
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Topping
This process is not always required but should be carried out after several
sharpening processes. The teeth of the saw are levelled using a large double cut flat
mill file. The file is run along the top of the teeth until all the teeth tops are level.
This process brings the high teeth into line with any lower teeth that may have
been filed too much in previous sharpening.
p Figure 2.49 Mill file
Shaping
This process is only done if the topping process has been carried out. Shaping
brings the teeth back to their correct shape and size using a saw file.
Setting
A saw set is used to bend each tooth alternately one way then the other, which
creates side clearance for the saw blade. The total width of the saw cut is called the
p Figure 2.50 Saw set
‘kerf’.
Sharpening
Use a triangle file to file the teeth so they have the correct shape and angles,
depending on the type of saw being sharpened. To make it easier to see which
teeth have been sharpened, engineering marking blue can be used on the saw
tips. This will clearly show which teeth have been sharpened and is particularly
useful with smaller teeth. The teeth of a ripsaw should be filed straight across,
perpendicular to the saw blade. Crosscut saw teeth should be filed at a 75° to 80°
angle to the saw body. Start filing the teeth that are set to the right, looking from
the handle end of the saw, and work from the left side of the saw. Then switch
sides and file the teeth that are set to the left.
Using handsaws
The way you use a handsaw will depend upon the type of handsaw it is and the
specific task you are doing. This is a general guide for the safe use of common p Figure 2.51 Triangular saw file
handsaws for everyday tasks.
If a handsaw slips or jumps out of its cut while in use, the resulting injury to your
hand or fingers could be very severe. Not only should you use the correct saw for
the task, but it should also be well maintained and sharp. Blunt saws generally
require more effort to use, so there is an increased risk that they will jump out of
the cut. Ensure that all materials are supported or held before trying to cut them.
This reduces the likelihood of the material moving in an uncontrolled manner,
risking both injury to you or others and damage to the material being cut and/
or the saw. To use a handsaw correctly, hold the handsaw with your index finger
pointing along the saw, while gripping the rest of your fingers firmly around the
handle; this holding technique helps with the control and direction of the saw cut.
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p Figure 2.52 Correct holding technique for hand-held saws
Using panel saws

When using hardpoint saws, ripsaws or crosscut saws, try to keep the cutting
angle between the saw and material at 45° to 60°. You will find it easier to use
HEALTH AND SAFETY the saw and complete the task more quickly if you apply slower full lengths of the
After the initial few
saw rather than fast short strokes. This also produces a more accurate cut. Keep
strokes to start the cut,
move your non-cutting the hand that is not using the saw far away from the saw teeth once the cut has
hand out of the way. The started. You can use your index finger and thumb as a guide and positioning aid
saw is most likely to jump when starting the cut, while taking great care and applying slower strokes of the
out of its cut during the saw, then move your hand out of the way once the saw has started to penetrate
early stages of cutting the material. As the cut progresses, you may need to give a little help in directing
and could result in severe
the saw blade. Use your finger to apply pressure along the smooth sides of the
injury if it lands on your
hand or fingers. saw either before or after the cutting point, depending on which direction the saw
needs to be adjusted in.
Between
45–60°
When using a vice,

set timber low
in vice to reduce
vibration
p Figure 2.53 Maintain the correct cutting angle
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p Figure 2.54 Using a finger as a guide to deep cutting
Using backed handsaws

When using a backed handsaw, such as a tenon saw to cut the tenons for a frame,
different techniques are required to those used with a panel saw. The following
step-by-step guide outlines the process.
1 Firmly position the material in a vice with the end requiring cutting
perpendicular to the vice. Stand slightly to one side of the vice, not in front of
it, holding the tenon saw with your index finger extended along the side of the
saw, as shown in Figure 2.55.
2 Start the saw cut using your thumb or index finger as a guide, as shown in
Figure 2.56. Ensure the saw is positioned on the waste side of the gauge line and
not on the line.
3 As the saw starts to cut, move your hand away from the saw. Let the weight of
the saw cut into the timber rather than forcing the cut.
4 When the cut is about 5 mm deep, remove the saw, as shown in Figure 2.57.
5 Reposition the timber in the vice at an angle of about 45° and cut a diagonal
cut from corner to corner, as shown in Figure 2.58. By positioning the timber in
this way, you can achieve a straight side to your tenon much more easily.
6 Turn the timber around and repeat step 5, as shown in Figure 2.59.
7 Reposition the timber perpendicular to the vice and finish the cut to the
required depth, as shown in Figure 2.60.
8 The cheeks (side pieces) of the tenon can now be removed in the following way.
a Position a bench hook in a vice and locate the timber up against the side
support of the bench hook, shown in Figure 2.61.
b Firmly hold the timber against the side support and start the cut, using your
thumb as guide. Once the cut has been started, move your thumb out of the
way and cut down the shoulder of the tenon until the cheek falls away, as
shown in Figure 2.62.
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p Figure 2.55 Standing at the side of the work piece with forefinger extended p Figure 2.56 Using your thumb as a
starting guide
p Figure 2.57 Cut a depth of about 5 mm p Figure 2.58 Cut a diagonal from
corner to corner
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p Figure 2.59 Cut the other diagonal p Figure 2.60 Reposition the timber and finish the cut
p Figure 2.61 Bench hook p Figure 2.62 Using a tenon saw to

cut down the shoulder of the tenon
Hand-held planes
The hand-held plane is available in many different types and sizes. They can be
used in a wide range of tasks, but they are all designed to remove material in thin
shavings and to leave a smooth surface. A few planes, like the compass plane and
the spokeshave, are specifically designed to produce smooth curved surfaces, while
others are designed to create a smooth profile such as a groove or rebate.
Well maintained sharp planes produce the best and safest finish. Planes should
easily remove material provided they are correctly set up with sharp plane irons.
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Planes can often be referred to by their pattern number, which usually refers to
the length of the plane. The number 1 plane is a small plane (no longer generally
available) while the number 8 is an exceptionally long plane. The most common
plane is the smoothing plane number 4 or 4½; they are the same length but the
number 4½ is a wider and heavier plane, giving a wider cutting surface.
Hand-held planes fall into two main categories:
l bench planes
l specialist planes.
Bench planes
Although these are generally referred to as bench planes, they are not limited
to being used at a workbench. Even with the progress of the power plane, every
tool kit should contain at least one type of hand-held bench plane. The size, type
and number of planes you may need will depend on the type of work you usually
do. The following are the most common types in use and should enable you to
complete all the common tasks you are likely to be asked to do. As you become
more skilful and specialise in an area, you may need to consider additional versions.
The cutting angles and shapes of plane irons will be dealt with in more detail later in
the chapter.
Lateral adjustment lever
Blade
Cam
Knob Lever cap

Handle
Cap screw
INDUSTRY TIP Back iron
Use the sole of your plane on

its edge as a straight edge; Toe
this will allow you to see if the Mouth Adjusting screw Heel
material is free from hollows Plane iron Frog
and lumps. Sole
Frog adjustable screw
p Figure 2.63 Parts of a bench plane
45° bedding
angle
Iron sharpened 45°
to 25° bevel
Mouth 20° clearance Sole
p Figure 2.64 Cutting angle of a bench plane
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Try plane (number 7) and jointer (number 8)

KEY TERM
These are the longest types of hand-held planes and are seldom required nowadays
Surface planing machine:
because the type of tasks they were designed for is usually carried out by the more an industrial fixed bed
accurate surface planing machine. These long planes (550 mm and 600 mm) are machine that uses
used to flatten and straighten timber. The length of the sole means the plane will rotating cutter blocks to
always sit on any high spots of the timber and reduce these before it can start to produce a flat, smooth
cut any hollows. These planes have the cutting iron installed with the bevel facing and straight length of
downwards. timber.
Smoothing plane Try plane

length: 250 mm length: 550 mm
p Figure 2.65 Short planes tend to ride up and down any hollows and bumps in p Figure 2.66 Try plane
the timber, while longer planes will remove any high spots, enabling the plane
to produce long, flat, straight surfaces
Jack plane (number 5 and number 5½)

This plane is used for general straightening and preparing sawn timber. While on
site, it is often used to shoot doors to fit into the linings or frames. It should not
be used to clean up joints, as its length will hit any high spots, preventing effective
cleaning up of the joint. The blade or cutting iron is shaped differently to most other
types of plane. The cutting edge of the iron has a slight convex curvature, making
it difficult to achieve a completely flat finish. If these plane irons were sharpened
completely straight it would be difficult to achieve a flat surface without one edge p Figure 2.67 Jack plane
of the iron leaving a small and shallow but very noticeable stepped edge where it
has met up against a previously planed pass. These planes range in length from
375 mm to 400 mm, with the number 5½ being a wider and heavier version of a
number 5. Like the try plane, the iron is installed with the angle facing downwards.
Smoothing plane (numbers 3, 4 and 4½)

These smoothing planes are relatively short at 250 mm long. They are used to
clean up joints and fine plane surfaces prior to assembly, such as removing machine
pitch marks, pencil marks and other handling marks that may occur. Because of
its short length, the smoothing plane is not suitable for truing or flattening long p Figure 2.68 Smoothing plane
timber, as it would simply follow the timber’s original shape. The number 4½ is the
wider and heavier of the range. The irons on these planes are sharpened flat across KEY TERM
with only the corners slightly eased or rounded; this creates a flat surface without Pitch marks: the marks
any of the unsightly stepped edges that a totally flat iron would produce. This left on the timber surface
plane is fitted with the face of the iron facing downwards. The smoothing plane from rotary power tools,
such as power planes and
is a frequently used hand plane and is an essential addition to any carpenter’s or surface planers.
joiner’s tool kit.
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Block plane
The block plane is a small plane compared to the jack plane or smoothing plane.
One of the main differences is the seating angle of the iron. In the block plane, the
iron is installed with the bevel facing upwards, as opposed to downwards as in most
bench planes. The iron seating position on block planes is much lower than other
bench planes, at 20° or the ultra-low profile at 12°, compared to the 45° used on
most bench planes. This relatively low angle for the iron makes the block plane
p Figure 2.69 Block plane particularly useful when cutting end grain and hardwoods with interlocking grain,
or any timber that is known to be difficult to achieve a good smooth finish on.
Another useful feature of the block plane is the easily adjustable mouth. You can
KEY TERM reduce the gap for the mouth so it is as small as practicable when you are planing
Interlocking grain: the timber that is liable to break out or split down the grain, because this lessens
grain or fibres of the any risks of lifting and damaging the finished surface. The mouth gap should be
timber grow at a slight increased if planing damp or sawn timbers.
incline and change
direction in different
years of growth. This
change in grain direction
can create a striped Iron cap or
lever cap
effect on the surface of
the timber. Interlocked
grain can be difficult to
plane and may result
in the timber surface
tearing out, resulting
in small hollows and
imperfections on the Iron
surface of the timber.
Cutting depth
Lever cap adjustment
Throat screw
(Opening in sole
is the mouth.)
Front
knob
Later al
Body adjustment
lever
Sole
Mouth
adjustment
p Figure 2.70 Parts of a block plane
45°
20° bedding
Iron sharpened angle
to 25° bevel
Mouth 20° clearance Sole
p Figure 2.71 Low seating angle of a block plane
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Typical uses for a block plane include:

l end grain work, such as adjusting mitres and cleaning up the ends of frames
INDUSTRY TIP
l fine cleaning up of joints
The sole of a plane is usually
l working with short and cross-grained timbers such as Iroko
made from cast iron, which
l trimming laminate edges for worktops.
is hard but brittle. Careful
handling and storage are
Specialist planes required. Dropping the plane
This group of planes tend to be mainly workshop-based planes. In most cases, onto hard surfaces such as
these specialist planes have been replaced by power tools, such as the router or concrete can break the sole,
vertical spindle moulder, which produce fully accurate, quick results. particularly across the weak
edges by the plane’s mouth.
The most common specialist planes are:
l rebate plane
l plough plane KEY TERM
l bullnose plane Vertical spindle moulder:
l shoulder plane industrial fixed bed
l side rebate plane machine used to produce
l router plane decorative finishes on the
l compass plane edges of timber.
l spokeshave.
Rebate plane
The rebate plane is designed to form a rebate down the length of the timber. This
type of plane has a fence to control the width of the rebate, which is held in place
with at least one arm (the better models have two arms). At the front of the plane
is a depth stop, which is used to control the finished depth of the rebate and not
the depth of the shavings removed by the plane.
When using the rebate plane, start at the end of the timber furthest away from
you and not at the end nearest you. Gradually work your way backwards until the
rebate is flat and a constant depth throughout its length.
This type of plane can be difficult to use and set up correctly. A common fault
p Figure 2.72 Rebate plane
is for the blade to be set too proud (sticking out) of the edge of the plane, or not
proud enough. In both cases, the resulting rebate will be inconsistent in profile and
of a poor finish.
When setting the plane iron, ensure that the outer edge of the iron does not stick
out further than the spur cutter, whose job it is to score a thin shallow groove that
will form the side of the rebate. If the cutter iron sticks out past this spur, the side
of the rebate will have a poor finish. If the cutter iron is not close enough to the
spur cutter, a stepped rebate will be produced.
The rebate plane iron is ground square and straight and is fitted with the grinding p Figure 2.73 Start at the furthest
bevel facing down. It can be used in the standard central position or in the forward end away and gradually work
position when you need to work with stopped rebates. your way backwards
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Plane body
Produces
Plane
iron
Spur cutter
Fence
Plane body
Produces
Plane iron
Spur
cutter
Set back
here Fence
Plane iron
slightly Produces
projecting
Spur
cutter
Fence
p Figure 2.74 Combination plane
p Figure 2.75 Correct and incorrect ways of setting up a rebate plane
Combination plane and plough plane

The combination plane and plough plane are like the rebate plane and are used
in the same way. This type of plane uses thin cutter irons that can either be
square-ground or profiled and produce grooves or profiles down the length of
the timber. Power tools have generally replaced this plane for the same reasons
that they are replacing the rebate plane.
p Figure 2.76 A combination
shoulder and bullnose plane Bullnose plane
The bullnose plane is a short plane with the iron set close to the front of the plane.
It is suitable for working into corners when a rebate needs to be adjusted. The
cutter iron on these planes is fitted with the grinding angle facing upwards, as with
block planes.
Shoulder plane
p Figure 2.77 Shoulder plane The shoulder plane is used to finish a tenon cut by hand. Its low cutting angle
allows for a good finish across the grain of the timber. Because the cutting iron sits
in line with the edge of the plane, it allows for planing right up to the shoulder of
the tenon. These planes can also be used to correct or increase the size of rebates.
Side rebate plane

The side rebate plane is used to plane the side wall of a groove or rebate to
increase the width of a groove or rebate, for example when fitting a tight panel
p Figure 2.78 Side rebate plane into its groove.
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Router plane
Router planes are available in two sizes. The smaller version is called a thumb
router, which can be especially useful when letting in ironmongery, for example the
faceplate of a lock. The larger version is used to level the bottom of housings to
bring them to a regular depth.
Compass plane
p Figure 2.79 Router plane
The compass plane is used for planing curved joinery items accurately to shape.
The sole of this plane is flexible and can be adjusted to suit either convex or
concave profiles. The compass plane is the only specialist plane that has a back
iron. When planing curved timber, it is almost impossible to plane with the grain
throughout the length of the curvature. To avoid tearing out of the timber, you
must change the direction of planing frequently.
Arrow indicates planing

direction to avoid lifting grain
p Figure 2.80 Compass plane in use p Figure 2.81 Planing directions

when using a compass plane
Spokeshave
Spokeshaves are used to clean up curved surfaces and are available with either a
flat or curved bottom. A flat bottom is used for planing convex external surfaces.
A curved bottom is used for planing concave internal surfaces. As with the
compass plane, the spokeshave should always follow the direction of the grain
as far as possible. Spokeshaves are notoriously difficult to master at first. It is
especially important that the spokeshave has a sharp cutting edge and that
the cutting iron is not set with a projection that is too aggressive. In use, the
spokeshave should be held at a slight angle to the timber, so the cutting iron slices
across the timber fibres.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS AND ENGLISH

Your employer has offered to pay 25% of the net cost of four planes. Select
four different planes which you are most likely to use and source the net
cost of each. Produce an invoice showing the net cost of each plane, the
percentage amount your employer will contribute and the total amount
including VAT at the current rate you will be required to pay.
p Figure 2.82 Spokeshave
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Maintaining planes and cutter irons

To ensure that the plane performs to the best of its functionality, the plane and its
cutting iron need to be kept sharp and well maintained; small defects will affect
the plane’s performance. It is just as difficult to produce a fine smooth finish using
a plane iron that is sharp but poorly set as it is to produce an acceptable finish
using a blunt plane iron. Follow these basic maintenance and sharpening principles.
Sole
The sole or base of the plane should be kept clean and free from any nicks, which
can easily occur if not stored correctly. If the sole is twisted or has any high spots,
the plane will not perform well or produce a smooth flat surface. The best way to
ensure your plane has a flat smooth sole is as follows.
l Place a sheet of fine emery paper or 180 or 240 grit abrasive paper on a flat
surface such as MDF or glass.
l Remove the cutting iron and place the plane on the abrasive paper. Holding the
plane in the normal way, plane the abrasive paper.
l Any high spots on the sole of the plane will be gradually removed and it is quite
easy to see any hollows. When the whole of the sole is flat, the plane can be
cleaned down and is ready for the next stage.
Frog
The frog of a plane holds the cutting iron in place and is adjustable. This allows for
the mouth gap in the sole between the cutting iron and the mouth’s front edge
to be either reduced or increased to its maximum opening. As a rule, use a larger
gap when planing damp timber and preparing timber, and use a small gap when
fine smoothing and end grain planing are required. The frog is held in place by
two screws, which should first be slackened before trying to adjust the frog by its
adjuster screw. When you have obtained the required position of the frog, tighten
the two clamping screws, ensuring the frog is not in twist, as this will make the
cutting iron sit at an angle within the plane.
Lever clamp
Back iron Frog tightening screws
Cutting iron
Depth of cut
adjustment screw
Frog
Mouth Frog adjustable screw
p Figure 2.83 Frog adjustment
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Back iron
You should ensure that the back iron is in good condition and correctly set. The
back iron has three main purposes:
l to stiffen and add support to the cutting iron near its cutting point
0.5–1.5 mm
l to help prevent the cutting iron chattering during the cut
l to break up the shaving and make it curl (both of which may cause the mouth
Properly fitted
of the plane to clog, making further planing impossible).
p Figure 2.84 Correctly fitted and
The back iron should be flat along its length apart from the front section, which is
positioned back iron
curved to allow the lever clamp to assert pressure close to the cutting edge of the
cutting iron. You should regularly check the front edge of the back iron to ensure
its front edge sits flat on the cutting iron. If the back iron does not sit flush to the
cutting iron at the front edge, the small gap will result in clogging between the
back iron and the cutting iron, as shown in Figure 2.85.
The back iron should be positioned square to the cutting iron and set back from its
cutting edge by 0.5–1.5 mm. Use a smaller gap for fine finishing work and on end
grain, while a larger gap can be used for preparation work and on damp timbers.
Clogged mouth
Adjustment lever
p Figure 2.85 Ill-fitting back iron
The adjustment lever is used to ensure the cutting iron is parallel to the sole of the
resulting in clogging
plane, although occasionally the cutting iron is required to be set slightly angled,
such as when squaring timber that requires more material to be removed from one
side than the other.
In most cases, the cutting iron will need to be parallel to the sole. The cutting
iron is tilted by turning the adjustment lever one way or the other. To check if
the cutting iron is parallel to the sole, simply look down the sole and look at the
projection of the cutting iron below the sole.
p Figure 2.86 Adjusting the lateral level for alignment of the cutting iron
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ACTIVITY Depth of cut adjustment screw

Practice removing and The projection of the cutting iron will depend on how much material you want to
refitting the plane iron remove in one attempt. As a rule, it is better to make two lighter cuts rather than
from its back iron and one heavier cut. This allows for better control of the plane, a smoother planing
reassembling the plane to action and a better quality finish to the surface of the timber. A projection of
achieve thin shavings. 0.5–1 mm for the cutting iron is a good starting point. To adjust the depth of the
cutting iron, turn the adjuster wheel either clockwise or anti-clockwise, depending
on whether the cutting iron needs to project either more or less from the sole of
the plane. Always make the last turn of the adjuster wheel clockwise to take up any
slack in the adjustment and prevent any accidental further projection of the cutting
iron.
Adjust cutter to
project a hair’s
thickness
Turn adjusting nut

clockwise for a
thicker shaving
Last movement
must be clockwise
to take up
movements
p Figure 2.87 Adjustment for the cutting iron
Cutter positioning
The grinding angle on the cutting iron is positioned with either the grinding angle
up or down, depending on the type of plane being used.
The following planes have the grinding angle facing downwards, as shown in
Figure 2.88:
l bench plane
l rebate plane
l combination/plough plane
l compass plane
l spokeshave.
Cutting iron
bevel down
Frog
Mouth Sole
p Figure 2.88 Grinding angle down
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The following planes have the grinding angle facing up, as shown in Figure 2.89: Cutting iron
bevel up
l block plane Frog
l bullnose plane
l shoulder plane
l side rebate plane
Mouth Sole
l router plane.
p Figure 2.89 Grinding angle up
Storage of planes
When not in use for short periods, the plane should rested so that the cutting edge
of the iron is not in contact with the floor or any material. With bench working,
the plane is usually rested so that the front of the sole is at rest in the bottom of
the bench ‘well’, while the heel of the sole sits up on the sides of the workbench;
this keeps the cutting edge of the plane iron clear. Alternatively, the plane should
be rested on its side in the well, which ensures that the plane cannot easily be
knocked onto the floor. With site work, it is more difficult to protect the cutting
edge of the plane iron when not in use, but the same effort should be made to
protect the cutting edge of the plane iron.
For a prolonged period of storage and when transporting the plane, the cutting
irons should be wound back into the body of the plane. The plane can be wrapped
in cotton rags and sprayed with a rust protection solution. Purpose-made boxes
can be used to protect planes. Before reuse, clean the planes of any oil or rust
protection to prevent staining of timber.
Techniques for using hand-held planes

Before you begin planing, check the direction and type of grain. Wherever possible,
always plane with the direction of the grain as it runs up and away from you.
Planing against the grain often results in a torn and damaged surface. Interlocking
or cross-grained areas such as around knots need extra care. The plane iron needs
to be finely set and have a very sharp cutting edge to reduce tearing out of the
timber surface around these areas. Adjusting the frog in the plane so the mouth
gap in the sole of the plane is set to a small gap will also help.
p Figure 2.90 The correct direction to plane p Figure 2.91 The incorrect direction to plane
Source: Used by permission, The Taunton Press, Copyright © 1998.
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p Figure 2.92 Torn surface around knot (branch junction) due to directional changes of the grain
Planing timber to size

The availability of portable and fixed bed power tools such as a mobile planer
thicknesser has almost eliminated the need to plane large amounts of timber to
size using hand-held planes. On occasion, it may be necessary to reduce standard-
sized materials to a specific size for a task, so this is an important skill to learn.
Sawn timber is available in standard widths and thicknesses. British Standards give
3 mm per face planing allowance when preparing sawn timber. For example, sawn
p Figure 2.93 Using a straight timber of 100 mm wide and 50 mm thick should be finished to 94 mm × 44 mm.
edge to check surface is flat
The 3 mm planing allowance per surface allows for the removal of all the saw marks,
flattening the faces and bringing the timber to square-edged parallel lengths.
The following step-by-step guide outlines the general principles to use when sawn
timber needs planing to thickness using hand-held planes.
1 Examine the timber and select the largest edge that is most free from defects.
Place this face up in the vice: this will become your face side. Using a jack plane,
remove saw marks and produce a clean flat face. This flat surface should be free
from twist, hollows and rounded ends. To check that the surface is flat along
its length and width, use the edge of the sole of the plane or a straight edge, as
2 Thin lightweight strips of timber called winding sticks are used to ensure that the
p Figure 2.94 Checking for timber surface is not twisted along its length. Place these winding strips on the
twist with winding sticks timber surface, one kept nearest you while placing the other at several stages
along the timber to check for twist. If the timber is in twist, part of the furthest
winding strip’s top edge will either show above or below the front winding strip,
indicating that it is either higher or lower, as shown in Figure 2.94. To remove
any high spots, plane diagonally across the high spot area to bring it in line,
followed by a few more shavings over the total length. Recheck and adjust until
both winding sticks are parallel to each other along the timber’s total length.
3 Once this is complete, use a standard reference mark to show the face (this
p Figure 2.95 Face side marked should point to the best edge and is known as the face mark), as in Figure 2.95.
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4 The timber should now be placed in the vice with the planed edge facing out
towards you and the best edge pointing up, as shown in Figure 2.96. Plane
the edge until it is straight and square to the face, which is checked using a
straight edge or the sole of your plane and try square or combination square.
When finished this top edge is known as the face edge and is marked with the
standard edge mark, as shown in Figure 2.97.
5 Mark the timber along its widest side first to the required width, using a
marking gauge, as shown in Figure 2.98. Once you have marked the material
from the face edge on both sides of the timber, place it in a vice with the gauge
marks facing upwards. Carefully plane down to the gauge marks, regularly
checking both the front and back sides to ensure that the planed edge is kept
parallel and in line with the gauge lines.
6 Now mark the timber to the required thickness, as shown in Figure 2.99. Using
a marking gauge and working from the face side, mark both edges. Place the p Figure 2.96 Squaring
timber in a vice with the waste side upwards and plane down to gauge line, up the face edge
ensuring you plane carefully down to the gauge marks and not beyond.
Required width Required thickness
p Figure 2.97 Face side and face p Figure 2.98 Mark the required width p Figure 2.99 Mark to the required
edge marked from the face thickness from the face side
ACTIVITY
Face and edge a length of timber 50 × 38 mm and 450 mm in length using
a jack plane. Mark the finished width and thickness at 44 × 32 mm using a
marking gauge and plane to thickness.
Planing end grain

Planing end grain is more difficult than planing along the grain. A finer setting is
usually required to the plane iron, as well as a lot more pressure in forcing the plane
down into the cut, otherwise the plane may start to judder during planing, giving a
poor finish. Unless the far edge of the timber is supported, breakout will occur. To KEY TERM
prevent this breakout or spelching, adopt one of the following methods of working. Spelching: the
l Plane from both ends to the centre. uncontrolled breakout
l Use a shooting board that supports the far edge of the timber, as shown in of material, resulting
in damaged and/or
Figure 2.100. weakened edges.
l Clamp a sacrificial piece of timber to the far edge, as shown in Figure 2.101.
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ACTIVITY
Using a suitable material,
make a shooting board
that can be used to plane
square the end grain of the
Jack plane
length of timber produced
in the previous activity.
Timber
Shooting board
Fence acting as end

grain support
p Figure 2.100 Shooting board used to square and smooth the end grain of timber
Direction of planing
Sacrificial timber set level with

the top of the material
p Figure 2.101 Sacrificial timber clamped to the end of the timber to prevent spelching
Flushing shoulders of an assembled frame

Flushing or flattening shoulders is the process of using a smoothing plane to level
off the shoulders of joints. The edge of the plane is used to find any high points,
which are then gradually planed down using a circular motion of the plane to
produce a flat surface across the joints. Be careful not to over plane the corners of
p Figure 2.102 Flushing the frame, which would produce a rounded edge to the stiles of the frame. Another
the shoulder joints on an common fault is to allow either the back or front edge of the plane to drop inside
assembled frame the edge of the frame as the plane is passed backwards and forwards during the
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planing operation. This means that the sole of the plane will hit the inside edge of
the frame, resulting in damage that cannot easily be repaired. When the shoulder
joints of the frame are flat, take a couple of fine shavings through the rails and
finally through the stiles, ensuring you are laying the grain down as far as possible
when choosing your planing direction.
Chisels and knives

A large range of woodworking chisels is available, some with wooden handles or
plastic handles and handles with metal inserts in the handle end. Chisels with
wooden and plastic handles should only be hit with a mallet, as using a metal
hammer on them would damage the handle end. This leads to splitting and
breakage, as well as making it uncomfortable for you to hold the chisel. Chisels that
have a metal insert in the handle end can be used with metal hammers. In most
cases, chisels range in size from 6 mm to 50 mm, with several different types or
designs of chisel, each having a specific use.
Whenever possible, always purchase the best quality chisels you can afford as HEALTH AND SAFETY
these are not disposable items and should last you for most of your working life. One important rule you
should always follow when
Parts of a chisel using chisels is keep both
hands behind the cutting
Traditional wooden handled chisels are made in a slightly different way to plastic edge of the chisel for all
handle versions, which have the plastic handle moulded around the chisel itself. types of work. Doing so
The following describes the make-up of a good quality wooden handled chisel. will prevent you suffering
a chisel cut.
l Blade: the part of the chisel that is sharpened.
Always pass a chisel to
l Tang: non-cutting end of the chisel that fits into the handle.
another person handle
l Leather or plastic washer: fitted between the blade and the handle and used to first; this will help to
help absorb some of the energy created when the handle is hit. reduce the possibility of
l Ferrule: used to help prevent the handle splitting where it joins the tang. accidental contact with
l Metal insert: some handles have a metal insert in the handle end so they can be the cutting edge.
used with a metal hammer; chisels with these inserts are a favourite with site
operatives who tend not to have mallets.
Types of chisel Handle

The most common types of wood chisel are:
l bevel edge chisel
Ferrule
l firmer chisel
Washer
l mortice chisel Tang
l gouges.
Bevel edge chisel

Possibly the most common type of chisel in use, bevel edge chisels have some of Blade
the side edge removed, giving them a bevelled edge, which makes them quicker
to sharpen. They are used for general work, for example paring and recessing. The
bevel edge chisel is good for working into tight corners due to its bevelled sides and p Figure 2.103 Exploded view of a
is the chisel of choice when chopping out the sockets for dovetails. chisel
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p Figure 2.104 Bevel edge chisel p Figure 2.105 Profile of a bevel edge chisel
Firmer chisel
The firmer chisel is more robust than the bevel edge chisel, having square sides and
a deeper profile near its tang. As a result, this type of chisel is better equipped for
the heavier work usually found on site. The firmer chisel is losing its popularity in
favour of the bevel edge chisel.
p Figure 2.106 Firmer chisel p Figure 2.107 Profile of a firmer chisel
Mortice chisel
This is a strong chisel designed to form mortices and to withstand the heavy mallet
blows and levering required when chopping mortices and other heavy work. The
section of this chisel is rectangular or square in shape, giving a deep profile to the
chisel and increasing its strength.
p Figure 2.108 Mortice chisel p Figure 2.109 Profile of a mortice chisel
Gouges
Gouges come in a variety of sizes and radii and are usually ground on their inside
face (scribing gouge). They are mostly used to cut curves such as scribes into ovolo
moulded timber or when forming housings in stair strings to receive the bullnose of
the stair tread. Gouges that are ground on their outer edge are typically used with
the turning lathe and in carving.
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Blade
Blade
Blade ground on inside

Blade ground on outside
p Figure 2.110 Scribing gouge p Figure 2.111 Profile of a turning and

carving gouge
Knives
Knives general fall into two types:
l utility knife l marking knife.
Utility knife
The utility knife has either a retractable blade that slides back into the handle or a
folding blade action that returns into the handle when not in use. This type of knife
has a disposable blade that is extremely sharp so you should take great care when
using it. This is an underappreciated tool, particularly for site use, and is typically
used to cut packaging, plastic banding and other forms of wrappings. This hand
tool can only be purchased if you are over 18 years of age. p Figure 2.112 Utility knife
Marking knife
The marking knife is usually a dedicated bench knife, although it can be used on
site and is often used to mark out the positions of hinges on doors and frames.
The marking knife is ground and sharpened on one side only. This allows for the
knife to sit tight against the square and enables the user to mark or cut a light line
across the grain of the timber. The marking knife is available as a left- or right-
handed version. It is used where accurate lines are required such as when producing
dovetails and for high-class joinery.
p Figure 2.113 Marking knife
Techniques for using chisels

Both blunt and sharp tools are dangerous to use. If you do not use a sharp chisel
HEALTH AND SAFETY
correctly you may suffer a severe cut.
The most important rule
It is surprising how often a chisel is required to do tasks during the construction to follow when using
process. Examples include easing joints, chopping hinge recesses, cleaning out chisels is always keep
recesses, easing clearance or removing excess material, cutting fitted packers, both hands away from the
cutting edge of the chisel.
even using chisels as a scraper to remove pencil marks. Techniques used to safely
perform common tasks with chisels are set out below; the same principles can be
transferred to most tasks required of a chisel.
Cutting recesses
The bevel edge or firmer chisel is often used to cut a recess such as that used to
house a hinge. This is a simple step-by-step guide to cutting a recess, in this case
for a hinge using a bevel edge chisel.
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Cutting a recess using a bevel edge chisel
STEP 1 Mark out the recess to be cut using marking gauges, square and marking knife.
STEP 2 Position the chisel on the end of the marking out with the bevel towards you and start chopping out the recess using a walking
method. Hold the chisel at an angle of 45° after the initial cut. This will lift the grain of the timber as it is being chiselled, making it easier
to remove. For the last cut on the marking-out line, turn the chisel around so the bevel is away from you and the chisel is vertical.
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STEP 3 Carefully pare back to the gauge lines to ensure a tight fit. When paring, try to adopt a shear cut (slight angle across the recess) as
this will give a better finish.
STEP 4 Check that the hinge fits in to the recess.
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Forming a mortice
STEP 1 Start at the end STEP 2 Lever the chisel forward STEP 3 Go just over halfway
furthest away from you, and after each mallet strike to break through the timber, then turn it
work towards the other end. the grain and make it easier to over and repeat the process. Do
Hold the flat side of the chisel remove the waste material. not go right through the timber
vertically against the marking- with your chisel, as this will
out line and strike the handle split the wood. Clean out the
with the mallet. Turn the chisel ends of the joint.
around and repeat the process
while moving to the other end of
the mortice.
KEY TERM
Whiskers: the small
pieces of wood fibre
remaining after cutting
the joint. Leaving these STEP 4 Once you have morticed STEP 5 Make the mortice slightly STEP 6 When the waste is clear,
timber fibres in place both sides of the joint, clean wider on the back of the joint, place the mortice on the bench
can cause an obstruction out the mortice with a blunt as this is the starting position and clean out any whiskers.
when assembling the instrument, such as a rule or the for the wedges that will hold the Take care at this stage not to
joint. end of a combination square. joint together. make the mortice any wider
than it needs to be.
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Forming a housing ACTIVITY

Using the length of timber
from the previous activity,
mark through a mortice
44 mm long and 10 mm
wide, 106 mm from one
end, using a mortice
gauge. Chop out the
mortice using a 10 mm
mortice chisel. From the
other end, mark out the
STEP 1 Crosscut down to the gauge lines using a STEP 2 Using a bevel edge chisel, cut upwards tenon to suit the mortice
tenon saw. If there is a large amount of material towards the middle of the joint to form a slope. Do and form the tenon using
to remove, or if there is a big knot in the middle, not go right through, because the timber is liable a tenon saw. Cut off the
several other cuts can be made in the waste area to to split. Turn the timber around and repeat the tenon end of the timber at
make the process of removing the waste easier. process. You will end up with a little ‘roof’ shape in 150 mm and try the fit into
the middle of the housing. the mortice.
IMPROVE
YOUR ENGLISH
Produce a simple toolbox
talk poster outlining the
safe use and handling of
chisels.
STEP 3 Clean out the middle, again taking care STEP 4 The finished housing joint.
not to go right through the joint with your chisel.
Sharpening plane irons and chisels

The following section covers the grinding and sharpening of both plane irons and
chisels. Although the descriptions mainly refer to plane irons, the same principles
apply to chisels. (Where any specific difference occurs between the two, these are
outlined.)
To cut safely and efficiently, plane irons must be kept sharp. How often they will
need to be sharpened depends on several factors.
l How often is the plane used? If used infrequently it will not require regular
sharpening.
l What type of material is the plane being used on? If used on more abrasive
materials such as oak, the plane will require more frequent sharpening.
l Has the cutting iron become damaged? Hitting hard dead knots can damage
the cutting edge as can hitting any foreign bodies in the timber.
l Poor grinding and sharpening in previous sharpenings.
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A dull or damaged cutting edge to the cutting iron will result in:
l the need to exert greater force during planing
l difficulty in achieving a clean fine shaving from the plane
l clogging of the mouth in the plane
l small ridges on the surface of the timber, resulting from a chipped cutting edge
to the cutting iron.
The sharpening process for a plane iron can take two stages: grinding and
sharpening (honing) the iron. You do not always need to grind the plane iron;
you should do so only if the cutting iron has been damaged or has already been
sharpened/honed to an extent that grinding is again required.
Grinding plane irons and chisels

Plane irons should be ground at an angle of 25°. You can do this by either dry
grinding on a bench grinder or wet grinding on a water-cooled grinder. Whichever
version you use, it is important that the cutting edge of the iron does not become
too hot and begin to burn (bluing of the grinding edge). This is because the
HEALTH AND SAFETY extensive heat generated during the burning process alters the temper of the steel,
Ensure you have been reducing the cutting iron’s facility to retain a sharp edge.
trained and authorised to
use a grindstone before When dry grinding, the plane iron is constantly dipped into water to cool the
attempting to grind your grinding edge, thereby reducing the risk of burning the grinding edge. The
plane iron. The safe use grindstone in the water-cooled grinding system receives a constant supply of water,
of the grinder is like all either through a water trough under the grindstone or by being constantly dripped
power tools and is covered onto the grindstone.
by PUWER (Provision and
Use of Work Equipment When using a grindstone, the tool rest should be set as close as practicable to
Regulations 1998), as well the grindstone and set so the grindstone produces a 25° grinding angle. You
as the risk assessment should slowly pass the plane iron back and forth across the face of the grindstone,
in your workplace, which applying a steady constant pressure onto it. Water-cooled grindstones have a
should always be followed.
holding device attached to the framework of the grinder for improved accuracy.
p Figure 2.114 Bench grinder p Figure 2.115 Water-cooled grinding system
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While using the grindstone, you are required to use the following PPE as a
minimum: INDUSTRY TIP
l safety glasses even when the grinder has a safety screen Before starting to do any
l barrier cream for your hands, or protective gloves grinding, ensure you have a
l face mask (particularly for dry grinding) supply of coolant to dip the
l protective workwear such as an apron or overalls. plane iron or chisel in. This
will help to keep it cool and
Sharpening (honing) plane irons and chisels prevent burning of the cutting
edge.
Once the iron or chisel has been ground to 25° it can be sharpened (or honed) to
an angle of 30°. This process can be carried out on several different sharpening
stones – oil stone, water stone and diamond stone.
Oil stone
The oil stone is the most commonly used grit stone, which can be natural stone
or man-made. The man-made versions are the most common and are typically
manufactured from aluminium oxide grit, which is formed into a block and often
referred to as an India stone. Some of the best oil stones are made from natural
stone and often referred to as a Washita stone. Man-made stones are generally
double-sided and are 200 mm long by 50 mm wide. In most cases, one side has a
medium grade grit surface, while the other side has a fine grade grit surface. The p Figure 2.116 India oil stone
most commonly side used is the fine grade. If you only require the fine grade, you
can get all fine grade grit stones, which means you can turn the stone over as one
side becomes worn.
Because these stones are very fragile, they should be protected and stored in a
wooden box (normally made by the owner). As the name suggests, oil stones
require lubricating in use with light machine oil from an oil can.
Water stone
The water stone looks virtually identical to the oil stone, but the water stone
is made from a natural stone. These stones remove less metal than man-made
stones and polish while sharpening, providing a very keen (sharp) cutting edge.
They can be lubricated with either water or oil. If used with oil, you cannot revert
to water. The disadvantage with both oil and water stones is that they wear hollow
in both directions and need regular maintenance to grind them back to a flat
surface.
Diamond stone
The diamond stone has increased in popularity, particularly with site carpenters.
They can be more expensive to buy initially, but diamond stones require little
maintenance. The sharpening surface on diamond stones stays flat and is less
likely to break, which are the reasons why they are particularly popular for site
use. Diamond stones can be ‘fast cutting’, removing the worn cutting edge rapidly,
and they are available in various grit grades. Diamond stones should be used with
water, which can be applied by spray mist, and wiped clean after use.
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The sharpening (honing) process

The process of honing the plane iron can at first be difficult to master, but like most
tasks the finished results improve with practice. In simple terms, the plane iron is
rubbed along the sharpening stone on the front edge of the grinding angle, altering
the front angle from the 25° grinding angle to a 30° sharpening angle, as shown in
Figure 2.117.
Grinding angle 25º First sharpening produces
a 30º angle
25°
Grinding angle
Second sharpening increases the Excessive sharpening

sharpening angle’s length angle length
30°
Sharpening angle
p Figure 2.117 Sharpening and regrinding angles
Repeated sharpening on the sharpening stone at 30° gradually increases the

length of the sharpening angle. When the length of the sharpening angle becomes
excessive (about half the length of the original grinding angle) the plane iron will
require regrinding and the process begins again.
The process used to sharpen the iron is outlined in the following steps.
1 Lubricate the sharpening stone with a suitable lubricant (thin oil or water).
2 Place the iron on the sharpening stone point first, as shown in Figure 2.118,
and slowly lower the iron until the grinding angle is flat to the stone’s surface.
At first it can be difficult to tell when this happens, but usually you see the
lubricant ease out at the back of the iron and you feel it sit down firmly. This is
Plane iron
Plane iron
Lower back
edge of iron
Lower back
edge of iron
25°
Sharpening stone Sharpening stone
p Figure 2.118 Place the iron on the sharpening stone p Figure 2.119 Slowly lower the iron until the grinding
point first angle is flat to the stone’s surface
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3 Slowly raise the back edge while keeping the point in contact with the
sharpening stone, trying to achieve a 30° angle, as shown in Figure 2.120.
You will lift the back edge by only a small amount. As you become more
experienced, you will be able to better guess how much to lift.
Plane iron
Area which is removed
Raise back during the sharpening Burr edge
edge of
iron to 30° 30°
Sharpening stone
p Figure 2.120 Slowly raise the back edge while keeping the point in contact with the sharpening p Figure 2.121 Figure of eight
stone motion
4 You can now move the iron backward and forwards along the sharpening
stone using a firm downward pressure. It can at first be difficult to maintain
the required sharpening angle during this process, but again with practice it
becomes easier. You should use the whole of the stone’s area to help prevent
it from becoming hollow in its central area. This process can be done in a
‘figure of eight motion’, shown in Figure 2.121, or in long ‘vee’ strokes, shown in
Figure 2.122. If you are not careful, the ‘figure of eight’ motion can produce a
rounded effect to the sharpening edge of the iron. Several iron holding devices
are available that help maintain the correct sharpening angle, such as the jig in
Figure 2.123.
5 Continue the sharpening process until the grinding angle has been replaced on p Figure 2.122 Vee motion
its front edge with the sharpening angle and produced a slight ‘burr’ (a thin wire
edge, which is the result of folding back of the iron’s front edge). This is shown
in Figure 2.124.
Plane iron
Thin wire burr
Grinding angle
Sharpening angle
p Figure 2.123 Jig to hold the chisel or plane iron p Figure 2.124 Thin wire burr produced by the sharpening process
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Preesure 6 Remove this wire burr by placing the back (flat) edge of the iron flat down on
the stone and rubbing it up and down on the stone until the burr has been lost,
as shown in Figure 2.125. Start with the burr overhanging the side of the stone
and keeping the iron flat on the stone. Draw the cutting edge onto the stone
Keep flat and rub the iron firmly up and down the stone, ensuring that the iron is kept
flat to the stone. The wire burr will gradually break away and be lost.
p Figure 2.125 Removing the wire 7 Remove any remaining wire burr by passing the sharpened edge of the iron
burr backwards and forwards over a piece of cloth. Do not drag the cutting edge
over the corner of a piece of timber, as this will trap any remaining burr in the
resulting cut; then as the cutting edge of the newly sharpened iron passes over
this collection of wire burrs, the cutting edge will become damaged.
8 Finally, clean and safely store the sharpening stone.
Not all plane irons are sharpened square across their face. Different types of planes
have different uses so they have different cutting edges. Table 2.1 shows the three
most common cutting edges given to a plane.
q Table 2.1 Most common cutting edges given to a plane iron

Type of cutting edge Type of plane it is used on
Square A square cutting edge is used on try, shoulder, rebate,
bullnose, plough and router planes.
ACTIVITY
Grind and sharpen a jack Slightly convex Slightly convex is the most popular cutting edge and is
plane iron, then correctly used on block planes, jack planes and spokeshaves.
set and position the iron 0.5 mm
into the jack plane.
IMPROVE Softened corners Softened corners are used on smoothing planes to reduce
YOUR ENGLISH the likelihood of leaving plane marks on the finished
1 mm surface after cleaning up the work piece.
Produce a short guide on
how to grind and sharpen
a 25 mm bevel edge
chisel. Use full sentences.
Sharpening gouges
Gouges are ground and sharpened differently to plane irons and chisels. The
scribing gouge is ground on its inside face with a grindstone that has a suitable
radius to accommodate the curvature of the gouge. The gouge is then sharpened
with a slip stone that again has a suitable radius. The slip stone can either be
secured in a bench vice and the gouge moved over its top edge, or the gouge can
be held down to the edge of the bench and the slip stone moved over the cutting
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edge. The burr is removed in a similar way to that described for the plane iron and
chisels (see page 100); the scribing gouge will also need to be rolled along its face
at the same time.
p Figure 2.126 Sharpening the p Figure 2.127 Removing the burr by rolling
inside edge of a scribing gouge the scribing gouge flat on the oil stone
Drills, drill bits and screwdrivers

Traditional hand-held drills are rarely used these days as they have been replaced
by the more efficient portable power drill, though you may choose to use a
traditional hand-held drill. There are two types of traditional hand-operated drills.
l The wheel brace drill is used to form smaller holes 1–8 mm in diameter and
countersink holes. The cutting action of these drills is slow, and the hole needs p Figure 2.128 Wheel brace
to be cleaned regularly to prevent binding. To clean the drill hole, withdraw the
drill bit while still rotating the hand wheel clockwise. As the drill bit is removed
it helps to clear the waste from the hole.
l The swing brace drill is used for boring larger holes. The turning capacity or
swing of the brace enables a more efficient use of energy, which means that
larger diameter drill bits may be used than with a wheel brace. Most swing
braces have a ratchet facility, which allows holes to be bored close to an
obstruction. The swing brace was also widely used to drive in and remove large
diameter slotted screws. p Figure 2.129 Swing brace
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Types of drill bits

Portable power tools have made drilling holes much easier. With the increasing
use of power tools, the types and designs of bits has changed, as many older
types of bits have been adapted for use by powered means. Examples of the most
frequently used types of drill bits are shown in Table 2.2.
q Table 2.2 Most common types of drill bit

Type of bit Size Uses Type of drill to be used with
Twist 1–13 mm Boring holes in wood, metal and plastic. Wheel brace and power drill.
Lip and spur 1–13 mm Modern alternative to the twist bit, Wheel brace and power drill.
produces cleaner cuts and accurate
centre positioning due to its pointed
centre; should only be used on timber
products.
Countersink 13–20 mm Producing a countersunk hole to receive Wheel brace, swing brace and
the head of a screw. power drill.
Masonry bit 4–25 mm These drill bits have a TCT bit in the Power drill with hammer
point, making them suitable for boring action.
holes in masonry such as brickwork,
blockwork and concrete; often used for
plastic plugs used with screws.
Auger 6–50 mm Augers are used for boring deep holes Swing brace and power drill.
in timber such as when fitting locks.
The modern 5-flute cutter head in the
photograph is designed to be extremely
accurate and suitable for deep rapid
drilling. Traditional pattern designs
intended for use in swing braces
included the Jennings and Irwin pattern
designs, which can be sharpened.
Forstner bit 9–50 mm The short centre pin allows shallow Power drill.
(blind) holes to be bored within 3 mm of
the back face without showing. Suitable
when fitting concealed hinges.
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Type of bit Size Uses Type of drill to be used with

Flat/spade bit 6–50 mm Boring larger hole through softwood Power drill.
where a good finish is not required.
Drill and counter bore Matching sizes This is a combination drill which bores Power drill.
to plug cutters a clearance hole for the screw and a
hole for a wooden plug to be inserted
following the screw.
Plug cutter 10, 13 and Produces wooden plugs which are Power drill.
16 mm inserted into a counterbored hole to
conceal fixings.
Hole saw 16–152 mm For boring large holes through generally Power drill.
thin materials; useful when running
services through pre-fixed kitchen units.
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Screwdrivers
There are many types of screw heads, each with a screwdriver point to match. It is
important that you choose the correct size and type of screwdriver to match the
screw head.
Slotted Cross slot/ Pozidriv Torx® Security T Hexagon

Phillips
p Figure 2.130 Types of screwdrivers and screw heads
The most common type of head used on screws is the Pozidriv, which is an
improved version of the Phillips screw head. The main difference between the
Phillips and Pozidriv screw heads is that there are additional smaller ribs at 45° to
the main slots in the Pozidriv.
Pozidriv heads come in three sizes – 1, 2 and 3 – with size 3 being the largest. Size 1
is generally used for screw gauge size 3.0; size 2 is used for gauges 3.5–4.5; and
size 3 is used for gauges 5 and 6. Some makers of screws produce their own driver
p Figure 2.131 Yankee pump bits specifically designed to fit their types of screws.
action screwdriver
Most screws are driven into the material with powered drivers, which usually
KEY TERM incorporate an impact driving system. Hand-held screwdrivers have changed little
over the years, apart from their head shape and the material the handle is made
Torque: the rotating force
produced to turn an from, which was traditionally wooden but is now plastic; modern versions often
object. have soft grip handles.
Spiral screwdrivers or pump action screwdrivers are used less nowadays but they
are still a good alternative to powered drivers. A spiral pump action screwdriver,
INDUSTRY TIP such as the Yankee screwdriver, is available in three lengths. The larger versions are
When using spiral or pump used with larger screws as this type of screwdriver can apply a high level of torque
action screwdrivers, the driver to the screw. The bits in the Yankee screwdriver can be interchanged to suit several
bit can easily jump out of the screw head types and sizes.
screw head if pumping the
screwdriver quickly. These HEALTH AND SAFETY
types of screwdriver are You should take care when using spiral or pump action screwdrivers while
especially difficult to use working at height. If the screw head slips while you are pumping the screwdriver
when fixing slotted screws. down, this may cause you to lose your balance.
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Using drill bits

Using a powered drill fitted with a screwdriver bit and modern easy-drive screws
minimises the amount of preparation work required when fitting two components
together. Traditionally, three stages were required for connecting two timber
components, as shown in Figure 2.132.
1 Drill the clearance hole. It is important that you choose the correct size 1 2 3
Clearance Countersink Pilot
drill bit for the gauge of screw that you are using. Selecting the correct hole hole hole
size drill bit ensures that the top piece of timber is pulled tightly to the
bottom piece of timber. A rule of thumb for drill sizes is to halve the
screw gauge in millimetres for the clearance hole and halve that again for
the pilot hole.
2 Form the countersink hole to suit the size of the screw head.
3 Locate the two pieces together and drill the pilot hole. p Figure 2.132 Three stages of drilling
Determine the correct size drill bit to use for pilot and clearance holes in the
following ways.
l With modern metric-sized screws, use the gauge size (thickness) of the screw
to equal the size of the clearance hole, and use half this size as a pilot hole. For
example, metric-sized screws of 4 × 50 mm would require a clearance hole of
4 mm and a pilot hole of 2 mm.
l Traditional imperial screws use a different method of sizing the gauge of the
screw. For imperial screws, half the gauge size equals the size in millimetres
for the clearance hole and half that size again gives you the pilot hole size. For
example, imperial size screws of 8 × 2’’ would use a 4 mm clearance hole and
a 2 mm pilot hole.
With modern screws, the need for pilot holes and countersinking is now generally
only required for hardwoods and when using large gauge screws.
To use a larger auger type drill bit that passes all the way through the material,
such as for a lock fitting in doors, mark the centre position of the hole on both side
of the material. Using the required size drill bit, drill through the material, ensuring
that the drill is kept level and square to the material. Stop when the drill point
starts to penetrate the other side of the material. The point should line up with
the pre-marked centre point. Withdraw the drill bit and reposition on the centre
mark on the other side. This will join the two holes together, eliminating any risk of
splintering on the back side.
Spur
Cutting edge
Sharpening drill bits
Most of the normal twist, lip and spur bits and some forms of auger bits are Tapered
disposable items. Because of their small sharpening area, they are difficult to lead screw
sharpen unless you have specialised sharpening equipment and grindstones.

The low purchase price of these drill bits means that sharpening them is not
Cutting edge
a viable option.
Traditional styled auger bits such as the Jennings and Irwin patterns can be Spur
sharpened using a small flat or triangular file. Sharpen these styled auger bits p Figure 2.133 Parts of a traditional auger
using the following method. bit
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1 Cramp the auger stem in a vice, with the cutting end as low in the vice as
practicable; this will reduce any vibration that may occur.
2 File the cutting edge of the bit on its top edge, not its underside edge.
Maintaining its existing cutting edge, file in smooth strokes until a sharp clean
cutting edge begins to form. Remove as little material as possible.
3 The spur has a rounded shape to its cutting edge. You should always file the
cutting edge on its inner edge, never its outer edge, as shown in Figure 2.134,
and maintain the rounded shape as far as possible. The spur should always
protrude past the flat cutting edge. With repeated sharpening the spur will
reduce in size. When it has been reduced to such an extent that it no longer
protrudes past the flat cutting edge, replace the auger.
p Figure 2.134 File the inside Miscellaneous hand tools

edge of the spur
These are some important miscellaneous additions to most tool kits that would
benefit both site carpenters and bench joiners.
Hammers and mallets

There are three general types of hammers that you are likely to use in your work:
the claw hammer, Warrington hammer and pin hammer.
l Claw hammer: this is perhaps the most common type of hammer and is used
to drive nails, pins, wedges and dowels. Claw hammers may have a straight
or curved claw (a split-pein). The curved claw is used to provide leverage to
remove nails from timber, while the straight claw is used to remove larger nails
in timber framing.
p Figure 2.135 Claw hammer
l Warrington hammer: this is a type of pein hammer and is useful for driving
wedges and smaller nails and pins. Its head is shaped so that you can hold small
pins and nails between your finger and thumb, and the tapered head or cross
pin can be used to start nailing without knocking your hand. Once the nail is
part way into the timber, the hammer is rotated so that the larger face of the
hammer can be used to drive the remainder of the nail into the timber.
l Pin (or pein) hammer: this is a light hammer used for driving in small pins. Pin
hammers are rarely used by joiners these days, as this job is usually completed
p Figure 2.136 Warrington hammer with a nail or pin gun.
INDUSTRY TIP
The face of a hammer should always be clean and free of glue, otherwise it could cause
the object you are striking to bend or break and cause the hammer head to slip off the nail
and hit the finished surface, causing indentations. Clean the hammer head by placing some
abrasive paper on a flat surface and rub the face of the hammer over it until it is clean.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

Do not hit two hammer faces together. Because they are hardened, the two
faces striking each other could splinter, risking injury to yourself and others
around you.
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A mallet is used for assembly work and striking chisels. It is available in a variety
of sizes, a medium-sized mallet being the most popular. Although a mallet is made
of wood or rubber, it is heavier than a hammer and does not leave the marks of a
hammer head.
It is best to hold mallets and hammers at the end of the handle to provide more
leverage and use less energy. Holding the handle too close to the head is known as
‘choking’ the tool and should be avoided. p Figure 2.137 Mallet
Clamping and securing equipment

An essential part of carpentry and joinery is ensuring that materials are held safely,
securely and clamped while they are being manufactured, positioned or assembled.
Table 2.3 outlines the main types of clamp that are available.
q Table 2.3 Types of clamp
Type of clamp Description

Sash clamp A sash clamp is used to assemble small frames up to about 1.5 m long, for example window
sashes. It has a steel bar with holes to locate a pin to secure a shoe (clamping head) to the
desired position. At the other end is another shoe fixed to a screw and handle to apply the
pressure to the work piece.
It is important to use blocks of wood to cushion the timber being clamped.
You should avoid cheap clamps because they can bend when pressure is applied to the joint
and they often do not clamp evenly across the entire faces of the shoes, resulting in a tight
joint on the face closest to the steel bar only.
T bar clamp T bar clamps have a heavier section bar shaped like the letter T. They are used for the
assembly of large window and door frames, doors and shopfronts. The heavier section
clamp is designed not to bend under the pressure applied over the larger distances. An
extension bar can be attached to the clamp for bigger applications.
G clamp A steel G clamp is so called because the open clamp including the screw shaft looks like a
letter G. They are available in several sizes and depths and can be extremely useful when
holding together materials under enormous amounts of pressure. Care should be taken to
avoid unnecessary damage to the swivelling shoe on the end of the thread. This is always
the first thing to get misplaced, resulting in possible damage to the work piece in future use.
F clamp This clamp has an adjustable arm that can be set to accommodate any width within the
distance of the main bar. It is ideal for holding materials down and clamping glue joints.
➜
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Type of clamp Description

Quick-release clamp These are for light temporary jobs, such as holding down work. They are available in a range
of lengths and jaw depths, to suit various jobs. Smaller clamps may weaken and slip under
excessive loads, so are not suited to gluing up. The quick release function allows for one-
handed operations. Some clamps can be converted into a ‘spreader’, allowing the clamp to
force materials apart rather than pull them together. Rubber caps are moulded to the faces
of the jaws to prevent damage to the materials being held.
Vice A bench vice is a workshop essential. It is used to hold timber as it is being cut. It is faced
with plywood or timber to avoid damage to the timber being held. The plywood is held in
place using screws; these can work loose over time and can create screw head shaped
dents. Vices come in a range of sizes and may have features such as quick-release levers
for fast adjustment. Some vices have a height-adjustable ‘front dog’, used to clamp wide
material over the bench top.
Air bags
Air bags, windbags or wind wedges are small fibre-
reinforced sealed bags that have an attached rubber
pump with a bleed valve. These bags are used to level and
wedge work such as when hanging doors, fitting windows
or installing appliances such as fridge freezers and ovens.
The air bag is inflated with air until the desired joint width
or level is obtained. The air bags can expand from flat, at
about 2 mm, to 50 mm. To remove the bags, deflate them
by pressing the release valve button on the pump. It is
recommended that you use these wind bags in pairs, so
p Figure 2.138 Air bag carpenters usually have at least two of them in their toolkit.
Abrasive paper
HEALTH AND SAFETY Abrasive paper is graded by the size or number of sharp particles of grits per square
Whenever you use 25 mm of abrasive paper: the larger the number, the finer the finish from the
abrasive paper, always abrasive paper. Therefore, P60 (60 grits per 25 mm square) is coarser than P240.
ensure that you have Coarse grade is for rougher work and finer grades for finishing. The letter P in front
suitable extraction fitted of the grit size stipulates that the abrasive paper has been graded to a common
to take away the fine agreed measuring standard; thus, whichever manufacturer you use, the grading of
dust. Alternatively, use an
the abrasive paper is the same.
appropriate dust mask.
As a general guide use the grit sizes given in Table 2.4 for the various tasks outlined.
q Table 2.4 Grit sizes of abrasive paper and typical uses
Grit size Typical uses

P60–P80 Rough working and heavy stock removal.
P100–P120 General use, fine finishing work and preparation work
prior to applying the finishing coat.
P180–P240 Very fine finishing, typically used to finish hardwoods.
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Trestles, bearers and sawhorses

It is important to support materials, either temporarily, such as for short-term
storage, or while the material is being worked on. However, making suitable
temporary work benches available for site working could be difficult. Strong and
sturdy work trestles or sawhorses (traditional homemade supports) not only
provide support for materials but can be converted into a workbench by overlaying
with plywood or similar material. Solid trestles allow work, such as cutting
worktops and cutting materials with power and hand tools, to be carried out safely
and accurately. Modern trestles are not only extremely strong and stable but also
fold flat for convenient transporting, unlike traditional sawhorses.
p Figure 2.139 Adjustable and fold-flat work trestles p Figure 2.140 Traditional homemade sawhorse
Adhesives
The table below explains the types of adhesives used in carpentry and joinery.
q Table 2.5 Adhesives and foam
Type of adhesive or foam Properties and use

PVA (polyvinyl acetate) or This is a resin dissolved in water. As the water evaporates, the glue dries (goes off). It is available in
white glue internal and exterior grades, it has good gap-filling properties and it provides a strong permanent
bond. It dries clear, but if not cleaned up properly can leave visible marks when the product is
varnished or stained. It can react with some hardwoods to leave black joints or marks.
PU (polyurethane) or foam A yellow-brown resin that foams when exposed to the air. It forms a strong, water-resistant bond
glue and has excellent gap-filling properties. It can be used to join damp timbers, but timbers must be
secured together while the glue dries, otherwise it could force the joint apart as it foams. The excess
glue can easily be removed after it has dried by scraping it off the joint, but do not attempt to do
this before it has dried, as this will result in the adhesive spreading over the work piece, your tools
and potentially yourself. PU glue is normally supplied with a pair of disposable gloves, which should
always be worn when using it.
UF (urea-formaldehyde) or This adhesive is mixed with water before use. A chemical reaction causes it to set after a few hours,
powdered resin glue depending on the surrounding temperature, and it forms a strong water-resistant bond. It is used for
high-quality work as it does not stain the timber being joined.
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Type of adhesive or foam Properties and use

Synthetic resin grab This is supplied in a tube and needs to be applied with a skeleton gun. Although not often used in
adhesive the joinery workshop, it is used for site work such as fixing panels and skirting to walls. Some grab
adhesives will form a skin as soon as they are exposed to the air, which prevents them bonding as
well as other adhesives. Some are also very thick, which may cause the surfaces to sit slightly apart
and reveal a gap in the joint.
Contact adhesive, super This is a quick-drying adhesive used to join cornices, pelmets, plinths and skirting boards. It sets in
glue or mitre bond 15 seconds. A thin layer is applied to one surface while a spray activator is applied to the other; they
are then brought together and held for 15 seconds to form a permanent bond.
Polyurethane fixing foam This is now commonly used on site to fix in all types of frames such as door and window as well as
linings. It has similar adhesive properties to PU glue, but is applied using an applicator gun instead.
Expanding foam adhesive Similar to polyurethane (PU) adhesive, this fills and bonds most surfaces and materials. Different
grades of foam may have different acoustic and thermal insulation properties and fire ratings.
3 HOW TO SAFELY STORE AND

TRANSPORT HAND TOOLS
Hand tools are expensive to purchase and mostly will last for a long time if taken
care of. Bench joiners generally do not need to transport their tools and, in the
past, stored them in large wooden chests at the end of their benches. Many still do
so today, although metal and plastic chests are becoming more common.
Site joiners need to move their tools often and should carefully consider how best
to store their tools when transporting them. Those who have their own van tend
to fit it out with racking and storage boxes dedicated to specific tools, as well as
installing additional lighting and power points. Any such facilities should allow for
quick, easy and safe transport, storage and access. If any of these three principles
are ignored, your tools will become damaged and a safety hazard during transport.
Whichever storage method is chosen, silica gel packs should be used to help stop
tools from rusting during storage. Tools are usually transported from the van to the
work area in either tool bags or tool trolleys.
Storage totes
An open reinforced lightweight tool bag may be limited in the number and size of
tools it can carry, but is still very versatile.
p Figure 2.141 Storage tote
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Toolboxes/chests
Traditionally, bench joiners used wooden tool chests to store their tools, which
contained trays and compartments that suited the exact size of the tools being
stored. The lid was often used to store large saws. Tool safes are often used for
transporting tools in vans and keeping them safe and secure; these are lockable
steel strong boxes that are usually fixed permanently inside the van.
p Figure 2.142 Tool safe
Tool trolleys
A wide range of portable toolboxes are available, often containing trays, drawers
and compartments that can be used to separate sharp-edged tools from other
equipment. This will help you to quickly find tools and prevent the sharp-edged
tools from damaging other equipment or becoming blunt. Tool trolleys often have
lift-off boxes, allowing the load to be split when the trolley cannot be wheeled.
p Figure 2.143 Tool trolley
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Practical task
Sharpen, set up and use a jack plane
Outline of task
You are required to remove the iron assembly, grind and hone the plane iron,
refit the iron and assemble the plane, and produce a smooth flat surface to
a length of softwood.
Equipment required
l Completed risk assessment for grinding and honing a jack plane iron
l Number 5 or 5½ jack plane
l Appropriate PPE for the task
l Suitable grinding equipment
l Diamond or oil stone suitable for honing a plane iron
l 450 × 50 × 50 mm length of softwood
Candidate information
Before starting each task, ensure that you have been given permission
by your tutor or trainer to proceed. You should be given feedback on the
completed task and any retraining as required.
Task Achieved Requires retraining
Working to a given risk assessment, select the required
personal protective equipment for the outline task.
Correctly set up the grinding equipment, including all
guarding.
Correctly grind the plane iron to the correct angle and
shape without burring to the iron.
Hone the plane iron on either a diamond or oil stone
to the correct honing angle and shape, removing all
traces of the burr.
Reassemble the iron correctly onto the backing iron
and assemble in the plane.
Adjust the iron to the correct projection for smooth fine
planing of softwood and plane a smooth flat surface.
Store plane safely and correctly, retracting iron to
prevent damage.
All work carried out in accordance with current health
and safety regulations and safe working practices.
Activity successfully achieved Further training required detailed here
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Test your knowledge

1 A sprit level is best used to measure what? 7 What is the correct grinding angle for plane
a Levels around corners irons?
b Vertical and horizontal levels a 25°
c Pitch angle levels b 30°
d Distance levels c 35°
2 A water level is best used to measure what? d 40°
a Distance levels 8 What is the correct sharpening angle for a chisel?
b Vertical and horizontal levels a 25°
c Pitch angle levels b 30°
d Levels around corners c 35°
3 Which of the following will a box square typically d 40°
be used to do? 9 Which abrasive paper grade produces the finest
a Mark around round timber finish?
b Mark mitres a P60
c Mark around profiled timber b P100
d Mark out tenons c P120
4 Trammel heads and a beam are used to do what? d P180
a Set out small circles 10 Which type of drill bit would you use for
masonry?
b Set out large curves
a Twist bit
c Set out mortices
b Auger bit
d Set out tenons
c TCT bit
5 Which of the following is used for cutting across
the grain of the timber? d Lip and spur bit
a Crosscut saw 11 List the sequence for planing timber to thickness
from the sawn state.
b Ripsaw
12 Describe the process for grinding and sharpening
c Mitring
a 25 mm bevel edge chisel.
d Scribing
13 List the process for setting up a smoothing plane
6 Which plane would usually be used for fine iron.
finishing?
14 List the basic hand tools needed for either a site
a Smoothing plane carpenter or bench joiner.
b Compass plane 15 Design and complete an order form for the
c Jack plane purchase of the basic tool kit that you suggested
d Rebate plane in your answer to question 14.
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CHAPTER 3
POWER TOOLS
INTRODUCTION
Many different power tools are available for use in carpentry and joinery. Some are used for specific tasks, such
as a powered screwdriver for fixing screws, while others can be used to perform multiple tasks, for example
routers. The variety and availability of power tools has made tasks easier for carpenters and joiners, enabling
them to work more quickly and produce better-quality finishes; this is particularly true for site carpentry work.
The choice of which power tool to use is usually a straightforward one but understanding how to correctly set
up and use power tools is not always as simple.
This chapter discusses the most common types of power tools available today and the tooling required for
these power tools, as well as the different types of power sources they can use. Information is included on
how to safely use the power tools, along with the types of tasks they are typically used for. All power tools and
their tooling require maintenance and inspection, in addition to the use of appropriate personal protective
equipment, and both of these topic areas are also discussed.
Power tools can represent a considerable investment. Tradespeople need professional power tools, and it
is usually more economical in the long term to buy good-quality power tools from leading manufacturers.
Hiring portable power tools is an alternative and viable option. Like all other types of tools, power tools and
any tooling they may need should be stored and transported safely to prevent damage and to ensure that the
power tool is safe and ready to use when it is required. It also gives an impression of a careful and conscientious
professional.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn about:
1 power sources used with portable power tools
2 power tool safety
3 personal protective equipment (PPE)
4 types of power tools, tooling and their safe use
5 transporting, storing and maintaining power tools.
1 POWER SOURCES USED WITH

PORTABLE POWER TOOLS
The decision of what type and make of a power tool to purchase is important and
can at times be daunting. Just as important is the need for you to consider the
power source that the power tool requires to work effectively on the tasks you are
likely to perform.
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Chapter 3 Power tools
The most common power sources available are:

l electricity 230 V power
source
l battery
l gas
l compressed air.
The advantages and disadvantages for each type of
power source are set out below. A comparison of the
different type of power source is given in Table 3.2 on 110 V
page 118. transformer
Electricity
Electricity is the most common form of power source
110 V
used by carpenters and joiners for their power tools, extension lead
particularly on sites. In most cases, the electricity is
generated at power stations but can be generated p Figure 3.1 110 V transformer sited next to the 230 V power source
more locally by mobile generators, particularly on with 110 V extension lead from the transformer
new sites where the mains power has not yet been
installed.
Mains electrical power is distributed from power stations to domestic locations
(residential homes) at a voltage of 230 volts (V), which can kill a person if HEALTH AND SAFETY
accidental contact were to be made with the power source. To reduce the 110 V transformers should
always be installed as
likelihood of death and serious injury from electric shock, the power supply for
close as possible to the
tools is reduced from 230 V to 115–100 V, which is more often referred to as mains power source
110 V. This reduction in voltage is achieved by using a transformer, which is yellow and 110 V extension
in colour. Any power tools that are 110 V have a special yellow plug that fits into leads should be used to
a specific socket on the transformer. Although portable, 110 V transformers are the power tool. 230 V
extremely heavy. extension leads should
not be used to the 110 V
A 415 V power supply (referred to as a three-phase power supply) is usually transformer.
installed within joinery workshops. This is the power source for large woodworking
machines such as surface planers and vertical spindle moulders. The sockets used
with 415 V power sources are red and usually hardwired.
INDUSTRY TIP
Although 115 V is preferable to 230 V when on site or in the workshop, 230 V
tools are often used in conjunction with a residual current device (RCD). RCDs are 115 V transformers, extension
designed to protect against faults that may occur in the electrical supply. When a leads and plugs are yellow or
fault is detected, the RCD cuts off the power and acts as a failsafe trip system from have yellow markings.
the fuse board. An RCD is designed to protect against the risks of electrocution, for
example, if you cut through the cable when using a jigsaw.
Hand-held electrical power tools have a double insulation symbol on them, which
is shown in Figure 3.2. This means that the tool is designed in such a way that the
electrical parts of the power tool do not contact the outer part of the power tool.
Different-coloured plugs are used on power tools that have different voltages. Plugs p Figure 3.2 Class II double
used in the UK for portable power tools are shown in Table 3.1. insulation symbol
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q Table 3.1 Plugs used for power tools in the UK
Portable power tool plugs used in the UK
110 V plug Standard 230 V 3-pin plug; Industrial 230 V 415 V 3-phase plug
(Yellow) the most common type of plug (Blue) (Red)
fitted to portable power tools
It is likely that you will use an extension lead at some point in you work. These are
some simple guidance rules to follow when using an extension lead.
l Always keep and store your extension lead neatly and safely. This will reduce
the likelihood of the extension lead becoming damaged.
l Always ensure leads do not become a trip hazard and where possible run
extension leads above head height.
l Do not use extension leads that are still coiled up. This could lead to the
extension lead overheating and becoming a fire hazard. Always fully uncoil any
extension lead before use.
l Regularly inspect the condition of the extension lead for damage. Any damage
found should be professionally repaired before using.
l When using an extension lead in areas where it is likely to be walked over or
have traffic passing over it, use a lead protection sleeve, as shown in Figure 3.3.
This will not only help prevent the lead from becoming a trip hazard, but also
IMPROVE will help to protect the lead from damage.
YOUR ENGLISH
Produce a health and
safety leaflet outlining the
main hazards of using
electrical power tools and
the precautions to take to
avoid them.
p Figure 3.3 Lead protection sleeve
Battery
Battery power is the power choice for most tradespeople in most circumstances.
INDUSTRY TIP The advantages of this power source for the tradesperson usually far outweigh
the disadvantages of hand-held power tools. Batteries come in a wide variety of
Larger amp batteries deliver
power for longer periods of voltages and amps. As a simple guide, the bigger the voltage, the more power the
time. battery has; and the larger the amps the longer the battery will last before it needs
recharging.
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Li-ion (lithium ion) batteries are a lot lighter for the same power rating than other
types of batteries, which enables manufacturers to make lighter, less bulky power
tools. However, like all batteries, Li-ion batteries require charging. Owing to the
time it can take large amp batteries to charge (40 minutes), at least two batteries
are typically required. Another downside for battery-powered hand tools is the
lack of interchangeability of the battery from one manufacturer’s power tool to
another’s. This means you may need several different types of batteries along with
their chargers when using power tools from different manufactures.
Gas
Gas-powered tools are seldom used and are almost exclusively fixing tools, such
as first and second fix nailers. Even when the primary power used is gas, a battery
is used to provide the spark to ignite the gas. Gas is transferred from the canister
to a small storage chamber within the power tool each time the tool is used; this
gas is then ignited by a spark from the battery which delivers an instant high level
of power that is used to drive a plunger and drive the fixing home. Any used gas
canisters must be disposed of carefully and in accordance with the manufacturer’s p Figure 3.4 Disposable gas
instructions; under no circumstances should they be disposed of on a bonfire. canister
Compressed air
Compressed air is generally reserved for workshop use where a high-pressure air
storage cylinder stores the air from a compressor. Pipes and flexible hoses transfer
the air to the workstations where the power tools are then connected. The main
advantage of compressed air is that there is no electricity involved, other than the
power needed to run the compressor.
The disadvantages of using compressed air are as follows.
l Most air-powered hand tools are extremely noisy to use.
l Leads that deliver the compressed air to the power tool are thick and difficult
to manoeuvre, making the power tools heavy and difficult to manoeuvre,
compared to battery or electrically powered hand tools.
l Like other forms of power, compressed air is extremely dangerous if it is not
stored and used correctly. You should never use compressed air to blow on
yourself or your workstation. Using compressed air to blow dust from anyone
risks the possibility of introducing small air bubbles into the bloodstream,
which can be fatal. Using compressed air to clean a workstation results in dust
particles being introduced into the atmosphere, which may cause breathing
difficulties.
l Air-powered tools are limited in their scope of use as they can only be used
where there is a compressed air supply.
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p Figure 3.5 Compressor
q Table 3.2 Comparison of different types of power source
Type of power source Advantages Disadvantages

230 V High level of constant power. Trailing leads; usually requires an extension lead;
increased electrocution risk; requires a local 230 V
power source.
110 V High level of constant power. Trailing leads; usually requires a special 110 V
extension lead; heavy transformers; requires a local
230 V power source.
Battery Portable; flexible in use; high power; longer- More expensive tools; requires recharging; usually
lasting battery life; interchangeable batteries requires more than one battery.
between the same makers; does not require
a local 230 V power source.
Gas High power output. Canisters can be flammable.
Compressed air Constant power supply. Limited movability; requires a large storage cylinder
for the air supply; noisy; not easily transportable.
2 POWER TOOL SAFETY

Before using power tools, you should be trained in how to use them safely and
authorised to use them. This training should include:
l requirements for personal protective equipment (PPE)
l safe operation of the equipment
l types of tooling that can be used with the equipment
l risks associated with using the equipment.
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These safety aspects are particularly important when using power tools. Training
KEY TERM
may form part of small toolbox talks or be more formal such as, for example,
delivered at a training college. Toolbox talk: small bite-
size training sessions
Different types of power tool will require training and safety requirements specific covering a specific area
to that power tool, the task being performed and the type of PPE requirements. such as PPE use, safe
Specific hazards are covered later in this chapter. operation of a power tool
or hygiene requirements.
Table 3.3 outlines the general types of inspection required before using any power
tool, along with any actions you should take following your inspection.
q Table 3.3 Types of inspection to make before using any power tool
Type of inspection Inspect for Action

Do I have the correct Do the cushions on ear defenders Always replace worn and
type of PPE and is it have signs of damage? Does eye damaged PPE. Remember
in good condition? protection still offer clear vision? Do that PPE is not an option but
gloves have worn-out finger ends? a legal requirement.
Do I have suitable workwear and
foot protection? Do I need a hard
hat and a high-vis jacket? Do I need
sunscreen?
Visual inspection of Check for splits, cracks and broken Report any damaged tool and
the body of the tool components on the power tool. take out of use until repaired.
for damage.
Visual inspection of Check for splits in the cable or poor Damaged cables should be
cables. repairs to damaged sections of reported and the tool taken
cable. out of action until repaired.
Visual inspection of Check plug for damage and poor Damaged plugs should be
plugs. cable fixing into plug. reported and the tool taken
out of action until repaired.
Visual inspection of Inspect guards for damage and Damaged or sticking guards
guards. adjustment. Ensure that the guard should be reported and the
moves freely throughout its full tool taken out of action until
HEALTH AND SAFETY
range. repaired. Never use a power Always give your power
tool with damaged or missing tool a visual safety
guards. inspection before use and
Visual inspection of Is the tooling the correct type for the Replace any damaged, blunt do not use if it is found to
tooling. power tool and its intended task? or inappropriate tooling with be unsafe.
Is the tooling in good condition and the correct sharp tooling.
sharp?
Visual inspection of Are all components available and Locate and use appropriate KEY TERM
control components. fitted for the correct operation of the components for the safe
power tool, such as fences, depth operation of the power tool. PAT certificate: portable
stops and riving knives? appliance testing (PAT)
Check start–stop Do the start–stop controls work Stop using the power tool,
is an examination of
controls. efficiently and responsively? report the fault and take out electrical appliances and
of action until repaired. equipment to ensure they
are safe to use; a label
Portable appliance Does the power tool have a current If no PAT label is visible, do
testing (PAT) up-to-date safety label? not use, report and take the
is fixed to the power tool
certificate. power tool out of action. stating date of test.
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HEALTH AND SAFETY 3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE

Always refer to the risk
assessment for guidance EQUIPMENT (PPE)
on the type of safety
precautions that need You will need to use various types of personal protective equipment (PPE) when
to be in place and the using portable power tools, depending on:
required PPE you should
be using before starting l the type of tool being used
work. l the type of material being cut
Get into the habit of l where the cutting operation is taking place
always wearing eye and l how long the power tool will be used for
ear protection, as well l the climate conditions
as close-fitting nonslip l whether good local exhaust ventilation is available for the cutting operation.
gloves, when using any
power tool. Table 3.4 outlines some typical hazards that occur when using portable power tools
and the measures you can take to help combat the hazards, including possible PPE
precautions.
q Table 3.4 Typical hazards that may occur when using portable power tools
KEY TERM
Type of hazard Typical control measures
Personal protective Dust from the cutting operation Always use a local exhaust ventilation system (LEV)
equipment (PPE): safety of the tool and/or what is already such as a mobile dust extractor; a suitable dust mask
equipment worn by an present in the atmosphere. should also be worn.
individual to protect
Noise from the operation of Isolate the source of the noise if possible; where this is
themselves from the power tool as well as the not possible use suitable ear protection.
workplace hazards. noise levels in the working
There are many different environment.
types of PPE including
Debris from cutting and fixing Use safety goggles or glasses. The use of safety glasses
protective gloves, operations. is considered a minimal requirement for all working
safety goggles and ear situations.
defenders. PPE designed
Splinters and contaminants from Use suitable gloves. Modern close-fitting nonslip gloves
to protect against
timbers and solvents. should be considered as a standard everyday item of
respiratory hazards clothing.
is referred to as RPE
(respiratory protective Visibility. Use high-visibility jackets where traffic is likely.
equipment). This protects Falling objects from your own Use hard hats and suitable footwear.
the user’s lungs and work or other's.
airways. Vibration from power tools. Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS) can occur
Stroboscopic effect: the from exposure to vibration including by the transfer of
flickering or flashing of a the vibrations from power tools. It is most commonly
referred to as vibration white finger.
light source, which can
cause headaches and When using vibrating tools, limit your exposure time
nausea. Stroboscopic using the tool by doing other types of work between
exposures. Use heavy gloves to help absorb the
effects can also lead
impacts.
to dangerous situations
when using rotating Lighting. Ensure that you have good lighting levels and no flashing
tooling such as saws and or flickering lights which could result in a stroboscopic
effect. Always use good-quality mobile lighting as
routers. The flashing or
required.
flickering of the light
source makes the tooling
appear to be stationary
or moving very slowly or
even backwards.
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4 TYPES OF POWER TOOLS,

TOOLING AND THEIR SAFE USE
Safety guidelines when using power tools
Using power tools is dangerous so it is extremely important that you always
follow safe practices. Instilling a culture of safety first is not an option but a legal
requirement; this not only ensures your safety but that of others around you. Lack
of time is not an excuse for poor safety practices.
These are general safety guidelines to observe when using power tools.
l Wear the correct type of PPE for the task as outlined in the risk assessment;
this is discussed later in this chapter. Remember, PPE is not an option but a legal
requirement.
l Be aware of any loose clothing, jewellery or trailing earphone wires that could
get caught up in the power tool.
l Ensure that the material is securely and appropriately held for the task.
l Always keep your hands, arms and legs away from the cutting edges of the
power tool.
l Always use the correct type of tool for the task; doing otherwise could lead to
accidents.
l Never try to force a tool; if it will not move or cut easily there is usually a good
reason why.
l Keep your work area safe, clean and tidy.
l Always disconnect the power source before changing any tooling for the power
tool.
Portable power tools

Portable power tools have advanced considerably over recent years, in ergonomics,
KEY TERM
efficiency, type, safety and cost efficiency. As a result, most types of work can
now be carried out using portable power tools. Regardless of the type of power Ergonomics: designing
tool you use or its manufacturer, the following rule applies: blunt, damaged and equipment in a way
that improves overall
poorly maintained power tools are more dangerous than sharp well-maintained performance and
ones. Using the correct type of sharp tooling in well-maintained power tools helps comfort based on an
ensure a better-quality finish as well as a safer tool to use. understanding of human
actions, such as how
The most common types of portable power tools can be grouped into the well it suits the body of
following categories: the user or whether it is
l drills and impact drivers l powered nailers comfortable to hold.
l mobile extraction units l sanders
l power saws l oscillating multi tools
l planers l angle grinders
l routers l scanners and detectors.
l jointers
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Power drills and impact drivers

The drill is possibly the first type of power tool you are likely to purchase. The type
of power source the drill uses will depend on the type of drill you require and where
you usually work: for example, those who work at a bench most of the time may
prefer a cabled drill, while those who work on site may prefer a battery version.
Each type has their advantages and disadvantages (see Table 3.2 on page 118).
Most drill/drivers have a 2-speed gear box. As a general guide, use the slower
speed 1 when using as a screwdriver and the faster speed 2 for drilling holes. Most
drill/drivers have a torque-setting feature, which allows you to adjust the power
delivered to the chuck through a clutch-type system. The higher the torque setting
number, the more force is delivered to the rotating chuck. When driving screws
into hard materials, you usually require a slower speed and a higher torque setting.
When driving screws into softwood, you are likely to need a reduced torque setting
to avoid driving the screw too far into the material and risking splitting the material.
Getting the combination of speed and torque right helps you to control the depth
of your screwdriving without risking any damage to the material being fixed.
Differences between drills, hammer drills and impact drivers

There are lots of different types of drills, but what are the differences between a
drill, a hammer drill and an impact driver? Drills and hammer drills are usually used
to drill holes, while an impact driver is used to fix and remove screws and bolts
with a suitable type and size of screw or bolt bit.
A typical drill applies a rotational force to turn the drill bit. A hammer drill
incorporates a hammer action into the rotational force, which is achieved by using
a spring, hammer and anvil. When the motor turns the drill shaft and you apply
pressure to the end of the drill bit, a spring is compressed; this is forcefully released
to drive a small hammer against the anvil. This hammering action is constant while
pressure is exerted on the end of the drill bit; the hammering action enables the
drill to deliver a much larger drilling force to the drill bit and is usually required
when drilling masonry such as bricks, stone and concrete. It is this same hammer
action that impact drivers use to fix and remove screws and bolts.
Drill/drivers usually have a selection function which allows you to switch the drill
between rotational drilling, screwdriving or hammer drilling. Hammer drills have
a selection feature of rotational drilling, hammer drilling or just hammer only.
Hammer drills tend to be heavier and bulkier machines.
Drill/drivers and impact drivers are essential parts of any professional
tradesperson’s tool kit.
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Chuck types KEY TERMS

Most hand-held drills use a keyless chuck system to tighten and release Chuck: the housing that the
the drill bit. This type of chuck uses a rotating collar at the front of the drill shank of the drill bit fits into.
which is turned to tighten or loosen the drill bit. It has the advantage over Shank: the end of the drill bit
keyed chucks in that it does not require a chuck key, which often become that fits into the chuck of the
damaged and make fitting and replacing drill bits a more time-consuming drill; the non-cutting part of
process. the router cutter that is fitted
into the collet of the router; the
Drill chucks in most hammer drills use a slotted drive system (SDS) chuck, part of the nail between the nail
which gives greater grip to the drill bit owing to the slotted grooves in the point and the nail head.
side of the drill bit. SDS chucks are also available with a standard round
shank that can be fitted into a standard drill chuck, thereby converting the drill
chuck into an SDS chuck.
p Figure 3.6 Keyed chuck with key p Figure 3.7 Keyless chuck p Figure 3.8 SDS chuck
See Table 3.5 for examples of the most common types of drills and drivers that are
available.
q Table 3.5 Common types of drills and drivers
Type Description
Hand-held drill/driver Drill/drivers are the most versatile type of drill. They can be
Torque setting used as a screwdriver, rotational drill and hammer drill. They
Speed selector
usually incorporate a 2-speed gearbox and a variable torque
setting.
Function
Reverse
selector
selector
Trigger
Battery release
Battery
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Type Description
Hammer drill Hammer drills are the heavyweight alternative to the drill/driver
SDS chuck and are typically required when drilling larger diameter and
deeper holes in masonry and concrete. Hammer drills typically
have three functions: rotational drilling only; hammer drilling;
and hammer only. The hammer only option converts the drill
into a smaller version of a breaker, which can be used for
chasing out blockwork or concrete floors and other demolition-
type activities. Hammer drills tend to use the SDS chuck
system, as this slotted drive system prevents drill slippage in the
Depth Trigger chuck, which can be a problem with standard chuck systems.
gauge
Auxiliary
handle (to
be used
when heavy Selector switch enabling drill
drilling) to either rotate without
hammer action, rotate with
hammer action or just hammer
action
SDS drill bit

Slotted drive
Impact driver and hex bit Impact drivers enable the rapid fixing of screws. The impact
driver uses ¼-inch hex bits. Ensure that you select the correct
size and type of bit to fit the type of screw that you are using.
Most hex bits are universal at both ends.
Hex end
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Type Description
Pillar drill A powerful workshop drill that incorporates a stand holding the
drill head, and a table that can rise and fall. The drill head uses
Start−stop
a keyed chuck, which is lowered into the material via a handle.
switch The machine bed can have fences fixed to it, enabling constant
Drill head accurate hole positioning, making these drills particularly useful
rise and fall for repetitive drilling of accurate holes. Pillar drills usually have
Drill bit multiple speed choices via pulleys and deliver extremely high
Connection slots
rotating forces. As a rule, use slower rotation speeds for larger
Bed rise
for drill fence diameter drill bits. Speed guides for different drill diameters are
and fall detailed on the gearbox of the drill’s drive system.
Machine
bed
KEY TERM
Pulley wheel: a type of wheel that a drive belt
fits around; they come in different diameters to
give different drive speeds for the drill bit.
Breaker or Kango The breaker, also often referred to as the Kango (a brand
name), is a drill that uses the hammering action of the smaller
hammer drill but on a much larger and heavier scale. Kangos
use different shaped chisels to help break up concrete, flooring
and paving slabs, and undertake other types of demolition
work.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

When drilling small objects
on pillar drills, always use
a drill vice or some other
type of holding device and
use the drop-down drill
guard. Wear safety glasses
and keep clothing and hair
away from rotating tooling.
INDUSTRY TIP
For speed, safety and
accuracy, it is best to use
fences and stops on pillar drills.
p Figure 3.9 Using a pillar drill with drill vice

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Using drills and drivers

Common problems that you may encounter when drilling timber with hand-held
drills or using impact drivers are outlined in Table 3.6, along with information on
how to remedy them.
q Table 3.6 Common problems encountered when drilling timber with hand-held drills or when using impact drivers
Problem or fault Remedy

Drill bit slipping in chuck while drilling timber. Keep withdrawing drill bit to clear debris from hole.
Adjust drilling speed.
Consider using SDS drill or SDS conversion chuck.
Spelching out on the back side of material. Clamp a sacrificial piece of timber to the back side of the material being
drilled, as shown opposite.
Mark out and drill from both sides if possible.
✘
Battery keeps stalling during drilling. Switch to drill setting.

Increase torque setting.
Recharge battery.
Screwdriver bit keeps jumping out of screw head. Use correct type and size of screwdriver bit.
Reduce rotation speed to slow.
Ensure screwdriver bit is correctly lined up with screw head.
Replace damaged head.
Screw keeps splitting timber. Drill clearance hole suitable for screw gauge.
Reduce torque setting.
Screw penetrates too deeply into timber. Reduce torque setting.
Screw does not fully drive home. Increase torque setting.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Your employer has asked you to source one type of drill that you require for
your type of work. Source the best price for it, outlining the net cost, the VAT at
the current rate and delivery costs to your home. Display this information on an
invoice that could be given to an employer.
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IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Write a paragraph outlining the main differences between an SDS drill chuck
and a standard drill chuck, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Mobile extraction units

A mobile extraction unit is one of the most important power tools to include in your
tool kit, whether you intend to use portable power tools or hand tools only. Most
portable power tools come with some form of dust collection facility; this is usually
a cloth bag, which is poor at collecting the dust particles, has a small capacity and
relies on the power tool’s cutting motion to throw the dust particles into the bag.
The mobile extraction system or local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is a specialist
vacuum that uses a powerful suction to help suck dust and debris into the
collection bag within the extraction unit. Mobile extraction units not only help to
keep dust and debris to a minimum while using power tools, but they also help to
keep the atmosphere free from fine dust particles. Fine filters within the extraction
unit filter the expelled air, trapping the fine dust particles so further helping to
control hazardous dust particles. HEALTH AND SAFETY
Mobile extraction systems create healthy working conditions, but they also Always vacuum up dust
save time in cleaning the work area, as there is little dust and debris to clear up particles whenever
compared to when working without one. They allow the power tool to produce possible, as sweeping up
results in more hazardous
a clean smooth finish to the cut that may otherwise be affected by a build-up of
dust particles being thrown
dust and other debris. Using mobile extraction systems shows you are a careful into the atmosphere.
and safe worker, and their use is also very often a requirement of a risk assessment.
Mobile extraction systems are produced in several sizes and are extremely
transportable. Attachments are also available that enable you to use the unit for
vacuuming the floor instead of sweeping up, which allows for dust-free collection.
Sweeping up usually leaves a dust cloud, which then settles and requires further
cleaning, whereas vacuuming reduces dust in the atmosphere, improves safety and
saves time.
p Figure 3.10 Mobile extraction system p Figure 3.11 Mobile extraction unit being used as a
traditional vacuum to clean the floor
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Power saws
Hand-held power saws are another must-have power tool for the professional
tradesperson. Not only do they save time when cutting material, they also produce
accurate and neat cuts.
Portable powered handsaws generally fall into one of the following two categories.
l Saws that use circular saw blades, which revolve at speed to cut the material,
such as plunge type saws, sliding mitre/chop saws, rail/track saws and table saws.
l Saws that use a flat cutting blade, which cuts the material in repeated push/pull
type stroke, such as jigsaws, multi-tools and reciprocating saws.
Types of circular saw blades

All saw blades have saw teeth topped with tungsten carbide tips (TCT). Tungsten
KEY TERMS carbide is an extremely hard-wearing material that is particularly good at cutting
Tungsten carbide tip man-made and hard abrasive materials such as plywood, medium-density
(TCT): a tip made of fibreboard (MDF) and oak. As a rule of thumb, the more teeth the saw blade has,
hard-wearing metal used
the finer will be the finish of the cut, but it is the shape of the teeth more than
to form the cutting edges
of tooling such as saw their number that determines the type of work the saw blade should be used for.
blade teeth. To determine which type of angle of hook or rake the blade has and, in turn, what
Angle of hook or rake: the type of cutting operations it is suitable for, follow the step-by-guide given below.
angle at which the face
of the saw tooth slopes 1 Take a line down the face of the saw tooth from the tooth tip. Compare this line
from the tooth tip, either to a line taken from the tooth tip to the centre of the saw blade.
down and forwards from 2 If the saw centre line is in front of the face line of the tooth tip, the saw blade
the tip, as in the case of has a positive angle of hook or rake and is suitable for ripping activities. This is
negative tooth profiles for
cross cutting, or down
and backwards from the 3 If the centre line is behind the face line of the tooth face the saw blade has a
tooth tip, as in the case negative angle of hook or rake and is suitable for crosscutting activities. This is
of positive tooth profiles shown in Figure 3.13.
for ripping. 4 If both lines are in the same position, the saw blade has a zero angle of hook
or rake and is classed as a natural cutting action blade. This type of blade is
particularly suitable as a general-purpose blade used in plunge saws and is
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Do not use a sawblade with
a positive angle of hook This means that three basic types of circular saw blade are available.
or rake for crosscutting.
This type of tooth design l Ripsaw blade: this has a positive angle of hook or rake and is used to cut timber
sawblade will snatch in along its grain. See Figure 3.12.
the cut (the sawblade l Crosscut saw blade: this has a negative tooth design and is used for cutting
will move uncontrollably), across the grain of the timber in power tools such as sliding mitre saws and
particularly on deep cuts, chop saws. See Figure 3.13.
and you may injure yourself
l General-purpose or neutral angle saw blade: this has a zero angle of hook or rake
or damage the material
you are working with. and is the most common type of blade used in plunge saws due to their finer
cutting action and facility for use with multiple types of tasks. See Figure 3.14.
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Clearance TCT tips

Gullet
angle Point Pitch
Kerf
INDUSTRY TIP
The number of teeth the
Face of sawblade has is a good
Sharpness tooth
angle indication of the quality of
finish the saw will give. As a
rule, a sawblade with more
Tangential
side teeth will give a smoother
Positive angle To centre
of hook or rake of saw clearance finer finish, while those with
fewer teeth are more suitable
p Figure 3.12 Parts of a TCT ripsaw blade with a positive angle of hook for deep fast cutting of
timber.
Kerf
Clearance
Face of angle Sharpness
Point tooth Pitch angle
IMPROVE
YOUR ENGLISH
Produce a safety poster
outlining the features that
makes circular saw blades
Gullet
different and why they
To centre Negative angle should only be used for
of saw of hook
the tasks for which they
p Figure 3.13 Parts of TCT crosscut saw blade with a negative angle of hook are designed.
Kerf
Clearance
Face of angle Sharpness HEALTH AND SAFETY
Point tooth Pitch angle TCTs are hard-wearing,
but they are also brittle
and liable to chip and
break. Take care when
using the saw and when
changing the blade to
Gullet ensure that the cutting
To centre of saw edges do not come into
contact with any nails,
p Figure 3.14 Parts of a TCT general-purpose or neutral angle of hook sawblade
screws or similar metal
items, which may damage
Plunge saw the blade tips and will
The plunge saw is a hand-held circular saw that is easy to use and adjust. It cuts result in a poor finish to
multiple materials, such as timber, plywood, MDF and laminate-faced materials. the cutting edge.
Modern plunge saws can be used for a variety of cutting operations, including:
l straight cutting along the entire length of the material
l starting and stopping part way along the material using the plunge cut action of
the saw
l angled cuts
l compound angle cuts (see page 135)
l precise depth of cuts for grooves
l close cutting to walls
l splinter-free cutting of face materials when using the guide rails.
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Newer models use a safer plunge cut system, where the saw blade is started within
the machine casing and then steadily plunged down to the pre-set depth of cut.
The saw can then be steadily moved into the material. To position and guide the
saw cut, a specially designed guide system is used with guide rails that incorporate
a semi-rigid splinter guard.
The splinter guard helps to ensure that the top face of the material does not chip
out (break away). This is particularly useful when cutting face materials used with
kitchen fittings, such as veneer-faced sheet materials and kitchen worktops.
Plunge saws use a circular saw blade to form the saw cut. The number of teeth the
saw blade requires is usually determined by the type of cutting the saw is used for.
As a general guide, a blade diameter in the region of 160 mm with lots of teeth
(48) is suitable for cutting material where a fine finish is required, while a saw blade
with fewer teeth (18) can be used for deep cutting of timber.
ACTIVITY
Select a circular saw blade. Using the information given in this chapter,
determine what type of activity the blade is suitable for.
These are some of the main advantages of using the plunge saw and guide rail
HEALTH AND SAFETY systems, compared with older versions of hand-held circular saws.
Hand-held circular
saws can be extremely l The saw blade is always fully enclosed by the power tool’s body and only
dangerous if not used becomes exposed when the saw blade is plunged to the required cutting depth;
correctly. You should only this is a big safety improvement on the older versions.
use a power saw if you
l The plunge action allows for safe starting and stopping part way along the
have been trained and
authorised to use it. material that requires cutting, whereas older versions risked kickback of the saw,
which is extremely hazardous. This operation should not be attempted unless
you are using a plunge saw.
l The depth of the saw cut can be easily and quickly adjusted with a fine
adjustment screw to produce fully accurate adjustments for precise cut depths.
Older saws are more difficult to set up precisely and usually require you to
make several attempts to produce an accurate depth of cut.
l The saw blade is electronically braked for faster and safer stopping of the saw
blade, unlike many older versions.
l Most good-quality plunge saws can quickly and accurately produce angled cuts
from −1° to +45°, whereas older versions usually required several practice cuts
to achieve an accurate angle.
l Most good-quality plunge saws now incorporate a rail system that enables
accurate and neat splinter-free cuts. Older saws relied on small side fences
or clamping a straight edge to the material and running the saw against the
straight edge; this often resulted in the saw running away from the straight
edge and producing a wandering cut.
l Guide rails are particularly useful when cutting faced materials, such as those used
as decorative panels in kitchen fittings, as well as for fast and neat removal from
door sides and bottoms and other sheet materials, such as MDF and plywood.
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l Guide rails ensure the saw does not wander while cutting straight lines, as often
happens when using the small side fences provided with older type saws.
l The design of the modern hand-held circular saw allows for close cutting
against walls, usually within 15 mm; on older versions this distance is
considerably increased due to the design of the saw’s base.
l The way the saw blade is changed is a safer and more efficient process.
Dust extraction Start–stop trigger Plunge release trigger

outlet
Casing guard
Saw depth gauge
Rails
Riving knife
Saw blade
Outer edge chip

breaker Anti-splinter guard fitted
to outer edge of rail to
line up with side of teeth
p Figure 3.15 Modern plunge saw with anti-splinter guide rail system
INDUSTRY TIP
Have at least two of each
type of saw blade. This
ensures that one is always
available, while the other can
be sent away for sharpening.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

p Figure 3.16 Non-plunge hand-held circular saw using a standard small side fence Always ensure the power
supply is disconnected
When selecting a circular saw blade, always ensure that the size of the blade is
before you start to fit or
compatible with your plunge saw. Using a blade that is too small results in a slower remove any saw blade.
peripheral blade speed, which can result in injury.
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Fitting circular saw blades into hand-held circular saws

Circular saw blades must be fitted into the plunge saw with the arrow on the saw
blade pointing in the direction of rotation of the plunge saw, which is around and
up towards the machine base at its front edge. The teeth on the saw blade cut
in an upwards motion, pulling the hand-held power saw down onto the material
being cut.
Saw base
Rotational direction
arrow
Riving knife
TCT on the saw tooth
Saw teeth should rotate

Gap as small as practicable up towards the front part
of the machine’s base
p Figure 3.17 Saw blade and riving knife
Riving knife
The circular saw must be fitted with a riving knife, which sits just behind the saw
blade, and its shape follows the circular profile of the saw blade. The riving knife
should be positioned as close as practicable to the back of the saw teeth and no
more than 8 mm away. The riving knife has two purposes, which are to:
l act as a rear guard to the saw blade
l help prevent any material binding on the saw blade during cutting operations
that may result in possible binding of the saw blade.
To help prevent the saw blade binding in the saw cut, the riving knife is slightly
thicker than the material used to form the saw blade, but thinner than the kerf of
the saw cut.
Dust extraction outlet

The dust extraction outlet is sited at the rear of the machine casing. It is important
to use a dust collection system. In most cases, the plunge saw is provided with a
dust collection bag, but this has a limited facility to collect the dust particles and
relies on the saw blade throwing the particles into the dust bag. A mobile dust
extraction unit is a far better option.
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Using plunge saws safely

Selecting and adjusting the cutting depth of the modern plunge saw is a simple and
quick process. When you need to make a full-depth saw cut, always set the cutting
depth of the blade so that it projects through the material by only 3 mm or 4 mm.
It is important to limit the distance the saw teeth project below the material as much
as possible. This helps to reduce the risks of accidental contact with the saw teeth.
Riving knife Saw teeth only just projecting

through the material
p Figure 3.18 Correct saw blade cutting depth
Jig, multi and reciprocating saw blades

Jigsaw blades
The blades used in jigsaws fall into two categories: the up-cutting and down-
cutting tooth profiles.
The up-cutting tooth profile blade cuts on the upwards stoke of the jigsaw and as a
result it can tend to splinter the top surface of the material being cut. It is typically
used for cutting timber.
p Figure 3.19 General purpose up-cutting jigsaw blade
The down-cutting tooth profile blade cuts on the downward stroke of the jigsaw;
this leaves the top surface of the material clean and splinter-free and is particularly
useful when cutting laminated surfaces such as those used in kitchen fitting.
p Figure 3.20 Down cutting jigsaw blade
Jigsaw blades can efficiently cut several different types of materials, such as wood,
plastics and metals.
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Multi-tool blades
There are several different types of multi-tool blade. Depending on the type of
blade used, they can cut timber, plastic and metal. They can range in shape from
straight cutting edges to semi-circular cutting edges. Multi-tool blades have fine
teeth and are particularly useful for cutting in tight areas, such as the bottom of
door lining when fitting laminate flooring.
p Figure 3.21 Multi-tool blade for Reciprocating sawblade
cutting timber
These sawblades are like those used with jigsaws except that they are usually
stronger and longer. Like jigsaw blades, they are available for cutting multiple
INDUSTRY TIP different materials.
When cutting laminate-faced Sliding mitre saws/chop saws

materials, such as decorative
Like the hand-held circular saw, these types of machines use circular saw blades
mouldings used in kitchen
to cut the material. As with saw blades for hand-held circular saws, the higher the
fitting, use a saw blade with
a high tooth count. Always try number of teeth the saw blade has, the finer the finish of the cut will be. Sliding
to ensure that any decorative mitre saws differ slightly to the chop saw: a chop saw can only cut in a downward
face is the face that the teeth action, while the design of the sliding mitre saw allows for the saw blade to slide
cut into first. forward as well as downwards, enabling a much larger cutting area than a chop
saw. As a result, the sliding mitre saw is the preferred option for the professional
tradesperson.
These saws can produce the following cuts:
l square edge cuts, such as when cutting materials to length
l mitred cuts, such as those used for skirting board and architrave cutting
KEY TERM bevelled cuts
Compound cut: a type l compound cuts, such as those used for roof rafter cutting.
of angled cut that
Duel action safety
incorporates two angles start trigger Dust extraction hose
simultaneously cut, one
from the mitre angle of
the saw and one from the
bevel or canted angle of
the saw. Clear Perspex
guard Saw head
sliding arms
Portable Saw blade Bevel adjustment

Mitre adjustment lock
timber
support table
p Figure 3.22 Sliding mitre saw on a saw stand incorporating long timber support beds
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The sliding mitre saw is a widely used power tool, particularly on site, allowing for
HEALTH AND SAFETY
fast accurate cutting of:
A sliding mitre/chop
l square cuts: 0˚ mitre angle and 0˚ bevelled direction saw should have a 300
mm hands-free zone
marked in front of the
cutting area. Remember,
when producing mitres
or compound cuts, the
hands-free zone will be in
line with the new cutting
Direction of direction.
Timber being cut saw cut
300 mm hands
free zone
p Figure 3.23 Plan view of square cut
l mitres: usually between 0˚ and 50˚ in both directions
Direction of saw cut
p Figure 3.24 Plan view of mitre cut
l bevelled cuts: usually between 0˚ and 50˚ in both directions
Timber being cut
p Figure 3.25 Edge elevation view for bevelled cut
l compound cuts: any angle between 0˚ and 50˚ in the mitre and bevelled
directions.
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The sliding mitre/chop saw has an adjustable back fence used to support the
HEALTH AND SAFETY
material during cutting operations; this back fence should always be kept as close
When cutting long lengths
as practicable to the saw cut. During standard square edge cuts and mitre cuts, the
of material, always ensure
that the ends of the back fences are pushed close together, providing support to the material during
material are fully supported. cutting operations. When a bevelled or compound cut is required, the back fence
will need to be moved away from the new cutting line of the saw to prevent the
saw blade hitting the fence.
Sliding mitre saws/chop saws should always use a crosscut (negative) tooth saw
blade and never a ripsaw (positive) tooth saw blade. The positive cutting action of
this type of tooth design would tend to snatch at the material; this would result in
a poor finish and more importantly could result in injury to you or damage to the
tool.
Table ripsaw
The table ripsaw is a smaller version of the larger industrial circular saw found in
workshops. The smaller table ripsaw is intended to be portable, allowing for quick
and easy installation on site. The health and safety measures involved in the safe
use of these machines are the same as those required for the larger industrial
circular saws. This type of saw bench is not to be used by an inexperienced worker
due to the high level of risks involved in their use. You must be trained in the saw’s
safe operation and authorised to use the machine before doing so.
Crown guard
Extraction hose
Cross-cut fence
Rip fence
Start/stop switch
p Figure 3.26 Parts of a table ripsaw
Table ripsaws are mainly intended for ripping down the grain of timber, although
some machines can be fitted with small sliding crosscut fences. Always ensure that
any materials being cut are fully supported at both the infeed end as well as the
outfeed end, as these machines can easily be tipped over when using them to cut
heavy materials.
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Circular ripsaws are used for the following three types of basic operation:
KEY TERM
l flatting, where the timber is ripped down its length through its thinnest section Saddle: a type of jig
(thickness) to the required width (as shown in Figure 3.27) used to support the
l deeping, where the timber is ripped down its length through its thickest section timber during the cutting
(width) to the required thickness (as shown in Figure 3.28) process.
l angled cutting, where the material is placed on a jig or saddle that holds it
stable at the required angle during the cutting operation (as shown in Figure 3.29).
This ensures that an accurate angle is produced but, more importantly, aids the
safe delivery of the material and safe control of the offcut.
Angle ripping
Extension piece
Saddle
Work piece
End cleat
p Figure 3.27 Flatting p Figure 3.28 Deeping p Figure 3.29 Angled cuts using a saddle
Cutting material
The way in which timber is presented and fed through the saw bench is vital to its
safe operation. Timber can shrink and twist in several different ways because of
seasoning or atmospheric changes during storage. This movement can take several
forms, the most common being:
l cupping, where the timber curves upwards at either edge to form a cup shape KEY TERM
over the face of the board; wide boards that are cut tangentially will usually Tangential: timber boards
cup over time that have been converted
l bowing, which is a curvature along the board’s face (its widest section) from so that the end grain is at
an angle of less than 45°.
one end to the other
l springing, which is a curvature along the board’s edge from one end to the other
l twisting, which is a curvature along both edges of the board’s length, producing
a propeller-shaped twist.
Cupping Bowing Springing Twisting
p Figure 3.30 Types of timber movement
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When using circular sawing machines, it is important that the material being cut is
positioned correctly on the machine before cutting. The following drawings outline
the correct positioning for materials that have common seasoning problems or
timber that is not flat and straight.
Crown guard
Fence Fence
Saw blade
Crown guard
Points of
Cupped side contact
Saw blade
against fence
Cupped positioning when flatting: cupped side uppermost Cupped positioning when deeping
p Figure 3.31 Correct positioning for ripping cupped p Figure 3.32 Correct positioning for ripping
timber through its thinnest section cupped timber through its thickest section
INDUSTRY TIP
Always position the cupped side facing upwards so that the outer edges fall away from the
saw blade.
Riving knife
Riving Convex side

knife to fence
Concave
side up
The timber needs to be in contact with the machine

bed at the point of cutting with the large blue arrow Concave edge
p Figure 3.33 Correct positioning for cutting p Figure 3.34 Correct positioning for ripping
timber that is bowed down its length timber that is sprung down its length
INDUSTRY TIP
A simple straight batten can be tacked on its face and used against the fence for safer and
accurate cutting.
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You may experience problems when sawing twisted timber. Use your best
judgement when following the above guidance. In the case of excessive twisting or
when in doubt, do not use the material.
During the cutting operation, timber can sometimes pinch in onto the sides of the
saw blade, causing friction; this is usually a result of case hardening in the timber. KEY TERMS
If this happens, the timber may be forcefully pushed back at the person operating
Case hardening: a defect
the saw; in severe cases, this could result in injury. To help prevent the timber caused by the timber
pinching in onto the saw blade, drive a wedge into the saw cut behind the riving being dried too rapidly,
knife; this action will help to stop the timber closing in any further. leaving the outside dry
but the centre still wet.
Safety measures for setting up and using table ripsaws It typically causes the
material to bend and
When setting up and using table ripsaws, you should always: twist during cutting,
l position the crown guard as close as possible to the top of the material being resulting in binding
cut on the saw blade and
kickback.
l ensure that the riving knife is correctly positioned at the rear of the saw blade
Push stick: a length of
and not more than 8 mm away from the saw teeth
timber used to help feed
l ensure that the material is fully supported by the machine bed and, when and control the material
required, an extension table and support rollers being cut.
l use an extraction system to collect the sawdust
l ensure that you have a suitable push stick available and always use it to feed
the last 300 mm of the material through the saw cut
l ensure that, when someone is removing material at the rear of the saw bench,
they are not positioned closer than 1200 mm from the centre of the saw blade.
m
f300 m
mo
imu
min
ea
ld b
hou
tance s
Thi s dis
mm
450
85° End of
push stick
Timber
Table
Spike – for controlling thin offcuts
p Figure 3.35 Push stick and spike used to help control the timber through the table saw
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1200 mm minimum
ACTIVITY
List the advantages and
disadvantages of using a
hand-held plunge saw and
guide rail system compared
with using a table ripsaw
for cutting sheet materials
such as MDF.
p Figure 3.36 Outfeed table used to ensure outfeed operative is kept at least 1200 mm away from
the centre of the saw blade
Jigsaws
The jigsaw is a versatile tool, mainly used for curved and irregular shaped cuts. The
blades used in jigsaws are narrow, which in turn allows the jigsaw to preform tight
turns. It is important to ensure that the blade is moving before it comes into contact
with the material to be cut. This prevents there being a sudden and uncontrolled
movement of the blade, which usually results in the blade being bent and can be
potentially dangerous. When using the jigsaw to cut out an aperture in material
such as a worktop, always drill a hole large enough for the blade to fit in first.
Trigger
Pendulum setting.
The higher the
setting, the faster
Blade release the cut
Bed
Blade
p Figure 3.37 Pendulum action jigsaw
Jigsaws incorporate a quick-release tool-free blade change system, which is usually

located behind the front transparent guard. The blade of the jigsaw cuts in an up
and down motion. Most jigsaws have an adjustable pendulum or orbital action
cutting feature. The pendulum action gives a slight swinging motion to the cutting
action of the blade, with the forwards swing taking place on the upwards stroke
of the cut, while the backwards action allows for faster and better cleaning of the
sawdust from the cut. The higher the pendulum action setting, the more swing the
blade has, which usually allows for faster cutting. The pendulum action is typically
used when cutting timber; a higher setting (with more swing) is used for deeper
cuts. A disadvantage of a high pendulum action is that more swing usually means
that it is less easy to produce an accurate cut. When tight accurate curves or neat
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finishes are required, use a zero-pendulum setting, as this allows for a steadier
controlled cut. Care is needed to prevent friction on the side of the blade as this
will produce a burnt finish to the finished cut.
Straight up and down Pendulum cutting action

cutting action
p Figure 3.38 Cutting actions of a jigsaw p Figure 3.39 Bending of the

blade during cutting produces
One of the most common problems you may experience when using a jigsaw is an undercut edge
when the blade bends during cutting, as shown in Figure 3.39, particularly when
making deep cuts using a high pendulum setting. Any bending of the blade can
produce an undercut edge, which affects the required size and shape of the cut.
Using a blunt or dull blade increases the likelihood of the blade bending, so you
should always discard a blunt or dull blade and replace it with a new sharp blade.
Reciprocating saw
The reciprocating saw has become an increasingly popular power tool due to its
versatility and, with the correct type of blade, its facility to cut through almost
any type of material. The reciprocating saw is commonly used by window and
door installers for removing windows and doors. When using the correct type of
blade, the saw blade can be run down the side of the brickwork to cut through the
fixings holding the frame in place, enabling quicker and easier frame removal. The
reciprocating saw uses a push and pull cutting action like that of a jigsaw and uses a
similar type of blade, but they are longer and stronger.
p Figure 3.40 Reciprocating saw
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Planers
The power planer is used to form a smooth flat surface or to reduce materials to
a given thickness, much like the hand versions. The power planer produces the flat
surface by passing revolving cutters (usually two) along the material. The front of
the planer has an adjustable bed, which limits the amount of material removed
in each pass. At the rear of the cutters there is a fixed bed, which sits on the
completed planed surface and supports the planer during the cutting operation.
Depth of cut scale

Start–stop control
Depth of cut
adjustment knob
for infeed bed
Dust extraction
port which can be
fitted to either side
Outfeed bed
Infeed bed
Side fence, used to

form rebates
p Figure 3.41 Portable power planer
Planer knives
The cutters of the planer are usually referred to as planer knives and in most new
models they are disposable. Each knife has two cutting sides. When one side of
the knife becomes blunt or damaged, it can be turned around and the new cutting
side can be used before replacing the knife. A step-by-step guide to removing and
replacing the planer knives is set out below.
1 Disconnect the planer from the power source.
2 Loosen the bolts securing the planer knives and slide out the old knife and
wedge bar.
3 Clean away the resin and dust that has built up around the seating area of the
knife, as well as on the wedge bar. When turning around old cutter knives to
their new cutting edge, thoroughly clean the cutter knife as well.
4 Fit the new cutter knife onto the wedge bar. The two small holes in the cutter
knife sit over the pins in the wedge bar, enabling fast and accurate positioning of
the cutter knives.
5 Slide the wedge bar and cutter knife assembly into the housing in the circular
cutter block and fully tighten the bolts.
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Wedge bar
Cutter knife
Infeed bed
Outfeed bed
p Figure 3.42 Cutter knife and wedge bar assembly being replaced
Using the power planer

The power planer can be used to remove a lot of material very quickly; sometimes
too much may be removed if you do not use the power planer carefully. To prevent
a poor finish and to limit any risk of removing too much material in one pass, it
is good practice to limit the depth of cut to a maximum of 2 mm. If you need
to remove more material, then it is best to use several smaller cutting depths
instead of one deep cut. Using deep heavy cuts above 2 mm can result in ‘chatter
marks’ on the finished surface, caused by the power planer slightly jumping from
the material during use. A further cause of a poor finish is unsightly ‘pitch marks’,
which are a consequence of passing the power planer over the material at too high
a speed. Passing the power planer too fast over the material surface can also lead
to tearing out of the material’s surface.
Pitch marks appear as a series of raised bumps and hollows on the timber surface.
All rotating cutters leave pitch marks as the material is passed over the cutters or
the cutters are passed over the material (as in the case of the hand-held power
planer). Small pitch marks are difficult to see and appear as a smooth flat surface.
Large pitch marks are easily visible and usually a result of high-speed travel of the
hand-held power planer over the material.
Large pitch marks

are a result of
high-speed planing
and show as raised Tear out on the
bumps on the material surface is a result of
high-speed planing
p Figure 3.43 Large pitch marks and tear out on the surface of the timber caused by too fast a
feed speed
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Feed direction
ACTIVITY
Fit a hand-held power
planer with a new set of Pitch
cutter knives and set the
planer to a cutting depth p Figure 3.44 Small pitch marks resulting from a slower feed speed of the power planer
of 2 mm. Slowly plane
a piece of timber. Using Feed direction
the same setting, repeat
the process using a faster
feed speed and compare
the quality of finish. Now
set the hand-held power
planer to 0.5 mm and
repeat the process. Notice
the difference when you
can control the planer and Pitch
the quality of finish.
p Figure 3.45 Large pitch marks resulting from a fast feed speed of the power planer
The hand-held power planer can produce splits or spelching (see Chapter 2, page 87)
to the outfeed end when planing end grain. For example, when planing the bottom
rail of a door, as you pass over the door stile you will cut end grain. The same
principle applies to any other task involving planing end grain.
The following guide will help you to reduce the likelihood of splitting out any end
INDUSTRY TIPS grain during planing operations.
1 Start by planing a small cut at your intended finishing end first, as shown in
Small raised tram lines Figure 3.46. This cut does not need to be more than 20 mm long but must be
following the line of the the same depth as will be used for the rest of the cut.
planed cut are clear signs
of damaged planer knives. Intended cutting depth
Start with a small
Further signs are torn grain cut here about
and a fluffy appearance to 20 mm long
the timber surface.
Portable planer knives are Grain direction
Intended finishing end
usually made from tungsten
carbide, which is very brittle.
Avoid planing metal objects
such as staples, which are
often found on the edge and p Figure 3.46 First stage of preventing splitting of end grain when planing
bottoms of doors, as these
2 Next, move to your starting end and plane the complete length of the material
will chip the cutting edge,
and out past your first cut as normal, as shown in Figure 3.47. Your planing line
leaving small raised lines
down the planed cut. should line through with your first cut, thereby eliminating the risk of splitting
the end grain.
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Continuation of second cut to line

through with first cut
First cut Second cut
Grain direction
p Figure 3.47 Second stage of preventing splitting of end grain when planing
Variations of cuts
The power planer is not only used to produce smooth flat surfaces on tasks such
as reducing doors to size. It can also be used to produce shaped flat surfaces
such as:
l bevels, which run completely across the surface of the material from one edge
to the other, incorporating two corner edges

l chamfers, which run part way across the surface of the material, incorporating
just one corner edge

l rebates, which are right-angled recesses cut into one corner edge of the material
and require the use of the fence provided with the power planer. The depth of
the rebate may be greater than the cutting depth of the planer; in these cases,
several cuts will be required to achieve the required finish depth of cut.
p Figure 3.48 Bevel p Figure 3.49 Chamfer p Figure 3.50 Rebate KEY TERMS
Grooves: narrow cuts or
ACTIVITY channels along the grain
Set up the hand-held power planer to cut a 30 mm wide rebate, where the of the timber.
finished required depth of the rebate is 12 mm. Using several smaller cuts, Housings: joints consisting
produce a 30 mm × 12 mm rebate in a length of timber. of a groove usually cut
across the grain, into
which the end of another
Routers member is housed or
Portable routers are among the most versatile portable power tool available to fitted to form a joint.
the carpenter and joiner. They can be used to perform a large range of operations Profiles: decorative shapes
including making grooves, rebates, housings, circles and profiles. Essentially, a router formed along the edge of
is a cutter directly attached to a big motor via a collet, as shown in Figure 3.51. materials, such as rebates,
ovolo, ogee, bullnose,
Fences, guide bushes and stops are used to control and adjust the depth and width
lamb’s tongue and scotia.
of cut.
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Speed setting. This is

reduced when using
large diameter cutters
Trigger and
safety switch
Handle
Handle
Body
Fine depth
adjustment Fine adjustment
Chuck for fence
and collet
Depth stop
Fence
Adjustable turret Base
or castellation
p Figure 3.51 Hand-held portable router
These are the component parts of a router.

l Speed setting: most routers have electronic speed controls which allow for
increased or decreased cutter rotations by the router motor as well as helping
maintain rpm (revolution per minute) while under load. A larger cutter will
require a slower rotational speed for safety reasons. Most routers operate
between 10,000 and 22,000 rpm. Another big advantage of variable speed
is the soft start feature; this is where the router gradually builds up speed,
eliminating the sudden jolting of the machine that can happen with fixed speed
machines.
l Switch: this is used to operate the machine. It is important not to start the
machine if the cutter is in contact with the material being cut. Most machines
now have a slow start, meaning there is no initial ‘kick’, and all new machines
are fitted with a braking system to make sure the cutter stops within a few
seconds of the switch being turned off.
l Handles: these are used to firmly grip the tool. In some smaller models, twisting
them acts as a depth lock.
l Body (motor): this is the casing that holds the motor.
l Collet: this is a chuck that holds the router cutter.
l Base: this is the bottom of the tool that is in contact with the work.
l Depth stop: this is used to control how far the router will plunge or the depth
of cut. A castellation/turret (multi-position depth stop) enables several depth
adjustments to be set at the same time. The castellation is turned to obtain
each setting. When the desired depth is set, the depth lock will lock the bed into
position, maintaining an accurate depth of cut.
l Fence: this is used to adjust the width of cut. It is adjusted by loosening and
tightening the nuts. Fine adjustment can be achieved by using the knob.
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The router is usually supplied with a few basic accessories, including a guide fence,
guide bush and a selection of collets, but lots of accessories and jigs are available to
use in conjunction with the router, as shown in Figure 3.52.
E
F
B D
C
p Figure 3.52 Some of the basic accessories available for the portable router
A Roller fence/bearing guide: used for trimming and curved work.
B Spanner: always use the one supplied with the machine to prevent overtightening.
C Guide bush: used with jigs and templates; available with different diameters.
D Trammel: used for producing radius shapes.
E Straight fence: for straight working running against the material.
F Fine adjustment to fence.
Router cutters
Most router cutters are designed to produce specific profiles or for use with
different types of jigs. One of the most frequently used types is the straight flute
cutter. This type of cutter is used for a wide range of applications, from cutting
grooves to forming rebates. It may be used in conjunction with templates and jigs,
for trimming and cleaning up edges of timber and manufactured boards.
The materials that router cutters are used for are varied, but they fall into two
main categories:
l hard and abrasive materials, such as oak, ash, beech, iroko and mahogany, and
man-made materials like plywood, MDF, chipboard and laminated materials
l softwood such as European redwood, spruce and cedar.
Router cutters for the hand-held portable router are available in three types of
cutting material.
1 TCT cutters are the most suitable for hand-held routers; they are reasonably
cheap, readily available and exceptionally good for cutting hard abrasive
materials and softer materials. The smaller diameter cutters are made from
solid tungsten carbide, while the larger diameters cutters have TCTs. More
commonly available now are router cutters that use disposable rotating TCT
cutters. As the cutting edge becomes blunt, the cutter is simply turned around
until all its cutting edges have been used. The cutting edge is replaced, instead
of replacing the whole cutter as with other types of router cutters.
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2 Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutters are suitable for cutting softwoods,

hardwoods and man-made materials. However, they are extremely expensive
and are used mainly on high-volume production computer numerically
controlled (CNC) routers.
3 High-speed steel (HSS) cutters are only suitable for cutting softwoods. If they
are used to cut the harder, more abrasive types of material, they will burn out
the cutting edge very quickly, resulting in an extremely poor finish and a ruined
cutter. These types of cutter are seldom used.
Some of the types of cutter profiles used with portable routers are shown in
Figure 3.53. The name associated with each type of cutter usually describes the
type of profile the cutter produces.
Ovolo cutter Bearing-guided rebate cutter Bearing-guided chamfer cutter Astragal cutter
Finished
Shank
profile
Cutting edge
Bearing guide
V cutter Dovetail cutter Trimming cutter Bearing-guided ogee cutter
Straight flute cutter used to Bearing-guided scotia/cove/ Straight flute cutter used to form a
form a groove in conjunction cavetto cutter rebate when used in conjunction
with the router fence with the router fence
p Figure 3.53 Common types of router cutter
Router cutters are available in several different ‘shank’ sizes. The most common
sizes of router shank are 6 mm, ¼ inch, 12 mm and ½ inch diameter. Larger
diameter shank cutters are typically used with larger sized cutters and larger, more
powerful routers.
Large-diameter router cutters should not be used in hand-held portable routers.
INDUSTRY TIP Always refer to the manufacturer’s information on the appropriate cutting speed
and type of router cutter that can be used in your router. Larger hand-held portable
The roller guide bearing on routers are more capable of using larger diameter cutters than smaller versions.
router cutters can be changed
Router cutters of more than 50 mm diameter should not be used in portable
to a different size, allowing
hand-held routers but only in fixed bed router tables. If the motor in the router
for slightly different profiles
to be produced from the same shows signs of slowing down or the router becomes difficult to feed, reduce the
cutter. size of the cut and produce the correct finished size of the moulding in multiple
passes until the required size is achieved.
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Cutter speed settings

KEY TERM
Using the correct peripheral speed or rotation speed of the router cutter edge is
Peripheral speed: the
vital for the safe operation of the router, as well as the production of an acceptable
distance the rotating
surface finish to the material. If the peripheral speed of the cutter is too low it can cutting edge travels,
result in a poor finish, while too high a peripheral speed can result in a difficult-to- expressed as metres per
control and dangerous machine. second (m/s).
The peripheral speed of a router cutter is affected by several factors including:
l the type of material being cut – hard abrasive materials will slow the router
cutter down more than softwoods
l the size of the cut – larger cuts will slow the cutter down and put more strain
on the router motor
l the feed speed at which the router travels through the cut – the faster the
router is fed along the material during the cutting process, the more strain is
put on the motor, resulting in a reduced peripheral speed
l cutter sharpness – using a sharp router cutter revolving at the correct peripheral
speed will ensure a good quality finish
l the power rating of the router – the power of a router is measured in watts,
with most routers ranging from 700 watts for a small lightweight DIY router up
to 2200 watts for a heavy duty professional router. Larger watt machines can
use larger diameter cutters, take larger cuts and work for longer periods of time
without risking damaging the router motor.
Use the following formula to work out the peripheral speed of the cutter:
(Diameter of cutter in mm × π × router speed)/100 = peripheral speed in m/s
(Note: π = 3.142)
Example:
Cutter diameter: 20 mm
Router speed: 18,000 rpm
IMPROVE
Peripheral speed of the cutting edge = 20 × 3.142 × 18,000 = 1131.12 m/s YOUR MATHS
1000
Router cutters have an optimum peripheral cutting speed, which is generally accepted Calculate the peripheral
at about 1520 rpm. Maintaining the rpm is dependent on many factors previously speed of a cutter that has
a 25 mm diameter.
discussed. The formula for working out the speed setting of the router is as follows.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

The optimum peripheral speed of the cutter can be worked out using the INDUSTRY TIP
following formula:
As a rule, the smaller the
(Optimum peripheral speed × 1000 )/(π × diameter of cutter)
cutter diameter, the faster the
Example: router should revolve; and the
Optimum speed of cutter = 1520 rpm bigger the cutter diameter,
the slower the router should
π = 3.142
go round. Never use cutters
Cutter diameter = 30 mm with a diameter over 35 mm
(1520 × 1000)/(3.142 × 30) = 16,125 rpm in hand-held routers as they
Therefore, the optimum speed setting of the router would be approximately can become difficult and
16,000 rpm. dangerous to control.
Using the above formula, work out the optimum speed for a 20 mm diameter cutter.
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Types of work produced using hand-held portable routers

The list of work that can be done with a router is extensive and, with the use of
proprietary (shop bought) and custom-made jigs, many more items can be added
to this list. Types of work you can produce using hand-held portable routers
include:
l edged profile work using fences and bearing guided cutters
l profiles and grooves using guide rails
l worktop jointing
l door hinge recesses
l lock and letterbox cutting
l openings in worktops (apertures)
l producing circles and ellipses
l forming dovetails.
Work along the edge of the material, using either a fence or the bearing of the
cutter running along the material.
Dust extraction
hose to vacuum
Router guide
fence
p Figure 3.54 Straight cutting using the router fence
Figure 3.55 shows someone using a template or jig in conjunction with the guide
bush. With this type of working, an appropriately sized guide bush is inserted into
the base plate of the router. The guide bush then follows the predetermined shape
of the template or jig.
p Figure 3.55 Using a temple and guide bush p Figure 3.56 Router guide bush
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Bearing guided router cutters are designed to be used in direct contact with the
material, eliminating the need for a jig or template.
Router base plate
Router cutter
Bearing to router cutter
p Figure 3.57 Using a bearing guided router cutter to run along the outer edge of the material
Figure 3.58 shows someone using a guide rail system. The same guide rail system
used with circular saws can also be used with routers, providing that the router/
guide rail attachment is available. The guide rail is positioned at the required
position (allowing for the offset of the router) on the material. The guide rail
attachment, which has been fixed to the router, is then located onto the guide rail.
Using guide rails allows for accurate and stable working anywhere on the material,
and is not limited to the outer edges or the restricted distance allowed by the
router fence.
p Figure 3.58 Router and guide rail system
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q Table 3.7 Jigs and templates for use with hand-held portable routers
Jig or template Example

Worktop jig
Hinge recessing jig
Dovetail jig
Trammel being used

to form circular cuts
Portable routers can also be used in conjunction with a router table. This is where
the portable router has been inverted into a specially designed table. This type of
working is mainly reserved for workshop working since most router tables are not
easily transported. When using a portable router in a router table, the router acts
very much like a vertical spindle moulder (a large professional machine used for
profiling timber components) and requires all the appropriate safety features and
rules that apply for the vertical spindle moulders.
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Rear guard and extraction hose port located behind fence

HEALTH AND SAFETY
When using router tables,
always use the guards
and use a push stick for
Router table fence feeding the last 300 mm
of the material. This will
Adjustable guard to reduce the risk of your
sit above router cutter hands and fingers making
accidental contact with
Router table bed the cutter.
Aperture for
router cutter
Router mounted
below bed of table
p Figure 3.59 Router table
Direction of travel for the hand-held portable router

For safety and control, feed the hand-held portable router in the correct direction
of travel in relation to the rotation of the cutter. The correct direction of travel for
the router can be determined in the following way.
Looking down from the top of the router towards the cutter, you will notice that
the cutter rotates in a clockwise direction. The forward-facing or forward-rotating
edge of the cutter should always do the cutting; this is called push cutting. In
Figure 3.60, the router should be positioned on the right-hand side of the material
and pushed away from you or positioned on the left of the material and pulled
towards you. In both cases, the cutter is cutting on its forward-facing edge.
If you feed the router in the opposite direction, which is called ‘climb cutting’, the
cutter will dig into the material, resulting in the cutter pulling the router along in a
self-feeding or climbing motion along the material. This can result in loss of control
and a poor-quality or lumpy surface finish to the material, as well as possible injury
to the operator.
Clockwise rotation
of cutter
Climb-cut
direction
Push-cut
direction
✔ Cutter digs into

the material
p Figure 3.60 The correct direction of travel when viewed p Figure 3.61 The incorrect direction of travel,
from the top of the router looking down towards cutter with the cutter digging into the material
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Forming a rebate using a guide fence

When forming a profile such as a rebate, the cutting edge may splinter or spelch,
probably owing to the cutter working beyond its centre point. To prevent any
spelching or splintering along the cutting edge of the material while forming a
rebate, it is important that you do not cut beyond the centre of the router cutter in
INDUSTRY TIP one go. If the finished size of the rebate is wider than the radius of the cutter, form
the rebate in multiple passes.
If during the cutting process
The maximum cutting depth in one pass for a router cutter should be limited to
you find the router is hard
to control, has excessive a cut equal to the cutter’s radius. For example: a cutter with a diameter of 6 mm
vibration and excessively high should be limited to a maximum 3 mm depth of cut for one cutting pass; a 10 mm
noise levels, it is likely that diameter cutter should be limited to 5 mm maximum cutting depth in one pass; a
you are trying to remove too 12 mm diameter cutter should be limited to 6 mm maximum cutting depth in one
much material in one pass. pass; and so on. This applies to softwoods; when machining hardwoods, you should
further reduce this maximum cutting depth in one pass.
When a rebate is required that is greater in its width than the radius of the cutter,
use the following procedure.
18 mm
First cut shown in

green set at 9 mm
STEP 1 In this example, the required width of the rebate STEP 2 The maximum amount in one cut that the cutter should produce.
is 18 mm, while using a 25 mm diameter cutter.
The maximum amount in one cut that a 25 mm cutter should produce is 12.5 mm,
which is equal to the radius of the cutter. To achieve the required rebate size of
18 mm, two passes of 9 mm each are needed.
Second cut shown in Do not cut in one pass

green equal to 9 mm beyond the centre
but totalling an 18 mm line of the cutter
wide rebate
STEP 3 The second cut of 9 mm will now achieve the total width of 18 mm STEP 4 The incorrect way to form a rebate is to try to cut beyond the
without the cutter having to cut beyond its centre line in one pass. centre of the cutter in one go.
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If these guideline measurements are exceeded there is a risk of breaking the cutter,
particularly when using smaller diameter cutters. Although these are guidelines INDUSTRY TIP
for the maximum cutting depths in one pass in relation to the cutter’s diameter, it
is the material being cut and its quality that will determine the maximum cutting Feeding the router too slowly
depth of each pass of the cutter. along the material can
produce burn marks (or dwell
Push stick marks, as they can be called)
on the finished surface of the
Router cutter Work piece material.
tion
HEALTH AND SAFETY
irec
Table fence dd Be aware of dead or loose
Fee
knots on the edge of the
material that the router
cutter will pass along, as
these can be dislodged,
resulting in potential
Direction of cutter
Table bed, router fixed
injury.
movement
to underside
Note: Guards and pressures missing for clarity
p Figure 3.62 Feed direction for the router table
When using a router table, always feed the material into the direction of the
revolving router cutter and, as with using a hand-held router, never cut beyond the
centre line of the cutter in one pass.
Jointers
Jointers are used to join material together, such as forming joints when
constructing frames, joining kitchen worktops, lengthening materials and making
furniture. Jointers fall into two general types:
l biscuit jointer
l domino jointer.
Biscuit jointers and domino jointers can generally be used for the same type of
work. However, it is widely accepted that domino jointers produce stronger and
more accurate joints. They are becoming a highly valued and versatile workshop
power tool, particularly in environments that do not have access to the larger
and more expensive industrial workshop machinery, such as a mortice and tenon
machine.
Biscuit jointer
The more traditional biscuit jointer uses oval shaped discs, referred to as biscuits,
which fit into matching circular grooves in each piece of material to be jointed.
The groove is cut by a small grooving saw contained within the biscuit jointer, as
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p Figure 3.63 Biscuit jointer p Figure 3.64 Biscuit jointer blade
p Figure 3.65 Biscuit recesses cut in a rail ready for assembly

KEY TERM
Domino jointer
Loose tenon: a length
of timber or plywood Domino jointers allow you to undertake a wider range of work. They enable you
used to form the joint to produce larger items of joinery that require stronger joints, more quickly and
of a mortice and tenon cheaply than would otherwise be possible.
joint that is separate
from (loose) both pieces The domino cutter uses a specially designed drill bit that cuts a round-ended slot,
of timber that are to be called a mortice, into which fits a flat round-ended loose tenon, called the domino,
jointed. This contrasts as shown in Figure 3.67. Domino joints are widely used in the manufacture of
with the traditional tenon frames and furniture and in general jointing practices. Domino joints are considered
that is a part of one of a stronger, more accurate type of jointing system than biscuit joints and are widely
the pieces being jointed
together.
used in workshops, but they can also be used for work on site, such as worktop
jointing.
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Domino cutters are available in five different sizes – 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 8 mm
and 10 mm – to suit the required size of mortice for the application and the
corresponding domino thickness.
Width of mortice adjustment
Start–stop switch
Dust extraction hose
Plunge depth of cut

adjustment
Fence height stops
Dominos
Domino Adjustable fence for producing
cutters angles from 0˚ to 90˚ adjustment
p Figure 3.66 Domino jointer and dominos
Domino mortice slot
INDUSTRY TIP
The mortice should be
Domino inserted approximately one-third of the
thickness of the material.
p Figure 3.67 Rail and stile prepared for joining with dominos
Comparison of jointing techniques

KEY TERM
Oriented strand board
The biscuit jointer uses thin compressed material like fine-grade oriented strand
(OSB): board comprising
board (OSB) made from compressed beech pulp to form its biscuits. Due to their wood fibres that lie in
manufacturing process, biscuits can be weak and prone to splitting across their opposing directions to
width. All biscuits are 4 mm thick and are available in the sizes shown in Table 3.8. each other, in a similar
way to plywood.
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q Table 3.8 Biscuit sizes

Size of biscuit Dimensions (mm) Required depth of groove (mm)
0 47 × 15 8
10 53 × 19 10
20 56 × 23 12
Biscuit groove
Biscuit
p Figure 3.68 A biscuit and the two lengths of timber that it will joint
The domino jointer cuts its mortice in a downward oscillating motion. Special drill
bits have been designed that not only cut on the downward stroke, as with other
drill bits, but also on its side. This oscillating motion to the cutting process allows
for mortices of varied width and thickness to be selected, such as 4–14 mm-thick
dominos and 20–140 mm-wide domino mortices, with a maximum depth of
70 mm.
Using jointers
Before using any jointer, always ensure the cutter is in good, sharp condition. Dull
or damaged cutters will give a poor-quality finish and could result in movement
of the jointer, particularly with biscuit jointers. Before forming any joints in the
material, always secure the workpiece so that it cannot move during the cutting
operation. Always ensure that you hold the jointer with both hands at the intended
points: place one hand on the motor housing close to the start–stop switch and the
other hand on the additional handle towards the front of the machine.
With both types of jointer, the cutting action is achieved by applying a steady but
firm push motion into the material being cut. This ensures the jointer does not
HEALTH AND SAFETY move during the cut and helps to produce an accurate and neat finish. Ensure that
Whichever type of jointer the cutter of the jointer has stopped and retracted into its housing before removing
you use, always follow the jointer from the material. This ensures the safety of the operator and prevents
the specific instructions accidental contact being made to the material by the cutter.
on use provided by the
manufacturer. Table 3.9 outlines the main differences between a biscuit jointer and a domino
jointer, together with advantages and disadvantages of each.
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q Table 3.9 A comparison of a domino jointer and a biscuit jointer, showing their main differences,
advantages and disadvantages
Criteria Domino jointer Biscuit jointer

Description Advantages Disadvantages Description Advantages Disadvantages
Type of Drill type cutter in Different thickness Requires Small grooving Cutter only Only one
cutter several sizes dominos can be changing of saw of one requires thickness of
used for increased cutter thickness changing biscuit can be
strength when used, limiting
needs to be the strength of
sharpened the joint
Jointing Solid beech Capable of Requires multiple Small oval Few sizes Limited strength
material loose tenons producing joints different-sized shaped discs only available, of joint due to
with rounded of multiple sizes, dominos available in three reducing smaller size of
ends available in both in length and sizes and made stock the jointing area
multiple sizes thickness from compressed requirements and strength of
materials jointing material
Attachments Several Multi-use tool for None None None Relies on
attachments producing joints accurate
available to in frames, doors, marking out and
enhance worktops and positioning of
precision and furniture and in the jointer for
positioning of the other types of the accuracy of
joint and to allow jointing situations the joint
for more varied
joint positions
Strength of Solid beech Strong joints can None Limited strength Limited Limited strength
joint timber dominos be produced with due to limited of joint; mainly
in multiple sizes, deep and wide surface contact used to align
allowing for deep, mortices, allowing area joints
wide and thick for more surface
mortice joints contact and a
where required large glue area
Speed of Plunge cutting Fast and clean None Plunge cutting Fast-cut None
use process cutting of mortices process circular
recesses
Ease of use Easy pre-set Allows for easy Can be time- Easy to locate Quick to Can move
stops for different positioning consuming when with clear saw position during use
domino sizes and changing cutter centre lines for
positions for different-sized positioning
dominos
Types of Any type of Useful for almost None Useful for joining Quick and Joint has limited
work jointing work any type of joining material not easy to use strength, limiting
requiring strong work; particularly requiring a strong the type of work
joints suitable where jointing method. it is suitable for
strong joints are Often used to
required, such help with correct
as in frames or location of two
furniture pieces
ACTIVITY
Describe the main requirements when jointing timber and list the advantages
and disadvantages of using a domino jointer compared to a biscuit jointer.
Which type of jointer would be most suitable for the type of work you usually
undertake?
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HEALTH AND SAFETY Powered nailers

Always wear suitable eye Powered nailers are often referred to as nail guns and come in three sizes. Small
and ear protection when nailers are designed to fire small fixings such as pins or staples into thin plywood
using powered nailers. or beads and are often used in furniture manufacturing. The most frequently used
types of nailers in construction are referred to as first fix and second fix nailers.
l The first fix or framing nailer can fire the largest heavy gauge nails, from
51–90 mm in length, into timber. It is used for roofing, stud partitions and
other types of heavy joinery work.
l The second fix nailer uses lighter gauge nails, ranging from 16–63 mm in length
(the smaller lengths are usually referred to as brads). It is used to fix trims such
as architrave and skirting board or other lightweight work.
Powered nailers may be powered by electricity, battery, gas or compressed air
and are available in either a square or angled design. Second fix nailers are usually
square in design, while first fix nailers are angled. One advantage of an angled
nailer is that it allows easier access into tight corners, such as when fixing studwork
to sole plates or when fixing roof rafters.
When carrying out maintenance or clearing jammed fixings, always remove the
power source first. It is usually considered safe to reload the nailer with the power
source still connected, but always refer to the manufacturer’s advice.
Air filter
Gas cell chamber
Hook
44 nail
magazine
7.2 V Li-
ion battery
LED light service
indicator
Contact nose
p Figure 3.69 Parts of an angled nailer
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Fixings used with powered nails

KEY TERMS
Powered nailers use strips of collated nails. These can be galvanised, passivated
Collated: assembled in
or bright steel, making them suitable for external use. The nails are available as the correct order and held
either smooth shank or ring shank and in several thicknesses of shank, which is together in strips usually
referred to as the gauge of the nail. Brad nails are small thin gauge finishing nails with glue, plastic or paper.
that have no heads or have small narrow heads, which allows them to be firmly Galvanised: a protective
embedded into the material, eliminating the need to use nail punches. zinc coating that is
applied to steel and iron
Small ridges
to help prevent rusting.
around nail shank Passivated: a protective
coating, usually zinc.
Ring shank: a nail with
small ridges around the
shank, which increases
the nail’s resistance
against pulling loose.
p Figure 3.70 Collated nails p Figure 3.71 Ring shank nails

HEALTH AND SAFETY
Using powered nailers Always keep your free
hand away from the
Powered nailers drive a single nail at great speed and power into the material. To location of the nailer and
prevent firing the nailer accidentally, ensure that the contact nose of the nailer is do not drive a nail towards
fully depressed. When fully depressed, the contact nose releases the safety tip, any hands that may be
allowing power to the trigger. When the trigger is then pressed, the nailer fires the supporting the material.
nail. To fire another nail, the contact nose must be reset. To do this, lift the nailer
and reset the contact nose. If the contact nose is not fully depressed, the nailer will
IMPROVE
not fire a nail, regardless of how many times the trigger is pulled.
YOUR ENGLISH
When using nailers, you should take particular care when working near knots. The Produce a safety poster
fast driving speed of the nail can dislodge knots, especially dead arris knots (see listing the dos and don’ts
Chapter 4, page 188). Nails can also deflect from the intended course, causing of using powered nailers
ricocheting of debris from the nail. that can be used as a
toolbox talk.
Good positioning Free hand too close

of free hand to intended path of nail
p Figure 3.72 Correct positioning of free hand, well p Figure 3.73 Incorrect positioning of free hand
away from risk of deflection of the nail
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Sanders
Sanders are used to provide a high-quality smooth finish to the surface of material.
The quality or smoothness required for the finish depends on the type of surface
finish being applied. Polished surface finishes usually require a smoother finer finish
than a painted surface finish. In all cases, sanders use differing grades of abrasive
paper to cut the top surface of the material. Differing grades of abrasive paper are
used to produce an increasingly finer finish.
There are four main types of portable sander:
l belt sander
l random orbital sander
l orbital sander
INDUSTRY TIP l detail sander.
Belt sanders can easily Belt sander

remove large amounts of Belt sanders are the largest and heaviest of the hand-held sanders and usually
material but should be used require both hands to control them. They use a continuous belt of abrasive paper
with great care to prevent
that runs around two pulley wheels and over a flat metal bed, which is used to
excessive material removal.
apply pressure to the surface of the material. The sanding belt is kept in place by
spring tension of the front roller, to help ensure that the belt does not slip and
runs central on the pulley rollers. To further ensure that the abrasive belt runs
KEY TERM central on the pulley rollers, the front roller is used to align the abrasive belt. This
Tracking: adjusting involves slightly twisting the front pulley roller which, in turn, makes the abrasive
the front roller so the belt run towards the higher point of the front pulley. When the correct amount
abrasive paper will run
central to the pulley
of adjustment is achieved, the abrasive belt has a slight sideways wandering
rollers. movement to it but will run central over the pullies. The alignment process is called
tracking. Belt sanders are usually associated with fast large surface removal using
coarse grit abrasive belts.
HEALTH AND SAFETY This type of sander is very efficient at removing unwanted material, but can
Ensure that no loose produce unwanted dips in the surface of the material as well as easily rounding
clothing or other loose any corner edges if you do not take sufficient care. It is important to keep this type
material can be caught
of sander moving quite quickly to both improve surface finish and help prevent
around the rotating belt.
surface dips and rounded corners.
Dust bag
Start switch
Speed control
Rear driven
pulley
Front free-running
Abrasive paper
pulley used to ‘track’
tensloning lever
the abrasive paper
p Figure 3.74 Belt sander sanding p Figure 3.75 Belt sander

sheets
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Random orbital sander KEY TERM

The random orbital sander is smaller and lighter than the belt sander and is easily Eccentric circles: where
controlled with one hand. It is primarily used in finishing the surface material. one smaller circle is
The round pad on the random orbit sander moves in eccentric circles as well offset within a larger
as spinning in circles. This dual action method of sanding achieves a high-quality circle.
finish with no signs of small circles or swirls scratched into the surface, which
might be caused by a traditional orbital sander.
Start /stop switch Power cable
Flexible sanding pad Dust extraction port
p Figure 3.76 Random orbital sander
Rotation of
Centre point of circles
rotation for smaller
circle
Centre point of
rotation for larger
circle
p Figure 3.77 Eccentric circles
The sander has a speed selection control, which adjusts the rotation speed of
the sander. Higher rotational speeds generally increase the cutting power of the
abrasive pad and, as a result, remove material faster. A slow rotational speed
setting can at times be the best option, giving benefits such as:
l less vibration through the sander, making it easier to control
l minimising any heat generated by friction from the sanding pad
l better pad flexibility, which allows the pad to flex and better follow any
contours of a shaped product
l less risk of damaging the sanding pad itself.
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The sanding pad used to hold the abrasive paper has holes through the pad, which
are used to help draw up the dust produced during operation. The sanding pad has
a slight flexibility to its outer edges and uses a hook-and-loop method of attaching
the abrasive paper. This attachment method relies on small semi-flexible hooks
attached to the underside of the abrasive paper hooking onto the small loops on
the sander pad. Any abrasive sheets used with the random orbital sander should be
HEALTH AND SAFETY of the same diameter as the sander pad, as well as having puncture holes through
All sanders produce fine them. The holes in the abrasive paper and the sander pad should be lined up, so
dust particles, which can that the sander can draw up the sanding dust to the extraction port of the sander,
cause serious breathing
where it is removed by a portable extraction system. When used in this way, the
problems. Always use a
dust collection system, random orbital sander leaves little surface or atmospheric dust, making it one of
even if only using the the safest sanding methods available.
sander for a short time,
This type of sander is intended for use in slow movements along the material, with
and where necessary a
dust mask. little downward pressure. This allows the sander to do the work and helps it to
produce a mark-free surface. Always try to keep the sander flat as this will help to
produce flat surfaces without any dips.
p Figure 3.78 Random orbital sander abrasive disc with puncture

holes for improved dust extraction
Orbital sander
The orbital sander has a square or rectangular sanding area and is similar in size
to the random orbital sander. The difference in how they work is in the way the
INDUSTRY TIP sanding pad moves. On the orbital sander, the pad only vibrates in an eccentric
manner and does not rotate; this can leave fine circular swirl marks on the surface
Connect your power tool to a finish. The abrasive paper is held in place by spring loaded clips to the front and
portable dust extractor when rear of the sander.
possible; these extraction
units are preferable to dust Front knob Speed control
bags.
Trigger
Dust bag
Spring loaded clip Abrasive paper
p Figure 3.79 Orbital sander
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Detail sander
Detail sanders are ideal for getting into tight, hard-to-reach areas and are suitable
for fine sanding. They usually have a small triangular or delta-shaped pad which
incorporates the hook-and-loop method of fixing the abrasive paper. This type of
sander uses an oscillating action of the sanding pad.
Abrasive paper p Figure 3.80 Detail sander
The abrasive grit used with sanders is mainly aluminium oxide, a relatively cheap
KEY TERM
and hard-wearing cutting agent which is graded by its size, from very fine particles
to larger coarse particles. The number of grits or particles is measured per square Oscillating: move back
and forth in a consistent
25 mm. For example, P60 has 60 grit particles in every 25 mm square and P120 has
repeated movement.
120 grit particles per 25 mm square. Therefore, P60 grade abrasive paper has fewer
particles and produces a coarser finish than P120 grade abrasive paper. Coarse-
grade abrasive paper is usually used for rapid surface removal in rough work, while
fine grades of abrasive paper are used for finishing.
The letter ‘P’ in front of the grit size, such as P120, indicates that the abrasive
paper is manufactured according to an international standard. This means that the
grades of grit are the same even if the paper comes from different manufacturers.
Abrasive paper grades and the work for which they are typically used are given in
Table 3.10.
q Table 3.10 Abrasive paper grades and typical uses
Paper grade Uses

P60–P80 Rough working and stock removal
P100–P120 General fine working and finishing
P180–P240 Very fine finishing, generally on hardwood
or materials requiring a polished finish
Abrasive papers can become clogged with the dust and resin produced through
KEY TERM
the sanding operation, particularly when sanding softwoods. This build-up on the
surface of the abrasive paper may prevent effective further sanding but it does not Resin: a thick, sticky fluid
necessarily mean that the abrasive paper needs replacing. To extend the working contained within timber.
life of clogged abrasive papers, remove any build-up on its surface by rubbing the
surface with an eraser; this cheap and effective method pulls out the dust and resin
from the small gaps between the pieces of grit glued to the surface of the abrasive
paper.
Abrasive papers for random orbital sanders and detail sanders are pre-cut to size
and shape with pre-punched holes at the required spacings for dust removal. ACTIVITY
The abrasive papers are held in place with a hook-and-loop system of fixing, Compare the surface
finish of different grades of
allowing for quick and easy changing. Belt sanders use pre-made continuous
abrasive paper on softwood
belts of differing lengths to suit differing sander sizes. Abrasive paper for orbital and hardwood surfaces.
sanders is available in large rollers that are cut to the required lengths for your
size of sander.
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Using sanders
These are some tips for producing a good surface finish using a powered
sander.
l Keep the sander moving. Ensure that you move belt sanders quickly
and move random orbital sanders slowly.
l Use progressively finer grades of abrasive papers to achieve the
required finish.
l Cleaning your abrasive papers regularly can prolong their life and
save you money and time.
l Always use suitable exhaust ventilation to collect the sanding dust
and when necessary also use a suitable dust mask.
l Keep the sanding pad flat.
l Let the sander do the work. You need to apply little downward
p Figure 3.81 Random orbital sanding disc with pressure to the sander.
the hook-and-loop method of fixing
l Always try to work with the grain of the material.
l Remember that the sander is intended to produce a fine surface
finish. Larger amounts of material should be removed by a powered
or hand plane.
Oscillating multi-tools
The oscillating multi-tool is a versatile power tool, which uses a variety of cutting
and sanding blades of differing shapes and sizes. Multi-tools work by vibrating the
saw head thousands of times per minute to create a sawing motion to the blade.
The versatility of the blades and the compact size of the multi-tool allows you
to cut and sand different materials with just one tool. It can be used to perform
accurate cuts in tight spaces that are difficult to access with traditional saws.
The disadvantage of multi-tools is that the blades become blunt quite quickly,
which results in a poor finish with a high degree of burnt edges to the materials.
Most models incorporate a tool-free quick-change blade system.
Depending on the type of accessory used, you can perform the following tasks:
l sawing timber
l cutting plasterboard
l cutting metal
l plunge cuts
l sanding
l scrapping.
The multi-tool is considered by some as a ‘must-have’ tool, especially for site
carpenters undertaking restoration work and installing laminate flooring and tiles.
However, it can be just as valuable for new build work and general maintenance
work.
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p Figure 3.82 Oscillating multi-tool with semi-circular wood cutting blade
Multi-tool
Storage box
Shaped abrasive
paper
Half-moon saws
used for cutting
straight lines in
timber
Different-sized cutting blades

Sanding pad
suitable for plunge cuts
attachment
p Figure 3.83 Multi-tool and accessories
The cutting action of the multi-tool works on an oscillating action of the blade
or other attachment. This oscillation produces a small sideways back and forth
motion, which produces a narrow cutting stroke in the form of an arc at up to
21,000 strokes per minute.
Blades
The blades are easily changed by a quick release lever. The design of the tool and
blade housing allows for easy location of the blade in a 360˚ circle around the
multi-tool. This versatility of blade positioning allows you to use the multi-tool
to easily cut or sand in almost any working position on almost any material.
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By selecting the correct type of blade, you can use the multi-tool to cut different
INDUSTRY TIP materials such as timber and timber-based products, plastics and metals. Abrasive
blades are also available that can be used to clean out grout joints in tiling, as well
Worn blades can easily
as differing grades of abrasive paper for the sanding attachment. The blades are
generate enough smoke to
activate smoke alarms. available in several different widths.
Worn and blunt blades can easily burn the finished cut, produce lots of smoke and
have high noise levels, so it is important that they are replaced regularly.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

Worn blades produce
extremely high noise
levels, particularly when Cutting
working in confined edge
spaces. Multi-point
location holes
p Figure 3.84 Plunge cut multi-tool blade
Typical uses for oscillating multi-tools

Some of the different tasks suited to a multi-tool with the appropriate type of
blade are:
l undercutting door frames and linings
l cutting the bottom of door jambs to accept the flooring when laying tiles
or laminate flooring around the framework, as this is the neatest and most
professional method.
Blade suitable for

cutting timber
Use offcut of flooring

to achieve an accurate
cut line
p Figure 3.85 Cutting door frames and architrave to accept laminate flooring
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Plunge cuts
The multi-tool is designed in such a way that plunge cuts can be easily made if the
correct blade is used. Plunge cuts are used in plasterboard for service requirements,
in timber for notching, or for cutting through skirting boards. Figure 3.85 shows a
plunge cut being made.
Flush cuts in wood

Using a half-moon blade enables you to make easy longer cuts in timber and
timber-based products. The increased surface area of the half-moon blade helps
you to maintain a straight line while cutting. Figure 3.82 shows a half-moon blade
being used.
Other tasks suitable for the multi-tool

Other types of tasks suitable for the multi-tool include:
l repairs to doors and windows
l sanding down timber and metal
l removing old ceramic tiles
l removing glued carpets
l forming notches
l cutting metal such as the ends of nails
l removing rotted wood
l trimming plastic piping.
Angle grinders
Large heavy-duty angle grinders are not often used by carpenters and joiners, but
the smaller single-handed versions are useful. Angle grinders use rotating discs to
cut or grind away material and when used with the correct type of disc they can
cut almost any material, including:
l stone
l brickwork and masonry
l concrete
l steel
l plastic
l timber.
When fitted with a ‘flap disc’, the angle grinder becomes an aggressive type of
sander. The flap discs are available in different grades of abrasion, just like the
abrasive papers used with sanders. Small strong abrasive sheets are layered around
a disc in a partially overlapping sequence. This construction method gives the flap
disc a strong flexible cutting action, making it easy to manoeuvre and suitable for
any type of sanding operation. Flap discs are particularly useful for sanding back
shaped profile work, such as is needed with skirting board scribing.
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p Figure 3.86 Flap disc fitted in an angle grinder
When the angle grinder is fitted with a flap disc, it can easily be used to grind or
sand back the waste material of the scribe on skirting board to the required profile
finished edge. This type of cutting back was traditionally carried out using a coping
saw, which can be time-consuming, particularly with complex profile edges. This
type of work can now be carried out using an angle grinder fitted with a flap disc in
a fraction of the time that it would take with a coping saw.
Flap disc
p Figure 3.87 Using a flap disc to undercut the scribed joint on cornice
Scanners and detectors

Hand-held scanners or detectors are used to detect hidden services such as gas and
water pipework, electric cabling and data and phone cables. They can also be used
to detect metal and timber studwork used to construct walls and panels that are
hidden from view, usually behind plasterboard.
Two main types of scanners and detectors are used:
l surface scanners to detect hidden services
l voltage indicator pens to check for power running through electrical cables.
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Scanners
These types of detectors are generally simple to use. In some cases, the detection
mode can be changed to help with identifying the type of structure discovered. The
scanner is then passed over the surface of the wall and when it detects any hidden
services, metal or solid timber structures it generates a warning buzzing sound.
Voltage indicator pen

Voltage indicator pens are similar in size and design to pens. The voltage indicator
pen is used to detect whether cables, switches and sockets are live and have power
flowing through them by holding it against them. When power is present, the
detector will light up and, in some cases, also give out an audible buzz. This type
of detector should only be used to give information on where power is located and
not be used to adjust any electrical work.
p Figure 3.88 Surface scanning
for hidden services
HEALTH AND SAFETY

Do not make any
adjustment or interfere
with any electrical work.
Always use a qualified
person to make the
p Figure 3.89 Voltage pen being used to check if power is present at the socket required adjustments.
Avoiding service runs

Any wiring should run vertically from sockets and switches behind the face
covering such as plasterwork. This helps with locating the cabling and ensures that
fixings do not accidently contact the wiring. Wiring may often be found in a ring
for sockets, particularly in kitchens, so you should always check for this, particularly
in older properties.
Pipework for water or gas should also run in vertical and horizontal directions. INDUSTRY TIP
Always try to avoid drilling or positioning fixings near any service runs. Where this
is unavoidable, or if you are in any doubt, carefully break away a small amount of Whenever possible, always
the surface covering in the intended location until the substructure, such as the try to position your fixing
brickwork or blockwork, is visible. If there is no sign of any services, it is a good into a solid background such
as studwork or masonry,
indication that it is safe to drill. Where services are visible, it may be possible to
which give superior fixing
move them out of the way slightly to allow for drilling. When this is not possible,
backgrounds, rather
you will need to find an alternative location for the fixing. When you need to locate than directly fixing into
studwork, for example to use as a secure fixing point, using a surface scanner is a plasterboard.
simple and accurate way of finding the stud’s location.
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5 TRANSPORTING, STORING AND

MAINTAINING POWER TOOLS
Power tools are most likely to be damaged when they are being transported. You
must take care to ensure that your power tools are securely stored in transit to
avoid damage from other tools, equipment or materials. Most power tools are
now supplied in purpose-made storage boxes, which in most cases can be easily
connected to storage containers from the same manufacturer. Several types of
wheeled tool trolleys and chests are available to further help with transporting
power tools.
Some owners of work vans prefer to have dedicated shelving and storage slots
for their tools. This allows for quick and easy access to the power tools but can
leave them open to damage, particularly if they include any trailing leads, guards
and cutting edges such as saw blades. This type of storage system also makes it
difficult to transport the power tool to and from the location that it is required.
Correctly cleaning, maintaining and storing your power tools in their correct
storage boxes as well as storing them securely, whether in vans or workshops, will
save money and time in the long term. Correct safe storage also ensures that when
required the power tool is in good condition and ready to use.
Power tools require little maintenance other than visual safety inspection before
each use and regular PAT tests. Always follow the manufacturer’s advice on the
type of maintenance required and its frequency to prolong the power tool’s life and
to ensure that it remains safe to use and is readily available when required.
Tooling used by the power tools will require regular maintenance, such as
sharpening dull and blunt saw blades and drill bits. Where disposable cutters are
HEALTH AND SAFETY used, as with most planers and router cutters, this tooling should be replaced as
Remember that a blunt, or
soon as it shows signs of damage or difficulty in cutting the material easily, such
damaged power tool is a
dangerous power tool. as if the tool causes burning, generates large amounts of smoke, produces poor
finishes or is generally difficult to control safely.
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Practical task
Cut out and mould a table top
You are required to cut out a section of 18 mm MDF to finish 400 mm ×
300 mm and form a moulding around its edge, using a portable router and
a bearing guided router cutter.
Before starting each task, ensure that you have been given permission by
your tutor or trainer to proceed. As each task is completed, you should be
given feedback on the completed task and any retraining as required. Always
work according to a risk assessment and environmental and health and
safety regulations.
Task instructions
You are required to:
l mark out a rectangle of 400 mm × 300 m on a sheet of 18 mm MDF
l set up and use a plunge saw and guide rail system to cut the MDF to the
specified sizes
l fit the supplied router cutter into the router and set the router up to form
a moulding around the top outer edge of the MDF
l form the moulding around the top edge of the table top.
Equipment required
l Completed risk assessment for fitting butt hinges
l Selection of appropriate and inappropriate PPE for the task
l 1 piece of 18 mm MDF large enough to safely cut out the required size
table top
l Mobile dust extraction system
l Plunge saw and guide rail system
l Bearing guided router cutter to form moulding around table top
l Router with a selection of different-sized collets
l Clamps

Work to a given risk assessment and select the
required PPE for the outlined task.
Correctly mark out MDF to given sizes.
Correctly set up guide rails.
Correct use of plunge saw to cut MDF to required
sizes without burning during the cut.
Correct fitting of router cutter and setting up of
router to produce required moulding.
Correct profiling of MDF without burn marks or
undue bumpy surface.
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Correct use of PPE and mobile dust extraction.
All work carried out in accordance with current
health and safety regulations and safe working
practices.
Work area left clean and tidy with all tools and
equipment correctly stored away safely.
Practical task
Produce a shelf with decorative moulding
You are required to produce a shelf that has a decorative moulding along
both ends and the front edge.
Equipment required
l Completed risk assessment for using required portable power tools
l Selection of appropriate and inappropriate PPE for the task
l Sliding mitre saw and saw stand
l Plunge saw and guide rails
l Portable router and a selection of profile cutters
l Portable sander and a selection of graded abrasive sanding sheets
l A length of planed softwood 20 mm thick × 194 mm wide × 1000 mm
long
l Selection of suitable clamps to be used to hold the material as required
your tutor or trainer to proceed. As each task is completed, you should be
given feedback on the completed task and any retraining as required.
You are required to trim the given length of planed timber using a sliding
mitre saw to a finished length of 950 mm.
Using a plunge saw and guide rail system, you are required to rip the timber
to finish 180 mm wide.
You are required to set up a portable router with a suitable bearing guided
profile cutter to produce a decorative profile along one edge and both ends.
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Using an orbital sander, you are to produce a suitable finish to accept a

clear varnish finish.

Safely work to a given risk assessment.
Correct selection of suitable and appropriate PPE
for the outlined tasks.
Correct set up and use of the sliding mitre saw to
trim both ends of the material square and to finish
950 mm long.
Correct set up and use of the plunge saw and guide
rails to produce a parallel cut and a finished width
of 180 mm.
Correct set up and use of portable router to
produce a suitable decorative finish along one edge
and both ends.
Correct use of orbital sander and selection of
abrasive paper to produce required surface finish to
material.
All work carried out in accordance with current
practices.
Work area left clean and tidy with all tools and
equipment correctly and safely stored away.
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Test your knowledge

1 On what type of power tool would you find an 7 Which type of saw is most suitable for cutting
SDS chuck? material to length?
a Impact driver a Jigsaw
b Pillar drill b Plunge saw
c Hammer drill c Sliding mitre saw
d Oscillating drill d Table ripsaw
2 TCT are used for saw tips because they are: 8 On which type of power tool would you find a
a hard-wearing collet?
b cheap and easy to install a Router
c easy to sharpen by hand b Plunge saw
d hard and indestructible. c Sliding compound saw
3 A PAT test label gives what information d Sander
on a power tool? 9 On which type of saw would you use a negative
a Type of use that it is suitable for tooth profile saw blade?
b Type of power supply required a Plunge saw
c Date of purchase b Oscillating multi-tool
d Date of inspection c Sliding compound saw
4 Which of the following power sources is the d Jigsaw
recommended voltage for use on site? 10 Which of the following grades of abrasive paper
a 10 V produces the finer results?
b 110 V a P60
c 240 V b P80
d 415 V c P100
5 Which of these do mobile LEV or extraction units d P120
help to reduce? 11 Describe the main differences between a plunge
a Noise saw and a sliding mitre saw.
b Offcuts 12 List the main differences between a domino
jointer and a biscuit jointer.
c Small dust particles
13 List the five most important portable power tools
d Manual handling
you would require in your tool kit and why.
6 On which type of power tool would you find a
14 Research purchase prices for the power tools
riving knife?
selected in your answer to question 13 and
a Router produce an invoice, detailing the purchase price
b Plunge saw before VAT and including VAT, that could be
c Jigsaw forwarded to your employer or included in your
d Domino jointer self-assessment claim for tax relief.
15 Design a toolbox safety poster that can be used
for hammer drill training.
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CHAPTER 4
PRODUCE WOODWORKING JOINTS
INTRODUCTION
Carpenters and joiners form woodworking joints as part of their work every day. Whether building a roof or
constructing a staircase, you must have the knowledge and skills required to design and form strong joints to
suit the task in hand. The continued development of new power tools and machinery mean that some of the
processes used to form woodworking joints have evolved to make them more efficient; however, you still need
to have the basic knowledge of how to form woodworking joints.
This chapter looks at the selection of suitable timber for use, setting out, marking out and forming woodworking
joints for a frame and loft hatch. You will also learn how to mark out, cut and fix architraves and skirtings.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn how to: 5 select and use hand tools and materials to produce
1 select and store materials used to produce basic woodworking joints
woodworking joints 6 understand how to manufacture a frame using
2 select and use hand tools to produce woodworking woodworking joints
joints 7 form a frame using woodworking joints
3 identify the resources required to mark out 8 construct and fix hatch linings
woodworking joints 9 cut and fix skirtings and architraves.
4 mark out woodworking joints
1 SELECT AND STORE

MATERIALS USED TO PRODUCE
WOODWORKING JOINTS KEY TERMS
Workability: how easy or
Timber is a natural resource used for many construction purposes. The shape, size difficult the timber is to
and species of each tree determines many features of the resource, including the plane, saw, machine and
colour of the wood, the pattern of the grain and its workability. Timbers that are finish.
used for structural purposes, such as roof rafters and floor joists, need to have Durability: how hard and
relatively straight grain to maintain their shape and strength under the loads resistant something is.
imposed on them. When using timber for joinery purposes, you may select it for Some timbers are more
resistant to the weather
its decorative qualities and its durability. No two pieces of timber are the same, so than others because of
your ability to select the right materials can be the difference between a good job their natural oils and
that will last for many years and substandard work. resins and are therefore
more suitable for exterior
Timbers that are less durable should be treated with preservatives to prevent them work.
from rotting. Your timber merchant can advise you on the most suitable timbers
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for internal and external joinery and construction work. Timber suppliers classify
the durability of timber according to how long it will last when fully exposed to the
elements before it starts to decay, as shown in Table 4.1.
q Table 4.1 Durability of timber
Number of years left exposed to elements
before the decay is obvious Classification for durability of timber
0–5 years Perishable
5–10 years Non-durable
10–15 years Moderately durable
15–25 years Durable
25+ years Exceptionally durable
KEY TERMS
Converted: sawing along
the grain of a tree trunk Methods of timber conversion
to produce sawn boards When you purchase materials from a timber supplier or a builder’s merchant,
of timber. timber has usually been sawn and sometimes machined into a range of standard
Felling: cutting down a sections. Before the timber reaches the supplier, it is converted and dried to a
tree.
suitable moisture content. This process begins with felling the trees in the forests
Softwood: a category of where they have grown, using motorised machines known as harvesters. The
timber that comes from
coniferous trees, such as
trees are cut down when they are established enough to convert them into usable
pine. planks or beams. Mature trees are usually selected when they are between 40
Hardwood: a category of and 150 years old, depending on the type of tree. Softwoods like spruce, fir and
timber that comes from pine are fast-growing trees. They are frequently used in the construction industry,
deciduous trees, such as compared with more expensive and less sustainable slow-grown hardwoods.
oak.
The branches of trees are usually stripped by the harvesters, leaving the trunks
to be cut to length and transported to the sawmill. At the sawmill, the bark is
stripped from the trunks (this is called debarking) and used for other purposes,
ACTIVITY such as making timber-based sheet materials, for example orientated strand
Use the internet to board (OSB). The trunks are then sawn into sections along their length. When
research the methods the cut sections are moved through the processing mill, they are assessed visually
used to convert timber in
a sawmill. There may be
for quality and condition and then scanned by machine for size and strength.
videos of the process. Softwood timbers are awarded one of the following commercial grades depending
on their country of origin; firsts or grade 1 are the premium (best quality) grade.
l Russian softwoods:
l unsorted grade (a mixture of grades 1 to 3)
l fourth grade (standard grade)
l fifth grade (contract grade).
l Scandinavian softwoods:
l unsorted grade (grades 1 to 4)
l fifth grade (standard grade)
l sixth grade (contract grade).
Sixth grade timber is the lowest quality. The grain of sixth grade timber is not
always straight and is usually full of large knots and other defects. This grade of
timber may be used for cladding and some furniture manufacturing. It is also used
for disposable pallets and packaging material.
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Chapter 4 Produce woodworking joints
The way that a trunk is converted in a sawmill determines the angle of the growth
KEY TERMS
rings on the ends of the timber and the direction of the grain on the faces. It is also
an important factor with regards to its strength and stability. Figure 4.1 shows how Growth (or annular) rings:
produced every year that
a piece of timber shrinks as it dries and distorts after it has been cut from the trunk.
a tree grows, therefore
Shrinkage greatest increasing its size. Trees
along the growth Shrinkage least Diamonding generally grow more in
rings across the growth spring and summer than
rings
they do in the colder
A winter months. The
B amount of growth that
has taken place during
Little shrinkage these seasons can be
along length seen on the end grain:
the lighter rings are
produced in the summer
Cupping and the darker rings in
the autumn and winter.
Cupping: the curling
p Figure 4.1 A section through a tree trunk (distortion) of timber
away from the centre of
The pieces of timber with grain at an angle of 45° or less tend to shrink away the tree.
from the centre of the tree, resulting in cupping of the boards. This type of cut is Equilibrium moisture
referred to as tangential. Timber that has been sawn with grain above 45° is known content: the point at
as radial cut or quarter sawn. When the moist timber is cut from the trunk, it will which the moisture
naturally start to dry until an equilibrium moisture content is reached. contained within the
timber is equal to the
Strengths and weaknesses of timber conversion environment it is in.
Timber with a high
methods moisture content in a dry
The simplest and most cost-effective way to convert timber is to use a method setting, for example a
known as through and through (also known as ‘slab’ or ‘flat’ sawing). Although heated room, will rapidly
dry out and shrink to
there is no waste with this method of conversion, the boards on either side of the
reveal gaps in the joints
centre of the trunk are prone to shrinkage and distortion. of connecting timbers.
Quarter sawn timber is the best quality because it produces mostly radial cut boards,
but a lot of waste material is created to achieve this. This method of conversion is
also the most expensive, not only because of the wasted material, but also owing to
the additional production time it takes to rotate the trunk to make radial cuts. Radial
cut timber is less likely to distort than tangential cut timber and is therefore ideally
suited to using for superior joinery purposes. Although radial cut boards are not as
strong as tangential boards, they are harder wearing, making them ideal for flooring.
p Figure 4.2 Through and

through sawn
p Figure 4.3 Quarter sawn
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Tangential cut timber is the strongest and is preferred for load-bearing joists and
structural beams. The low angle of the grain on the ends of the boards produces an
attractive ‘flame figuring’ grain on the faces, as shown in Figure 4.7.
INDUSTRY TIP
You should always alternate the pattern of the end grain on tangential boards when you are
joining them together. Doing so will even out any cupping that occurs and result in a more
p Figure 4.4 Tangential sawn stable board.
 Figure 4.6 A section through the end of multiple timber boards being jointed together
p Figure 4.5 Boxed heart sawn
If a tree has a rotten core or is badly split (referred to as ‘shaken’), then the trunk is
still used by cutting around the damaged timber to produce radial cut boards. This
method of timber conversion is referred to as boxed heart.
p Figure 4.7 Flame figuring
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ACTIVITY
Which one of the following timbers is radial cut and which one is tangential?
a b
Methods of seasoning timber

Trees naturally take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Sunlight and water
are also needed to produce food for them to grow through a process known as
‘photosynthesis’.
After the trunk has been converted, it needs to be seasoned to reduce the
moisture content to below 20%, otherwise dry rot is likely to occur if the moisture
KEY TERMS
content is above this threshold. Timber that has not been dried is referred to as Seasoning: a process of
green and it can be easier to work with in some situations. A good example of this drying timber to reduce
its moisture content.
is green oak, a timber commonly used to build timber-framed houses. The higher
Dry rot: a type of fungus
moisture content in the wood makes it softer and easier to cut the joints in the
found in timber that
frame. As the oak dries out and becomes harder, it shrinks; this can lead to surface causes it to decay.
shakes, a character that is often considered attractive. Timber that has been Shakes: natural splits
converted for external construction work does not need to be seasoned, because it that occur in timber.
is exposed to the elements and will naturally acclimatise.
Timber used for internal carpentry and joinery purposes is dried to make it lighter
and easier to machine and to reduce the amount of shrinkage after it has been INDUSTRY TIP
installed. Seasoned timber also provides a much better surface for finishes to
adhere (stick) to, such as paints and stains. The moisture content of
Table 4.2 gives the range of moisture contents of timber used for different wood can be checked with
a moisture meter. The two
purposes.
metal electrodes on the
q Table 4.2 Moisture content of timber used for different purposes device are simply pressed
Timber uses Moisture content into the face of the timber
to measure the resistance
Timbers used for structural applications, such 20% moisture content or less; in line with
as studwork for partition walls, floor joists and Building Regulations
between them. The more
roof battens moisture that is present
External joinery, such as windows and doors 15–18% moisture content
in the timber, the easier it
will be for electricity to flow
Most timbers used for internal work 10–15% moisture content
between the electrodes and
Timber that is to be used close to a heat 8–10% moisture content therefore a higher reading will
source or in situations that are continuously
centrally heated
be registered on the meter.
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Timber can be seasoned in one of three ways:

KEY TERM
Piling sticks: lengths of l air dried
thin batten used to create l kiln dried
a space between stored l microwave vacuum seasoning.
timber layers to allow
air to flow between the Air-dried timber is usually stacked up in open-sided sheds like the one shown
boards. Stacking timber in Figure 4.9, with piling sticks placed between each board to allow air to flow
for a long period without between the timbers so that they can dry naturally. Timber dried using this method
the use of piling sticks is more stable and less likely to develop seasoning defects such as shakes, splitting
may result in an increase and twisting. The disadvantage of this method of seasoning is that it can take
in the moisture content months and sometimes years to achieve the desired moisture content, depending
in the centre of a pack.
on the thickness of the material and the species of wood.
Covered roof
Piling sticks
Large boards at
bottom of stack
Joists
Brick piers
p Figure 4.8 Moisture meter p Figure 4.9 Air drying timber with the use of piling sticks
The quickest and most efficient method of seasoning timber is to use a

temperature-controlled kiln, which is a large oven. The timber is wheeled into
the kiln on trolleys. Heat is then introduced into the kiln to dry the timber, which
creates moist hot air that circulates out through a ventilation system. Timber can
be seasoned in a kiln within a couple of days, depending on the sections and type
of timber. The disadvantage of using this method to dry timber is that it may cause
seasoning defects such as case hardening. This occurs when timber is dried too
quickly, leading to the surfaces of the wood drying to encase the high moisture
content in the centre of the timber. This produces timber that can be difficult to
work with and cut.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

A piece of timber has a moisture content of 48% before seasoning and it needs
to be reduced to 15% to use for some internal joinery work. It takes 3 days to
season the timber in a kiln. On average, how much moisture will be lost per day?
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KEY TERMS
Bearers: lengths of
timber positioned on the
ground at equal spacings
so that timber can be
p Figure 4.10 Kiln seasoning stored on them off the
ground. They are used
Microwave vacuum seasoning is a relatively new technique used to dry timber in to prevent the timber
absorbing moisture from
hydraulic pressure-drying tanks within hours, rather than days or weeks. The system
the ground, which may
works in a similar way to a domestic microwave, by heating the inside and outside of cause warping, twisting
the timber at the same time to evaporate the moisture in the timber, unlike air and and other defects.
kiln seasoning, which dry from the outside inwards. Seasoning defects are less likely Bleaching: a change in
to occur using this method compared to others because of the rapid drying process. the natural colour in a
solid timber or timber-
Storing and protecting woodworking based material caused by
the exposure to UV light,
materials such as in sunlight.
When natural timber gets wet it absorbs moisture and swells, whereas in a dry
environment it loses moisture and shrinks. The amount of movement in timber will
depend on several factors, such as the species of timber and the environment it is
in. If the moisture content of the timber being used is not equal to the humidity in
the air, it will either shrink and cause gaps between any joints or swell and distort
the wood. Whenever possible, timber that is to be used for internal work should be
unwrapped and stored flat on bearers with piling sticks in between in the room
that it is to be used in for several weeks prior to fixing. This allows the timber to
achieve an equilibrium moisture content (referred to as second seasoning) and
minimises the amount of movement in the wood after it has been installed. p Figure 4.11 Timber with ‘blue
staining’ as a result of poor
Timber or timber-based sheet materials delivered for use in a joinery workshop storage and fungus growth
should be stored in a designated rack, under cover and not exposed to the weather
or any damage that could occur on a construction site.
Timber that is to be used for structural applications on a construction site may
have to be stored outdoors. It should also be adequately supported with bearers
and placed under a waterproof cover or shelter to protect it from the weather.
Timber that has not been stored correctly could become saturated with (full of)
water, which means it becomes stained, heavy and difficult to cut. Care should be
taken to protect decorative timbers and sheet materials from the direct sunlight, as
this can cause bleaching of the timber. A well-planned construction site will have
a designated storage area for timber that is close to where it will be needed and is
secure to prevent theft. p Figure 4.12 Bleaching
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Characteristics of different woodworking

materials
Hardwood and softwood trees are vastly different in the way they grow and look.
Hardwood comes from deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that drop in the
winter months. Softwood comes from coniferous trees, also known as evergreen
trees, which have needle-like leaves that remain on the trees all year round.
The cell structure of hardwoods and softwoods is also different, which helps to
determine the properties of the timber.
Spruce: softwood
(coniferous)
Oak: hardwood
(deciduous)
p Figure 4.13 Examples of hardwood and softwood trees
See Table 4.3 for examples of commonly used softwoods and Table 4.4 for
examples of commonly used hardwoods.
q Table 4.3 Examples of some commonly used softwoods

Softwood Origin Description
Cedar Canada, Algeria, Morocco, Light brown in colour, with a soft grain which makes it
Middle East, Northern India and exceptionally durable and easy to work.
the UK Natural oils in the timber make it resistant to weather.
Used for cladding, shingles and weather boarding.
Douglas fir North America, Europe and the Reddish brown in colour with prominent growth rings.
UK A moderately durable and strong timber, used for
general joinery, such as windows and doors.
Also used for structural timbers when it is still green
(unseasoned).
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Softwood Origin Description

European redwood Sweden, Finland and Russia Cream with light brown grain.
Slow-grown timber, ideal for machining and joinery.
Suitable for both internal and external uses.
Yellow pine The USA and Canada Yellow/orange in colour, with open grain.
A moderately durable and strong timber, used for
general joinery, such as window boards and stairs.
Whitewood Norway, the UK, Ireland, the Cream white in colour.

USA and Canada A fast-grown softwood.
Often used for studwork, joists and rafters.
Also used for some joinery purposes, such as stairs.
Non-durable (internal use only).
q Table 4.4 Examples of some commonly used hardwoods
Hardwood Origin Description

Ash The USA, Europe, North Africa Creamy white to light brown heartwood, with lighter
and Western Asia sapwood.
Straight-grained with a medium texture.
Non-durable.
Good for bending.
Used for high-class internal joinery, cabinet making
and sports equipment.
Beech (steamed) Europe and the UK Available either steamed or unsteamed. It is white to
biscuit brown when unsteamed, or slightly pinker when
steamed. Both have straight grain with a fine even
texture.
Used for furniture, internal joinery and musical
instruments. Non-durable.
➜
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Hardwood Origin Description

Maple Canada and the eastern USA Creamy to off-white in colour.
Hard, heavy and strong.
Uniformed texture with a close grain.
Used for flooring, furniture, shop fitting and worktops.
Oak The USA, Europe, the UK, Asia Tan to biscuit brown in colour.
and North Africa Moderately durable and machines and glues well.
Quarter sawn boards are the most desirable due to
their unique grain.
Used for flooring, skirtings and architraves, high-class
internal and external joinery.
Sapele Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Reddish brown in colour, straight grain with a fine
Cameroon, Uganda and texture.
Tanzania Moderately durable.
Used for internal and external joinery and boat
building.
KEY TERM INDUSTRY TIP

Steamed: a process
timber goes through after Although some timbers are suitable for exterior use, they may still need to be treated
it has been converted but with preservative to prevent them from rotting. Preservative can be applied with a brush,
before it is seasoned that sprayed on or dipped. Pressure treating is the best method to use. Most timber suppliers
changes its colour. have a stock of carcassing timber that has already been pressure treated; such timbers are
referred to as tanalised.
ACTIVITY Figure 4.14 shows a section through a tree and its different layers, which consist of:
Use the following link for
further information on a ● pith: the centre of the tree
range of different woods: ● heartwood: the mature part of the tree that no longer grows
www.trada.co.uk/wood- ● sapwood: the living part of the tree that transports water and minerals up from
species/ the roots to the crown (top) of the tree
Make a list of six ● annular or growth rings: the part of the tree that has grown in the colder
hardwoods and months
softwoods, then indicate ● cambium: the layer of the trunk that produces new bark and wood each year
which ones are suitable ● phloem (bast): the inner bark of the trunk that transports sugars and nutrients
for external carpentry and
from the leaves to other parts of the tree.
joinery work.
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Cambium
Annular rings
Cork
Phloem
Outer
(bast)
bark
Pith
Cork cambium
Inner Secondary phloem

bark
Sap wood
Vascular cambium
Bark
Secondary xylem
Heartwood
p Figure 4.14 A section through the trunk of a tree p Figure 4.15 Cell structure of a trunk
Timber sizes
The most common sizes of sawn hardwoods range from 100 to 550 mm wide and
between 2 metres and 4.9 metres in length, depending on the species of timber.
They come in a range of thicknesses including 26, 32, 38, 51, 65, 76 and 100 mm.
Softwoods range from 100 to 275 mm in width and from 1.8 to 7.2 metres
in length in increments of 300 mm. They also come in a range of thicknesses
including 19, 25, 38, 50, 63, 75 and 100 mm.
When sawn timber is machined flat, square and smooth, it is usually reduced in
size by 5 to 6 mm in thickness and width. Timber that has been planed with a face
side and edge is referred to as PSE (planed square edged), although this term has
also been adopted for timber that has been planed on all four sides. Timber that
has been planed on all four sides should be referred to as PAR (planned all round).
Most timbers used for structural and carcassing work are planed smooth on all
four sides and have rounded corners, so they are uniform in thickness and better
to handle. This timber is referred to CLS (Canadian Lumber Stock, because of the
country it originated in). However, it is now widely produced in Europe and the UK.
CLS sizes widely used in the UK are:
● 38 × 63 mm ● 38 × 184 mm
● 38 × 89 mm ● 38 × 235 mm
● 38 × 140 mm ● 38 × 285 mm.
Stress grading
Floor joists, rafters and partition walls are examples of structural timbers that
support loads in a building. The timber used for these tasks must be structural
grade quality, without large spits, knots or other defects. Timber can either be
graded visually by a trained inspector or more efficiently by a machine.
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Hardwoods are graded with a ‘D’ followed by a number to determine the strength
of the timber; a higher number denotes stronger wood. Softwoods are graded with
‘C’ marks. The most used grades are C16 and C32.
Common defects found in timber

Table 4.5 illustrates the most common defects in timber, which may be naturally
occurring, seasoning or handling defects, and their causes.
q Table 4.5 Most common defects in timber and their causes
Natural defects Cause

Live knots (splayed, arris and face knots) Naturally occurring points of the trunk, where the branches would
have grown before conversion.
Dead knots Branches of the tree that become damaged or removed during the
tree’s growth still draw sap to that area before it dries out, causing
dead knots. The dry sap around the dead knots can cause them to
become loose and fall out after the timber has been converted.
Cup shakes The annular rings can become separated by excessive bending of
the tree in high winds and develop defects known as cup shakes.
Grain lifted
Sap ducts/pockets These are growth defects that usually develop in timbers with high
resin content, such as pine. Once the timber has been converted,
the sticky resin bleeds (leaks) from the sap ducts.
Waney edge The edges of a timber board still containing bark that show the
naturally occurring shape of the trunk.
➜
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Heart shake A heart shake is a single split or crack that passes through the pith
and the heartwood of a tree. It can be caused by poor seasoning
or decay.
Star shake Star shakes are three or more heart shakes that radiate from the
centre of the tree. They are also caused by poor seasoning or using
a tree past its maturity.
Sapwood Sapwood is the newly formed outer layers of tree growth that carry
the enriched sap to the crown.
KEY TERM
Crown: the top section
Sapwood of a tree containing the
branches.
Blue stain Blue stain is a fungus that causes a bluish grey discolouration to
the sapwood of timber. Although it is a type of fungi, it does not
decay the timber or weaken it.
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Pith The pith is the very centre of the tree. It is sometimes slightly softer
than the heartwood and darker in colour.
Sloping grain Timber that contains a grain that runs towards the edges of
a board is caused either by the way that the trunk has been
converted or by the natural shape of the tree. Timber containing
sloping grain can be more difficult to plane with hand tools and is
weaker than timber with straight grain.
Insect infestation (woodworm) Woodworm is a term used to describe any wood-boring larva.
There are four main types of woodworm:
• common furniture beetle
• death watch beetle (pictured)
• house longhorn beetle
• powder post beetle.
The female adult beetles lay their eggs on the surface of the
timber, which hatch larvae (grubs) that burrow into the wood.
The larvae pupate and the adult beetle emerges from the timber,
leaving exit holes on the surface.
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Seasoning defects Cause

Twisting Poor stacking of the timber during seasoning can cause the timber
to wind or twist. Once the board has developed this defect, it
cannot be corrected.
Cupping The timber has curled away from the centre of the trunk along
its length due to tangential cutting during conversion. (See
page 180.)
Springing A curve along the length of a piece of timber, while the face of the
board remains straight/flat.
Bowing Bowing is similar to springing; however, in bowing, the defect is on

the face of the board and not the edge.
Case hardening Poor seasoning can result in the outer surfaces of the timber
drying too quickly and causing moisture to get trapped in the core.
Dry outside
Wet inside
Splits/checks These can sometimes develop in the ends of timber boards when
they have lost moisture.
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Seasoning defects Cause

Fungal attack Dry rot is a fungus that attacks the timber when the moisture
content is above 20%. Dry rot can also spread to other timbers via
strands and particles that become airborne to continue the decay.
Timber that contains dry rot often has a mushroom-like fungus and
white strands that grow on it; it also has a distinct musty smell.
Collapse Also referred to as wash boarding, this occurs when the timber is
kiln-dried too quickly during seasoning.
Handling defects Cause

Thunder shake A hairline fracture of the timber, across the grain that is sometimes
referred to as ‘upset’. This is caused when a tree has been poorly
felled. The impact of the trunk hitting the ground first, end on,
causes the grain to distort.
Damage caused in transit Materials and finished timber products that are not properly
supported and tied down during transit can be damaged.
Defects occurring during manufacturing Many types of defects may occur during the manufacturing
process, some of which may be caused by inaccurate machining
or be the result of a poor selection of quality timber.
Foreign bodies Large metal staples are sometimes knocked into the ends of timber
boards to bridge any splits and prevent them from opening further.
Timber suppliers also attach labels to the surface of timber with
staples, so that it can easily be identified.
It is also possible that grit and small stones can be embedded into
the surface of timber if it is placed directly on the ground when
delivered. Most foreign bodies can be found and removed when
they are visually checked before use. It is advisable to use a metal
detector to check recycled timber for old nails and screws. Foreign
bodies can cause damage to your tools and equipment. They also
have the potential to be hazardous if they become dislodged when
the timber is machined.
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2 SELECT AND USE HAND TOOLS

TO PRODUCE WOODWORKING
JOINTS
Hand tools used to set out, mark out and produce woodworking joints are
identified throughout this chapter at the relevant stages. Further information on
carpentry and joinery hand tools and holding devices is given in Chapter 2.
Common faults with woodworking hand

tools
Woodworking hand tools must be regularly inspected and maintained to keep
them in good condition and to reduce the likelihood of an accident occurring when
you are using them.
Employers have a legal responsibility to make sure that all tools provided are in
good condition and do not deteriorate. (See Chapter 6.) Employees are responsible
for reporting any defective tools and equipment they find to their supervisors. If
any faults are identified with a tool that cannot be put right, then it must be clearly
labelled ‘out of action’ and not used.
Carpenters and joiners must be trained to check the condition of hand tools and
do this each time before using them, so they can identify and possibly repair any
minor faults found. Tools and equipment that cut or plane timber will lose their
sharp cutting edges over time, so this type of maintenance is routine.
Employers should keep up-to-date records of all the maintenance carried out to the
tools and equipment they provide. If an accident occurs in the workplace that must
be reported under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences
Regulations (RIDDOR), the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) will investigate the
cause and may look at these records. Further information about the role of the HSE
and RIDDOR regulations is provided in more detail in Chapter 6.
Common faults found in hand tools and how to fix them are given in Table 4.6.
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q Table 4.6 Common faults found in hand tools and how to rectify them
Hand tools Fault Remedy

Chisels Blunt Resharpen the chisel.
Chipped edge Remove the damaged edge with a bench grinder. The chisel will also have to be
resharpened. (Remember to always wear impact-resistant goggles while using a
bench grinder.)
Over sharpened Remove the damaged edge with a bench grinder. The chisel will also have to be
resharpened.
The handle is split (common Wooden handles often split if they are struck with a hammer, rather than a
fault with wooden handles) mallet. Take the chisel out of action and replace it.
Bent along its length If a chisel is bent, it is likely to have a weakness in its neck (the joint between
the blade and handle). Any attempt to straighten the chisel will most likely
weaken the chisel further, so it should be replaced.
Mallets Split head on a timber mallet Replace the head of the mallet or the entire tool.
Damage to the face of the head Recut the face of the mallet so that it is flat again. If the strength is
though overuse, making it compromised by reducing the size of the head, then the mallet should be
difficult to strike things squarely replaced.
Handsaws The set has been lost on the The saw should be reset and sharpened if possible. It the saw has hardpoint
teeth, causing the blade to jam teeth it should be disposed of and replaced.
in the saw cut (kerf).
The teeth have lost their Resharpen the saw if possible; if not it should be disposed of and replaced.
sharpness, making it difficult
to cut.
Hammers The face of the hammer is dirty, Rub the face of the hammer flat on a piece of abrasive paper to sand it flat and
making it difficult to strike nails remove the dirt.
cleanly without bending them.
The head of the hammer is This is a common fault with hammers that have wooden shafts (handles). There
loose. is a risk of the head of the hammer coming completely off the shaft while in
use, so it should either be disposed of and replaced or have a new handle fitted
and secured with a wedge.
Planes The plane iron is blunt. Resharpen the plane iron.
The plane keeps clogging up The cap iron is either set too far back from the front edge of the plane iron or it is
with shavings. not sitting flat on the plane iron. Adjust the cap iron so that it is 0.5–1.5 mm back
from the front edge of the plane iron. If that does not work, then the underside
of the cap iron may have to be filed flat so there are no gaps between the two
components when they are screwed together.
There is a chip in the plane The plane iron must be reground at 25° (the grinding angle) and sharpened on
iron, resulting in a poor finish to a sharpening stone at 30° (the honing angle).
the work piece.
The plane is removing more The plane iron must be adjusted with the lever on the plane, so that it projects
materials on one side of the evenly below the sole of the plane.
timber than the other.
There are gouge lines in the This can be the result of the plane removing too much material when in use or
surface of the timber where the the cutting edge of the plane iron not being shaped correctly. Wind the plane
plane has been used. iron back to reduce the amount of material being removed and reshape the
sharpening stone.
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Hand tools Fault Remedy

The plane does not remove any Wind the plane iron out using the depth adjustment wheel until a fine shaving is
shavings when in use. being removed from the surface of the timber when in use.
There is surface rust on the Remove the surface rust with some fine wire wool or abrasive paper. Wipe over
body of the plane. the body of the plane with a lightly oiled rag.
Wood-boring The cutting edge has lost its Twist drill bits can be resharpened on a bench grinder. Auger bits can also be
tools (such sharpness, making it difficult to resharpened, but you need to use a small triangular file to sharpen the cutting
as drill bits) use and resulting in a poor- edges.
quality finish.
The drill bit is wobbling when The drill bit may not be positioned centrally in the chuck of the power drill, so
turning. it should be removed and reinserted in the correct position. The drill bit could
also be bent; if so, then it should be disposed of and a replacement used.
Break out (spelching) on the Clamp a piece of waste timber to the back of the workpiece before boring a hole
back face. through the timber. Alternatively, bore a hole to the centre of the workpiece or
until the point starts to protrude through the back face (depending on the type
of drill bit being used), then complete the hole by drilling from the opposite side.
Squares The square has been damaged Some squares can be trued (recalibrated) back to 90°. If this is not possible
and it is no longer 90°. then the square should be replaced.
Screwdrivers The screwdriver is bent along Dispose of the screwdriver and replace it.
its length.
The handle is beginning to split. Do not use the screwdriver when in this condition as the handle is likely to break
off the main shaft and this may result in an accident. Dispose of the screwdriver
and replace it.
The head of the screwdriver Slotted screwdrivers can be repaired in a bench grinder; any other types should
is damaged and no longer fits be replaced.
properly into the screw heads.
Gauges The pin(s) on the mortice, Use a small needle file to resharpen the pins to a point.
marking or combination gauge
no longer have a sharp point on
them.
The pins on the mortice gauge File the top of the highest pin until they are both the same height, then
are different heights. resharpen the pin.
The cutting gauge is ripping up Remove the brass wedge holding the cutter in position. Resharpen the cutter
the grain of the timber. and replace it in its original position, with the wedge holding it securely.
The stock of the gauge wobbles The stem may have worn through use. Remove the old stem and replace with
on the stem when locked into a new one. If a replacement cannot be found, then the whole gauge should be
position. replaced because you will no longer be able to use it accurately.
Tape The figures on the tape Once the markings on the tape become difficult to read, it should be replaced,
measures measure are difficult to read, otherwise it could lead to mistakes.
especially the first metre where
it has been mostly used.
The ‘hook’ on the end of the This can be caused by the tape being quickly retracted into the body of the
tape moves more than its tape measure, allowing the hook to stop abruptly against the casing. This fault
thickness. will result in inaccurate readings being taken from the tape measure; therefore,
it should be replaced.
The ‘hook’ is bent. The hook can be straightened out by placing it over a metal worker’s vice, or
something similar, and lightly striking it with a hammer back to its original position.
The tape measure has bent, The crease would create a weakness in the tape that could break if it continues
leaving a crease. to be used. It will also prevent accurate readings from being taken from the tape
measure, therefore it should be disposed of and replaced.
The tape does not recoil The spring mechanism has most likely broken. If the spring can’t be repaired or
properly when fully extended. replaced, the whole tape measure will have to be disposed of and replaced with
a new one.
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Write a sentence relating to carpentry or joinery with the word ‘abruptly’ in it.
You can refer to a dictionary for the definition of the word if you need support.
Can you think of another word that is also an adverb (often -ly words) with the
same meaning as ‘abruptly’?
ACTIVITY
Carry out an inspection of a range of hammers that you use at your training
centre and clean the face of the hammers as described in Table 4.6. Ask your
tutor or teacher to observe you while you complete the task to make sure that
you do so correctly.
3 IDENTIFY THE RESOURCES

REQUIRED TO MARK OUT
WOODWORKING JOINTS
This section begins to look at the sequence of producing woodworking joints, from
setting them out, through marking them out and finally to making them. This same
process is commonly used in the construction industry to make joinery items,
which is also included later in this chapter.
INDUSTRY TIP
Joinery that is square and Using working drawings and setting out
contains standard sections is
referred to a routine joinery.
rods
This type of work does not Sometimes, the information on working drawings does not provide enough detail
always require a rod to be to manufacture joinery items. Therefore, full-sized drawings of plans, elevations
reproduced for each item. and sections are usually produced by joiners; these are known as ‘setting out rods’,
Instead, the positions of the which may contain the following specific information:
joints and mouldings, for
l sections of the components
example, can be marked out
l joint details
directly onto the prepared
square timber sections. l profiles and mouldings (such as rebates and grooves)
l glazing and panel details.
Once a setting out rod has been prepared, it should be double-checked by your
supervisor for accuracy. A mistake identified at this stage can easily be rectified.
Once the timber has been cut, it can be costly to replace it and this may cause
delays.
Information about the materials to be used for the task will be found in a
KEY TERM
document known as a specification. This is the written document that contains
Ironmongery: hardware, additional information that may not be found on the working drawings, such as
such as locks, handles
and hinges.
the type of timber and ironmongery to use and the finish (for example, painted or
stained).
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The length, width and thickness of each component drawn on the setting out rod
KEY TERMS
will need to be measured and recorded on a cutting list, along with the quantities
needed. Table 4.7 is an example of a cutting list. The cutting list is passed on to Cutting list: a detailed list
of the components, types
the wood machinist who will cut the timber to size and plane it straight, square
of materials, dimensions
and smooth. Columns on the cutting list contain the nominal sizes. These are the and the quantities
dimensions given to the machinist to rough saw the timber to size, before reducing needed for a task.
them to the finished sizes with the planing machines. The nominal size is usually Cutting lists are used
5–6 mm bigger than the finished size. by the wood machinists
to prepare timber to
Setting out rods are used as a reference to mark out all the joints and profiles on manufacture joinery
the components needed to make joinery. If more than one item of joinery of a products.
given size is needed, referring to the rod to mark them out will help to ensure that Profile: the shape of a
they are all reproduced to the same size and will save time. section of timber, for
example, a rebate, pencil
round and ovolo are
INDUSTRY TIP profiles that can be found
on timber.
It is more accurate to produce a setting out rod on a smooth piece of timber-based sheet
material, painted with white undercoat/primer or emulsion, than it is to use a piece of
paper. Using the sheet material for your setting out will avoid the need to join pieces of
paper together for your rod and avoids the shrinkage and expansion that can sometimes
occur with paper owing to changes in humidity.
q Table 4.7 Cutting list

Nominal Nominal Finished Finished
Component Species Number Length width thickness width thickness Comments
Stiles R/wood 2 2050 100 50 95 45
Top rail R/wood 1 800 200 50 195 45
Mid and bottom rail R/wood 2 800 200 50 195 45
p Figure 4.16 Setting out rod
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The following tools are used to produce a setting out rod:

l tape measure or ruler
l tee square to mark vertical lines
l pencil gauge and thumb rule to mark horizontal lines
l eraser
l 2H pencil
l 45° set square to set out 45° and 90° lines
l 60°/30° set square to set out 60°, 30° and 90° lines
l straight edge to set out accurate straight lines on a rod
l sliding bevel to transfer angles
l protractor to set out angles
l compass to draw circles and arcs
l dividers to divide spaces equally
l trammel heads and beam to draw large circles and arcs when the compass can
no longer be used.
(Further information on hand tools is given in Chapter 2.)
INDUSTRY TIP
2H pencils are preferred for
setting out because they will
produce a clearer line than
softer pencils, such as HB.
p Figure 4.17 Trammel heads and beam
4 MARK OUT WOODWORKING

JOINTS
This section looks at the process of marking out the joints on timber components
for a basic frame using a setting out rod. The explanation of good practice for this
job can be applied to a range of more advanced joinery tasks to form woodworking
joints, which include:
l windows
l door frames
l doors
l stairs
l cupboards and cupboard framing
l roof framing.
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Using a setting out rod when marking out

woodworking joints to form a frame
Here is a step-by-step guide to using a setting out rod when marking out
woodworking joints to form a frame.
1 Inspect your pieces of timber for any defects or slight imperfections. You
should always try to keep these faces to the side where they are least likely
to be visible. Mark the best edge and adjacent face with face edge and face
side marks using a 2H pencil, as shown in Figure 4.18. Any defects found can
sometimes be removed from the timber when rebates, mouldings and grooves
are machined. Therefore, you should always consider the choice of face side and
face edge at this stage.
p Figure 4.18 Mark out the face side and face edge marks on a piece of
timber
2 Place all four parts of the frame on the setting out rod with the face sides
facing upwards and the face edges towards the middle of the setting out rod, as
shown in Figure 4.19. This is the final arrangement of the components for the
assembled frame and must not be changed.
p Figure 4.19 Arranging the frame components on the rod
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3 The two sections of timber used for the side of the frame are referred to as the
stiles if the rails are jointed between the top and bottom rails. Line up one of
the jambs perfectly with the setting out marks before transferring the position
of the mortices from the setting out rod onto the edge of the timber, as shown
in Figure 4.20.
p Figure 4.20 Mortice positions being transferred onto a jamb
4 Place the two jambs together as a pair with the face edge marks pointing towards
INDUSTRY TIP each other. Use a try square and a 2H pencil to mark the positions of the mortices
from the first jamb to the second. These positions can now be transferred around
When using marking out tools
the jambs to the other side. This is achieved by making sure that the stock (the
to mark out the components
handle) of the try square is placed firmly against either the face side or edge to
of a frame, make sure that
you use them from the face mark each line, as shown in Figure 4.21. This will ensure that the lines meet up
sides and face edges of the when they are transferred around the timber.
timber every time, otherwise
the marking out may be
inaccurate and the joints may
not fit together properly.
KEY TERM
Shoulders: the surface p Figure 4.21 Transferring the marking out lines around a piece of timber with a try square
area square to the
edge or face (cheeks) 5 Place either the top or bottom rail on the rod and align it with the setting out
of a woodworking joint marks. Transfer the positions of the shoulders from the rod onto the rail. Place
member, which exposes the top and bottom rails together as a pair with the face edges facing upwards,
the end grain. Shoulders then transfer the position of the tenons across both components using a try
are used to increase the
square and a pencil. Mark the positions of the shoulders squarely all the way
strength of joints.
around the ends of the timber.
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Shoulders
Cheeks
p Figure 4.22 Shoulders and cheeks on a tenon
6 Reposition all the parts of the frame on the rod to double-check that they have
been marked out correctly, as shown in Figure 4.23. The position of the mortice
and tenons can now be marked between the marking out lines to indicate
where to cut to form the joints. An explanation of how to do this is given later
in this chapter.
p Figure 4.23 All the frame components laid out on the setting out rod
Using marking out tools to produce

woodworking joints to form a frame INDUSTRY TIPS
Some tasks may require the use of additional tools to mark out. Some of the A marking gauge can also
marking out tools that you may use as a carpenter or joiner include: be used as a pencil gauge
by simply drilling a pencil-
l tape measure and rule, used to accurately measure lengths, widths and
width hole towards the end
thicknesses
of the beam (also known as
l compass the stem). A pencil should
l dividers be wedged into the hole
l gauges: tightly and the stock part of
l marking gauge for marking single lines along the grain of the wood the marking gauge adjusted
l mortice gauge for marking parallel lines along the grain of the wood according.
l cutting gauge for scoring single lines across the grain A micro-adjust wheel gauge
l pencil gauge for marking single lines parallel to the timber without leaving a is an alternative marking out
permanent mark tool to a traditional marking
l pencils (2H hardness pencils are recommended for marking out joinery) gauge. The wheel gauge is
l trammels easier to use and improves
l set square the accuracy of marking out,
l try square for marking out square lines across the grain of the timber and the sharp steel cutter
l combination square for marking out 90° and 45° lines on materials; the prevents tearing out the
grain.
adjustable rule can also be used as a pencil gauge
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marking knife for accurately marking out across the grain by cutting the fibres
KEY TERM
l
of the timber
Stock: the handle of a l scribers:
square or the sliding
l engineers’ scribers are occasionally used by carpenters and joiners to mark
heads on a mortice
gauge, marking gauge clear lines on metals
and cutting gauge. l combination squares usually have a scriber stored in the stock
l box square/over square for accurately transferring lines around timber when
it has a profile moulded on it.
IMPROVE ACTIVITY
YOUR MATHS Make a simple setting out and marking out trammel, with guidance from your
Carpenters and joiners tutor or teacher. There are lots of video tutorials online that explain how to do
use the metric units of this. Remember, only use the tools and equipment that you have been trained
measurement, metres (m) and authorised to use.
and millimetres (mm),
rather than centimetres.
Practise finding the
following measurements
Current regulations for marking out
using your tape measure: woodworking joints
l 15 mm Although the process of marking out timber may only involve a small number of
l 63 mm low-risk hand tools, your employer still has a responsibility to protect their workers
l 269 mm under the Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER). They also
l 0.5 m have a duty to risk assess all hazardous activities, which may identify that the
l 1.681 m. use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is needed for some tasks; this will fall
under the Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations. Both regulations are
covered in more detail in Chapter 6.
A safe working environment must always be maintained in the workplace to
protect people’s health, safety and wellbeing, regardless of what task you are
completing. When you are marking out joints, the area in which you work should
ACTIVITY be free from trip hazards and noise pollution from any woodworking machinery
Make a list of all the that is being used, and the air should be free from any fumes or dust.
hazards you could
Both you and your employer must also consider the disposal of waste materials
be exposed to in the
place where you work and products to avoid polluting and harming the natural environment. People who
or train when marking dispose of their waste irresponsibly could be penalised for breaching environmental
out woodworking regulations.
joints. Consider what
preventative measures are
already in place to protect
you from harm and any
5 SELECT AND USE HAND TOOLS
recommendations you
would like to make to your
AND MATERIALS TO PRODUCE
tutor or employer.
Discuss your ideas with
BASIC WOODWORKING JOINTS
your tutor or employer This section looks at some of the most commonly used timber-based
and add to your list any manufactured boards, the reasons why they are used and some of their
hazards you may have
missed.
applications. It also refers to relevant environmental and health and safety
regulations for using hand tools.
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Selecting woodworking materials to

produce woodworking joints
In addition to the solid timbers considered earlier in this chapter, carpenters and
joiners frequently use timber-based manufactured boards for some tasks. Sheet
materials range in thicknesses and overall size. The most commonly used size is
2440 mm long by 1220 mm wide.
Timber-based sheet materials are a cheaper alternative to solid wood. They are also
more stable and easier to cut and fix using the right tools. Some sheet materials
KEY TERMS
can be used both internally and externally, while others are for internal use only. If Delaminate: when layers
the wrong materials are used for a task they can quickly rot, delaminate and cause of materials split apart.
staining. They may also not meet Building Regulations and could therefore be Specification: a written
document that an
condemned by a building control officer. Details of the correct materials to use should
architect produces.
be given in a document known as a specification or shown on the working drawings. It contains additional
The abbreviations given in Table 4.8 are used to identify different types of sheet information about a
project that cannot be
materials.
fitted onto the working
q Table 4.8 Abbreviations used to identify different types of sheet materials drawings.
Veneer: a thin layer of
Abbreviation Type of sheet of material timber.
MR Moisture-resistant (red/pink coloured boards); these are suitable for
areas with high humidity, such as kitchens and bathrooms
FR Fire-resistant (green coloured boards); these boards are commonly
used in high-risk areas, such as shops
WBP Weather- and boil-proof (a type of plywood suitable for external use)
MDF Medium density fibreboard
OSB Oriented strand board
The most commonly used timber-based manufactured boards are listed in Table 4.9.
q Table 4.9 Commonly used timber-based manufactured boards
Manufactured board Description

Chipboard There are several different grades of chipboard. High-density is used for worktops,
flooring and fire doors. Medium and normal grade chipboard is used to make kitchens
and furniture.
The boards are made by bonding wood particles together with heat and pressure to make
a smooth and rigid sheet. Standard chipboard will swell and break if it gets wet, so MR
chipboard must be used in moist conditions.
Plywood Plywood is made up of an odd number of wood veneers, each one glued at a right angle
to the one below. The more veneers in the plywood, the thicker and stronger it becomes.
WBP plywood can be used in wet areas providing it is painted or stained. Marine plywood
can be completely submerged in water and still not delaminate, so it is often used for boat
building.
➜
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Flexi ply Flexi ply is made from two thick laminates of wood veneers on the outside of the sheet
with the grain facing in the same direction. Between the two outer sheets there is a thin
laminate bonded at 90°. This forms a flexible sheet that is suitable for making curved
work.
Medium density fibreboard (MDF) MDF is made from wood fibres bonded together with a synthetic resin adhesive to provide
a smooth and stiff board suitable for making kitchens, furniture, staircases, skirting and
architraves. There are MR and FR versions of MDF; it is also available with a range of
different wood veneers bonded to the faces.
Flexible MDF Flexible MDF is MDF sheets with grooves cut out on one side to provide a flexible board,
suitable for making curved units.
Hardboard Standard grade hardboard is for internal use only. It is a lightweight, non-structural board
commonly used for back panels and drawer bottoms in kitchens and flat-pack furniture.
Laminated/engineered panels Laminated panels are made from solid pieces of narrow timber glued together to make
a wide board that can be up to 600 mm in width. They are suitable for making furniture,
kitchens and internal joinery. They can be cut, planed, moulded and sanded like normal
timber.
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Oriented strand board (OSB) OSB is a cheap timber-based sheet material used for roofing, flooring and cladding. it
must be sealed to protect it from the elements. The board is manufactured from wood
strands bonded together with water-resistant resin to form a random pattern.
Current regulations for using

woodworking hand tools
Relevant health and safety controls that apply to the use of woodworking hand and
power tools are covered in detail in Chapter 6. Those areas of particular interest for
this chapter are:
l the Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAWA)
l the use of work equipment (Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
PUWER)
l personal protective equipment (PPE at Work Regulations)
l working with hazardous materials and substances, such as wood adhesives
(Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, or COSHH)
l maintaining tools, such as planes and chisels (Safety in the use of abrasive
wheels). Further information and guidance on the safe use of abrasive wheels
can be found at www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg17.htm
l power tools that cause vibration, such as sanders (Control of Vibration at Work
Regulations)
l control of noise (Control of Noise at Work Regulations)
l environmental regulations.
6 UNDERSTAND HOW TO
MANUFACTURE A FRAME USING
WOODWORKING JOINTS
As you progress through your training, it is likely that you will undertake various
tasks involving different types of woodworking joints. This section analyses the
most frequently used joints and considers why they are used.
Different uses for woodworking joints

In simple terms, a woodworking joint can be defined as the connection of two
pieces of timber. Many joints rely on adhesive to hold them together, while others
need mechanical fixings such as nails, screws and bolts. The types of joints used for
a task depend on a several factors, such as their strength, toughness, flexibility and
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appearance. You may also have to consider what a joint is being used for and the
materials used; for example, solid woodworking joints are often different to those
used to connect man-made timber-based sheet materials such as medium density
fibreboard (MDF) and chipboard. Some joints are more complex than others and
take longer to make, whether by hand or machines, and may result in a project
costing more.
Woodworking joints are broadly divided into three different classifications:
l widening joints l lengthening joints l framing joints.
INDUSTRY TIP
Widening joints
The quality of a widening butt
joint can be improved if both Often, timber needs to be joined in its width (side by side, longest sides together)
parts are rubbed together to make wider boards, such as for panels and worktops. Thin wide boards are less
after the glue has been stable than thick narrow ones, especially if they are tangential cut, which can lead
applied. This technique makes to distortion and cupping of the wood. This type of joint is known as a ‘widening
sure that the wood adhesive joint’. To keep the panels flat, you should use narrower boards for thin panels. The
is pushed into the grain of annual growth rings should also be arranged so that they alternate in direction.
the timber to achieve a strong
The simplest widening joints are not always the best. For example, using a plain
bond. It also ensures that
the adhesive is evenly spread butt can make it difficult to keep the faces flush while it is being glued and clamped
over the whole surface of the together, though it is the quickest method. Alternatively, the edges of the timber can
joint. be machined with a tongue and groove (often referred to as T&G); this will improve
the strength of the joint and help to align it. The disadvantage of using T&G to form
widening joints is that the boards will be reduced when the tongue is profiled on
one side of the boards. A more cost-effective method is to use a loose tongue and
groove, where a thin piece of timber or plywood is glued in a groove on each edge
of the board to form the joint, as shown in Figure 4.24. There are several jigs and
power tools that are designed to joint timber together in width, which include:
l drill and jig or dowelling jointer, used to make a dowel joint (Figure 4.25)
l domino jointer, used to make a domino joint (Figure 4.26)
l biscuit jointer, used to make a biscuit joint (Figure 4.27).
p Figure 4.24 Loose tongue p Figure 4.25 Dowel joint p Figure 4.26 Domino joint p Figure 4.27 Biscuit joint
joint

Write a review for a fictional woodworking magazine on the following power
tools:
l dowelling jointer l domino jointer l biscuit jointer.
Speak to your tutor or teacher about the review you have written and explain
the judgements you have made about each tool.
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ACTIVITY
The domino jointer is a tool used to create widening joints and framing joints.
Find and watch a video demonstration on how to set up and use a domino
jointer.
Lengthening joints
There are lots of situations where timbers need to be jointed in their length, such
as the handrails on a staircase, skirting and flooring. These types of lengthening
joints are considered non-structural because they do not support any loads; the
most common are known as heading joints (see Figure 4.28). Butt, splayed and
tongue and groove joints are the main types of heading joints for lengthening
non-structural timber. Structural timbers that carry loads, such as ridge boards
and the purlins in a roof, need stronger scarf joints to support the weight of
the other roof members (see Figures 4.29 and 4.30). There are different types of
structural scarf joints designed to suit each situation and the amount of weight
they must bear, some of which will require strengthening further with bolts and
metal plates.
p Figure 4.28 Heading joints

in floorboards support by p Figure 4.30 Scarf joint in
structural joists p Figure 4.29 Structural scarf joints in a purlin a ridge board in a roof
Framing joints
Woodworking joints used to make frames such as windows, doors and cabinets are
referred to a framing joints. There are seven main classifications for this type of joint: KEY TERMS
l butt joints Ridge board: a structural
l bridle joints beam, usually found at
l dovetail joints the top of a traditional
l halving joints roof.
l housing joints Purlins: large timber
l mitred joints beams used to support
l mortice and tenon joints. the rafters in a traditional
roof.
Within most of these classifications of joints, there are several variations on the Mortice: a rectangular
basic joint. The next section looks at some of these joints, what they are used for hole, often created with
and why they are used. mortice chisels or a
mortice machine.
Butt joint Pitch: something that is
A basic butt joint varies little, other than the angle in which the two parts of the angled (for example, a
joint come together. In most cases, the joint will be formed at 90°. However, pitched roof has sloping
rafters so that the
when used to build roofs, most of the butt joints will be angled to suit the pitch
rainwater can run off).
of the roof. Carpenters on construction sites use butt joints extensively to build
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walls, roofs and floors because they are simple and quick to cut. Because of their
simplicity, butt joints must be strengthened with nails, screws or metal brackets.
INDUSTRY TIP
When strengthening a butt joint with nails in joinery, you should angle it slightly in a
dovetail formation to improve its resistance to pulling apart. A similar principle is used in
carpentry to fix larger sections of timber together for partition walls and rafters in roofs; in
this case, the method is referred to as skew nailing.
 Figure 4.31 Dovetail nailing  Figure 4.32 Skew nailing a butt joint
a butt joint together together
Bridle joints
Bridle joints are like mortice and tenon joints, especially when they are used
to form a corner of a frame, but they are open-ended, not enclosed. There are
several different types of bridle joints, including tee bridles, corner bridles and
mitred bridles. Although the corner-mitre joint is more challenging to make, it has
the benefit of concealing most of the unsightly end grain when the joint is put
together. Bridle joints are used to make door frames, furniture and cupboards.
Dovetail joints
INDUSTRY TIP
Dovetail joints are used to construct high-quality drawers for kitchens, units and
Dovetail joints should be put furniture. The joints are attractive and extremely strong when they are glued
together twice only, once to together. Through dovetails and lapped dovetails are two main types of dovetail
make sure that the joint fits joints (see Figure 4.33). Through dovetails are commonly used for the joints in the
and then again when it is back of a drawer box, where the end grain of the timber is least visible. Lapped
ready to glue together. The dovetail joints are used in the front of a drawer, so that the end grain of the joint
greater the number of times a is hidden from view. The angles of the dovetail joints in softwood are usually a
joint is assembled and taken ratio of 1:6 and in hardwoods they are 1:8. Some joiners prefer to use 1:7 for both
apart, the slacker and weaker softwoods and hardwoods.
it will become.
Through Lapped
p Figure 4.33 Through and lapped dovetail joints (including pitches for hard and softwood)
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Draw to scale the ratios for dovetail joints in softwoods and hardwoods. Using
a protractor, calculate how many degrees each joint is to the nearest whole
number.
Halving joints
Halving joints are also referred to as lap joints because one part of the joint
overlaps the other. They are used by carpenters as lengthening joints, as well as
framing joints for partition walls and wall plates for roofs and floors to be built on.
There are several different versions of halving joints:
l corner halving joint
l angled halving joint
l tee halving joint
l cross halving joint Raked halving
l dovetail halving joint (for improved strength)
l raked halving joint.
Tee halving
Corner halving
Cross halving
Dovetail halving
p Figure 4.34 Halving joints
Housing joints
Housing joints are used to construct door linings, hatches, shelving, staircases and
sliding sash windows. They are formed by creating a shallow trench or housing KEY TERM
across the width of one part of the joint, usually either one-third or half of the Trench: a groove cut
thickness of the timber in depth, depending on the thickness of the timber. The across the grain of a
piece of timber.
other part of the joint should fit directly into the housing at a right angle. It is then
secured with wood adhesive and nails, if they are needed. A basic through housing
joint runs across the full width of the timber; a stopped housing joint has a trench
that stops short of the full width so that the joint is hidden for a high-quality finish
(see Figure 4.36). A housing joint can also be created with a ‘shoulder’ on one side,
known as a shoulder housing joint or tongued housing. This is particularly useful
if the joint is used to form a corner, because the tongue prevents the joint from
coming apart.
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Through Stopped Tongued
p Figure 4.35 Through housing joint, stopped housing joint, shoulder/tongued housing joint
Mitre joints
Carpenters and joiners often cut mitre joints to continue a moulding or trim
around a corner or to form a 90° bend. They are also used to fit beading to hold
glazing in doors and windows. Mitre joints are used to avoid the end grain of
the timber being exposed and so that any profile on the timber continues neatly
around the joint. It is difficult to cut a perfect mitre with a handsaw without the
use of a mitre box, mitre saw or chop saw. Most mitred joints rely on adhesive
to hold them together. However, they can be strengthened with nails, biscuits or
wooden dowels.
p Figure 4.36 Mitre box
Later in this chapter, we will look at how mitres are used to install skirtings and
architraves.
KEY TERMS
Beading: a small section
of timber, often shaped
with a decorative profile.
Architrave: a timber trim 90°
α90°
or moulding often used to
cover the joint between a
door lining and a wall.
p Figure 4.37 Mitre saw p Figure 4.38 Mitred skirting and architrave
INDUSTRY TIP
Sometimes, mitres need to be trimmed with a plane so they fit perfectly. The most accurate
way to do this is by using a shooting board. This tool looks like a bench hook, apart from the
back stop being set at 45° rather than 90° to suit the angle of the mitre.
Mortice and tenon joints

These are used in joinery to construct doors, frames, windows and staircases
because they are extremely strong joints. There are two parts to the joint: the
tenon, which is referred to as the ‘male’, and the ‘female’ mortice. A basic mortice
and tenon joint is sometimes wedged and dowelled to increase its strength. The
joint becomes more complicated when the shoulders of the joint need to be
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shaped or scribed over profiles and rebates that may be on the edge of the timber.
KEY TERMS
A third of the tenon is usually removed from corner joints so that they can still be
wedged together; this type of joint is known as a haunched mortice and tenon. Scribed: a shape that has
been replicated, marked
Where wider timbers may be used to join the rails in doors, double tenons are used
out and cut on a piece of
to avoid weakening the timber and to reduce the weakening effect of a wide tenon timber to fit over another
shrinking. The tenon on some joints may be kept short to prevent it going through surface.
the timber and exposing the end grain of the joint; this is referred to as a stub (or Haunch: a portion of
blind) mortice and tenon joint. a tenon that has been
removed to strengthen
Haunched the joint. A haunch also
mortice and
tenon creates a space where
1/3 wedges can be driven
1/3 down the sides of the
2/3 tenon to strengthen it
further.
Double tenon
Haunched mortice
and tenon joint
1/3 showing tenon
1/3 thickness and
ratio
1/3
Wedges glued
Double haunched and driven in
mortice and with a hammer
tenon either side of each
1/4 tenon to strengthen
1/4 the joints.
1/4
1/4
1–2 times
tenon thickness
p Figure 4.39 Mortice and tenon joints
7 FORM A FRAME USING

WOODWORKING JOINTS HEALTH AND SAFETY
You should always
This section includes step-by-step guidance to some of the techniques used to cut
use sharp tools when
woodworking joints using carpentry and joinery hand tools. producing woodwork. You
are more likely to have
Producing and assembling woodworking an accident with blunt or
damaged tools because
joints to form a frame you will have to force
You will carry out two actions when cutting woodworking joints: rip sawing along them to cut.
the length of the grain and crosscutting across the grain. It is always more difficult
to cut along the length of the grain with a saw, so you should always make sure
KEY TERM
that you are cutting within the waste area of your joints. You may always reduce
the thickness of your joint to make it fit but cannot add it on to the timber. When Waste area: the part of
the timber removed to
you crosscut the timber to make joints you will be forming the shoulders. Some create the joint.
examples of joint shoulders can be seen in Figure 4.41.
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Part of lap joint or rebate Part of lap joint or r
Tenon
of halving joint or housing Part of halving joint or housing Dovetail Dovetail
p Figure 4.40 Joint shoulders
KEY TERM Whenever you are cutting joints, you must ensure that the timber is secured to
Hatching: evenly spaced prevent it from moving around and causing potential accidents. Depending on the
parallel lines, running in task, you can use a vice, a bench hook or a clamp.
the same direction, at
45° from each other. Before making any cuts, double-check your marking out and make sure that the
waste area of your joint is clearly indicated with hatching or crosses.
p Figure 4.41 Starting to rip along the p Figure 4.42 Finishing ripping along
grain of a joint the grain of a joint
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Ripsawing to form woodworking joints

INDUSTRY TIPS
Here is a step guide to ripsawing to form woodworking joints (sawing along the
grain to form the cheeks). Stand at the end of your
1 Secure the timber in a vice at a slight angle. bench when you are ripping
down the grain to cut joints.
2 Bend your thumb and place the side of a tenon saw against it. Use this as a
This will avoid you having to
guide to start your first cut in the waste area of your joint.
lean over the bench from the
3 Continue sawing down to the shoulder lines you have marked out, making sure other side and will help you to
that you slow down as you near the end of your cut for better control. make vertical cuts.
4 Take the timber out of the vice, turn it around and repeat the process on the
When you are cutting tenons,
opposite side. look directly along the top
5 Adjust the position of the timber in the vice so that it is vertical, place the saw (the spine) of the saw. You
in the cut that has been made and continue sawing down to the shoulder lines. should be able to see both
Keep checking on both sides of the timber to make sure that you are not sawing sides of the blade if you are
below the shoulder lines. cutting square.
Crosscutting
Here is a step-by-step guide to crosscutting (sawing across the grain of timber to
form the shoulders).
1 Place the timber firmly against the bench hook and hold it in position with one
hand. Alternatively, secure it in a vice.
2 Using your thumb as a guide, hold a tenon saw at a slight angle on the edge
of the timber against the bench hook and begin making light saw cuts in the
timber, as shown in Figure 4.44.
3 When the cut is deep enough to prevent your saw slipping away from your HEALTH AND SAFETY
marking out line, move your hand safely out of the way to complete the cut Always keep your hand
behind the cutting edges
down to your gauge lines, as shown in Figure 4.45. Keep checking both sides of
of sharp tools when they
the timber while you are cutting, to make sure that you are not sawing below are in use.
your marking out lines.
p Figure 4.43 Starting to crosscut p Figure 4.44 Finishing a crosscut
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Housing
INDUSTRY TIPS
The technique used for making housings can also be used for several joints,
Rub a pencil along the blade including tee halving joints, bridle joints and housing joints. Here is a step-by-step
of a try square, turn it over guide to making a housing joint.
and rub the edge in a housing
1 Secure the workpiece in a vice.
joint to check if it is flat. Any
2 Use a tenon saw to cut along the marking out lines, down to the gauge line.
high points of the housing will
have a pencil mark on them Keep checking both sides of the timber while you are sawing to make sure you
that can be flattened out with do not cut below the gauge line, as doing so could weaken the joint.
a chisel. 3 Make several more saw cuts between the marking out lines in the waste area.
When making multiple This will make it easier to remove the waste wood at the next stage.
housing joints, it is more 4 Select a bevel edge chisel, slightly smaller than the width of the housing. Hold
productive to use an electric the chisel at a slight angle and start to remove the waste material by striking
router and a jig. the chisel with a mallet. Start chiselling at the top of the joint and remove small
sections at a time until you reach the gauge line.
5 Remove the timber from the vice, turn it around and repeat the process on the
ACTIVITY opposite side of the joint
Mark out and cut a tee 6 You should be left with a high point in the centre of the housing at this stage,
halving joint following this
which can now be chiselled flat from both sides of the joint. Alternatively, a
step-by-step guidance.
hand router can be used to clean up the bottom of a housing to provide an
accurate finish to the joint.
Morticing
INDUSTRY TIP A joiner will rarely cut mortice joints by hand these days unless it is easier to do so
than using a woodworking machine, known as a morticer. Regardless of whether
When cutting a haunched the joint is cut by hand or machine, the marking out process is the same, and
mortice and tenon joint, you
some of the manual skills are transferable to other tasks. You must use a mortice
may cut the wedges from
chisel to cut the joint, because it has square edges that help to produce accurate
the waste area of the tenon.
This will save time making mortices. It is also important to make sure that your workpiece is held securely on
accurate wedges. your workbench while you are cutting the mortices with a mallet and chisel. The
following step-by-step guide explains how to cut an accurate mortice.
1 Secure your timber to a workbench.
2 Stand at the end of the bench, holding the mortice chisel upright just inside of
your marking out line at one end of the mortice.
3 Begin to chip out the waste material in the mortice by striking the chisel with a
mallet 10–12 mm into the edge of the timber. Remove the chisel and repeat the
process further along the mortice, until the end is reached.
ACTIVITY 4 Repeat step 3 to the centre of the timber.
Mark out and cut a 5 Unclamp the timber, turn it over and repeat steps 3 and 4 until a through
through mortice and tenon mortice has been made.
joint using this step-by-step
6 Make the mortice slightly longer at each end on the back edge to allow room
guidance.
for wedges, if required.
Dovetails
Creating neatly fitting interlocking dovetail joints is not as complicated as it may
seem at first. The following is a step-by-step guide to creating dovetail joints.
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Marking out
1 Set up a sliding bevel to the correct angle for the dovetails. Alternatively, you
could use a dovetail template that is already shaped to either 1:6 for softwoods
or 1:8 for hardwoods.
2 Mark the thickness of the timber on one end of the joint. This will become the
shoulder line.
3 Mark out the dovetails on one piece of the joint in an alternating pattern.
4 Use a pencil to indicate the waste parts of the joint.
INDUSTRY TIP
Cutting
1 Place the piece of timber marked out with the dovetails in a vice, so that one Whenever possible, you
side of the dovetail is vertical. should leave the rails (which
2 Use a fine-toothed dovetail saw to cut the cheeks on one side of the dovetails. hold the mortices) longer than
Adjust the timber in the vice to repeat this process on the other side. they need to be, so that the
3 Use a coping saw to remove the waste between the dovetails in the middle. joints can be assembled and
4 Cut along the shoulder lines either side of the joint with a dovetail saw. wedged without breaking out.
The extra length on the joints
5 Remove the timber from the vice and place it on a waste piece of material to
is referred to as the horn.
protect the bench below. Use a bevel edge chisel to pare along the shoulder line
Horns are usually removed
to make it neat. with a handsaw or rail saw
6 Use the dovetails made as a template to mark out the ‘pins’ on the end grain of just before fitting the frame.
the other part of the joint with a marking knife.
7 Mark the depth of the pins and the shoulder line around the end of the joint,
then cut out the sockets using the same method used to make the dovetails.
KEY TERM
8 Assemble the joint using a mallet and a block of wood to protect the joint from
damage. Dry fitting: a stage in the
process of manufacturing
Assembling the frame joinery, when each joint is
fitted individually before
1 Once all the joints have been cut for a frame, each joint should be individually assembling the frame
dry fitted, then the frame put together without any glue to check the all-over without glue to make
dimensions against the original setting out rod. the final checks. After
2 Disassemble the frame and clean up the inside edges of the timber using 80 grit the checks have been
made, the joinery can
sandpaper for softwoods or 120 grit paper for hardwoods.
be taken apart and the
3 Glue the frame together with a suitable wood adhesive. internal faces sanded (also
referred to as papered-up)
Adhesives used to bond wood together before being reassembled
Several different types of adhesives are used for bonding wood together and with a wood adhesive for
the final time.
each one has different qualities. For example, when you are constructing frames
for exterior work, the adhesive must be moisture-resistant. You may also need
to consider the drying times of the adhesive. If it starts to dry too quickly while
assembling a frame, it can cause problems and weaken the bond between the joints. HEALTH AND SAFETY
The following list comprises the most common adhesives used for producing frames. Always follow the
manufacturer’s safety
l PVA (polyvinyl acetate): this is probably the most commonly used adhesive instructions for the use,
because it does not need to be mixed and can be used straight from a bottle storage and disposal of
or dispenser. The adhesive is white, but turns clear as it dries. There are both wood adhesives, such
as always wearing the
interior and exterior grades of this adhesive. PVA generally dries hard within
disposable gloves provided
12 hours; however, some glues dry quicker. Any excess glue can be removed when using PU adhesive.
from the joints with a damp cloth to prevent it staining the wood.
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l PU (polyurethane): this adhesive has become extremely popular with

carpenters and joiners. As the brown resin cures, it turns yellow, produces a foam
to fill any gaps in the joints and forms a very strong bond within 5 minutes. Any
excess glue on the frame should be allowed to cure before removing it with a
chisel to prevent staining the timber. PU adhesive is suitable for both interior and
exterior use.
ACTIVITY l UF (urea-formaldehyde): this is a powdered resin wood adhesive that should
Research different types be mixed with water before use. Once it has been mixed in a pot, it will start to
of wood adhesives and dry within 1–2 hours, depending on the temperature, and is fully cured within
make a list of carpentry
6 hours. Joiners use this adhesive for laminating curved work together, because
and joinery tasks that
each adhesive could be it is extremely strong and does not flex like other glues. Excess glue can simply
used for. be removed with a damp cloth while it is still wet. UF adhesive is suitable for
interior and exterior use.
KEY TERMS Gluing-up

The following is a step-by-step guide to gluing-up.
Curing: the chemical
process adhesives 1 Prepare the work area by placing two bench bearers on your bench and
go through before checking them to make sure they are not twisted, as shown in Figure 4.46.
they achieve their full
If they are twisted, place thin packers under them to make sure they are level.
strength.
2 Spread wood adhesive over the joints and assemble the frame with a mallet.
Squaring rod: a thin piece
of batten with either a
3 Use a sash clamp to pull the joints together.
point or a nail on the 4 Check the frame is square by marking the lengths of both diagonals on a
end of it. It is used to squaring rod (Figure 4.46). Adjust the frame, if necessary, until the diagonals
measure the diagonal are equal.
distances in a frame to 5 Make sure the frame is not twisted before driving the wedges and knocking
check that it is square. them into the mortice with a hammer.
Horns: portions of waste 6 Trim any excess length off the wedges.
material left on a frame
7 Remove the clamps and plane the joints flat with a smoothing plane.
to strengthen the joints
before they are later 8 Cut off the horns with a tenon saw.
removed after final 9 Make sure you are wearing the correct PPE for using an orbital sander. Make the
assembly and finishing. surfaces of the frame smooth and remove any marks.
10 Remove the sharp edges (the arris) with abrasive paper to complete the task.
p Figure 4.45 Bench bearers p Figure 4.46 Squaring rod
INDUSTRY TIP
Removing the arris from your completed work allows any paint that is applied to stick to the
corners: it is also more comfortable to handle and provides a professional finish.
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Current regulations for using

woodworking joints
Information on current environmental and relevant health and safety regulations
is given in Chapter 6. The following guidance is especially relevant when using
woodworking joints.
l You should always clear away any surplus materials and dispose of debris in
accordance with your college’s or company’s procedures at the end of each task.
This avoids unnecessary accidents.
l Some pieces of timber may go back into the stores to be reused, while smaller
sections will be recycled. Materials that cannot be recycled must go into the HEALTH AND SAFETY
general waste bins. Make a list of all the
l Clean any tools you have used for the task and check them for damage, before hazards that you could be
exposed to while making
storing them away in preparation for the next job.
woodworking joints to
l Remove from use any equipment that is damaged and report this damage to produce a frame.
your tutor, line manager or supervisor.
8 CONSTRUCT AND FIX HATCH

LININGS
A hatch is similar in many ways to a door lining. Both are made with housing
joints and trimmed with architraves. Hatches are most frequently used to line the
openings created between ceiling joists to gain access into loft spaces. These types
of hatches either have a loose panel that can be removed to gain access or a door
that is hinged to open into the loft or to drop below it. Loft hatches that open
downwards are usually hung with butt hinges to prevent them falling out of the
lining; they also have either a push latch or rim lock fitted to secure them in their
closed position. This section looks at how to make a basic loft hatch. You should
refer to Building Regulations for the exact specification with regards to sound and
thermal insulation and fire resistance rating. There are no restrictions on the size of
a loft hatch in these regulations. However, a minimum opening size of 530 mm ×
530 mm is recommended for personal access.
Producing and assembling woodworking

joints to construct and fix a hatch lining
Before a loft hatch is made by the joiner, the opening that it is going to be fitted
into on site is measured and checked to make sure that is square. A tolerance of a
least 15 mm must be made between the size of the opening and the dimensions of
the hatch. This gap will allow the carpenter to make any slight adjustments needed
to the positioning of the hatch when it is being fitted.
An experienced joiner may not produce a setting out rod for a simple task such as
making a loft hatch. This would initially be drawn so that the dimensions of the
materials can be taken and recorded on a cutting list. Many different species of
timber could be used to make a loft hatch, such as European redwood or American
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whitewood, providing that they have the correct moisture content to use internally.
Once the materials have been cut to size, planed smooth and straightened, the
following process of marking out the timber and cutting the joints can be followed.
To make and fit a hatch, you will need:
l 2H pencil l smoothing plane and block plane
l try square and combination square l squaring rod
l tape measure and rule l Warrington hammer and nail punch
l marking gauge l cordless drill/driver
l tenon saw l spirit level
l bevel edge chisel l bench hook, G clamp and sash clamp
l mallet l PPE.
Marking out a hatch

The following is a step-by-step guide to marking out a hatch.
1 Mark the face side and edge on all the components, ensuring that you keep any
defects facing towards the outside of the hatch when it is completed.
2 Place one side and end piece on the setting out rod in turn to transfer the
positions of the housing joints onto the timber. (Note: through housing joints
can be used, but tongued housings will provide stronger joints.)
3 Pair the side and end pieces (a left hand and a right hand) and clamp them
together with a G clamp.
4 Use a try square to transfer the pencil marks from the first pieces marked out
to the others.
5 Remove the G clamp and use a try square to mark the positions of the joints
across the grain of the timber, while keeping the stock (adjustable block) of the
INDUSTRY TIP square against the face side and edges for accuracy.
Place small blocks of timber 6 Set up a marking gauge to the depth of the housing joints with a ruler. Then
between the sash clamp and mark out the depth onto the two side components, either side of each joint.
the timber workpiece while 7 If the hatch is being constructed with through housing joints then no further
clamping together. This will marking out needs to be done at this stage. If tongued housing joints are
prevent the pressure applied being used, then the thickness of the tongue can be marked on the two end pieces.
by the clamp from damaging
the timber. Manufacturing a hatch
The following is a step-by-step guide to manufacturing a hatch.
1 Use a tenon saw to cut across the grain of the timber on both side pieces until the
KEY TERM
gauge lines have been reached between the marking out. Make sure the cuts are
Break-out: the damage within the waste area of the joints. This will help to ensure that both parts of the
caused when a tool, such
as a chisel or drill bit, is
joint fit together well. Make several additional saw cuts between the marking out
used from one face of a lines so that the waste can easily be removed with a wooden mallet and chisel.
piece of timber and exits 2 Use a bevel edge chisel, slightly smaller than the width of the housing joints,
the opposite side. Break-out to chisel from both sides of the timber upwards towards the centre of the
can be reduced if a clamp joint. Once the gauge lines have been reached, the high point in the middle of
is used to hold a scrap the joint can be removed by carefully chiselling from both sides of the joint to
piece of timber behind
the area being worked on.
prevent break-out.
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3 If tongued housing joints are being used to make the hatch, the tongues can
KEY TERMS
be cut with a tenon saw and cleaned up with a bevel edge chisel at this stage.
There is no need for any further work on the joints if through housings are Counter sunk: shaped
so that the head of the
being used. It is recommended that the hatch is dry fitted prior to finishing to
screw sits below the
make sure that all the joints fit and to check the overall dimensions against the surface of the timber
setting out details. when it is fixed. (Further
4 Remove any pencil or machining marks from all timber components with a information on screws is
sander before the wood adhesive is applied. given in Chapter 5.
5 Spread adhesive over each joint and reassemble the hatch. A pair of sash clamps Pilot holes: small holes
can be used to help clamp the joints together. The joints should be secured drilled (or bored) into
with counter sunk wood screws, so a suitable pilot hole must be drilled and timber to prevent it from
splitting when the fixing
countersunk before they can be fixed together. Remove any excess glue with a screws are inserted.
clean damp cloth.
6 Use a squaring rod to check that the hatch is square and then secure it with a
temporary brace. INDUSTRY TIP
7 Look through the frame to check that it is not twisted by comparing one edge
against the other end on the opposite side of the hatch. If it is flat, both edges Clearance holes may be used
will be parallel to each other. If the frame is twisted, you may need to apply when fixing two materials
pressure to untwist it. If this does not work, the joints may have to be adjusted. together. These holes should
8 Use a smoothing plane to make sure that each joint is flush, before sanding the be drilled into the top material
edges of the hatch on both sides. and should be large enough
9 Measure, then mark out and cut some timber stops to go around the inside faces for the screw to pass through
of the hatch. The joints can be simply butted together unless moulded beads are it, therefore preventing the
used, in which case they should be mitred. Mark a parallel line around the hatch two materials pulling apart
when the screw is tightened.
to determine the height of the panel or door to be fitted. Secure the beading in
(See Chapter 5, page 233)
position with oval nails and use a nail punch to drive them below the surface of
the timber. Alternatively, a nail gun could be used to fix the beads.
10 The panel or door can now be fitted. Check to make sure there is an equal gap
of 2 mm clearance between its edge and the hatch.
11 A pair of butt hinges and a latch or lock can finally be fitted if the hatch has a
door that opens downwards.
12 Adjust the rule on a combination square to the margin to be used between the
architraves and the edge of the hatch. Mark the margin on the edges of the face
side of the hatch. Mark out the mitre joints and cut the architraves ready for
installation by the site carpenter.
INDUSTRY TIP
All the arrises should be removed from your hatch before completion to provide a professional
finish and to allow the paint applied to stick better to the slightly rounded edges.
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HEALTH AND SAFETY Installing a hatch

Installing a loft hatch can After the joiner has finished constructing the loft hatch, it will usually be delivered
be very hazardous because to the construction site for installation by a carpenter.
you are likely to work
The following is a step-by-step guide to installing a hatch.
at height from suitable
access equipment. You 1 Double check the width and the length of the hatch. Compare these dimensions
will also use tools and against the size of the opening in the ceiling to make sure that it will fit.
equipment above head
2 A timber loft hatch is normally secured in position with countersunk screws
height, which could result
in debris, such as wood above the stops that the loft panel sits on. Alternatively, the beading can be
dust, falling into your eyes. temporarily removed and the fixings can be hidden underneath.
Your employer should have 3 Drill and counter-sink holes into the hatch before lifting it into position. It is also
a risk assessment for this useful if the fixings are partially screwed into the hatch. As it is quite difficult to
task informing you of the install a loft hatch unaided or without temporary supports, having additional
best way to protect against
help is recommended for this stage.
the hazards identified.
In addition to your safety 4 Position the hatch so that the backs of the architraves are fitted flush to the
boots, high visibility jacket ceiling surface, providing that the ceiling has been previously plastered. If the
and hard hat, you should ceiling has not been plastered, then the hatch lining will need to project below
also wear safety goggles to the surface of the plasterboard ceiling by 2 mm. Partly screw the fixings in each
reduce the risk of an injury corner of the hatch into the ceiling joists to hold the hatch in position while it is
to the lowest possible
checked with a spirit level to make sure that it is not in twist. Pack out any gaps
level.
behind the hatch fixing points with plastic frame packers or timber wedges,
before finally inserting the fixing screws fully.
5 Check the diagonal measurements of the hatch to make sure that it is square
before inserting the remaining fixing screws and removing the temporary brace.
6 Fix the architraves to the edge of the lining after the ceiling has been plastered.
9 CUT AND FIX SKIRTINGS AND

ARCHITRAVES
Skirtings and architraves are lengths of timber trims that are fitted by site
carpenters at the second fixing stage of building work, after plastering has been
completed. Architraves are fixed to the outside edges of door linings. They are used
to hide the joint between the wall and the frame. They may also be fitted around
the outside edges of a loft hatch, or similar opening, to cover any gaps between the
frame and the plasterboard ceiling.
Architraves should be fitted after a door has been hung. This allows the site
p Figure 4.47 Architrave and carpenter to make further adjustments, if needed, at the back of the lining when
skirting they are fitting the door, before the gaps are finally covered with the trims.
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Skirting is positioned at the bottom of walls to protect them from damage around
KEY TERMS
the perimeter of rooms and hallways. They are also used to conceal any expansion
gaps left by the carpenters at ground level and provide a neat finish between the Expansion gaps: spaces
left between materials
floor and the finished wall.
to allow them to move
This section looks at the process of marking out, cutting and fixing sets of freely if they shrink or
architraves and skirtings. Some of the most common profiles used on these expand. If gaps are not
left and the materials
mouldings are also identified.
expand, they are likely to
buckle and distort. The
Marking out, cutting and fixing architraves joint between floorboards
and a wall is a good
and skirting example of where an
Architraves are usually fitted before skirting boards because they extend along the expansion gap should
jambs of the door lining to the floor. This allows the skirting to butt neatly against be left. Joiners also use
expansion gaps between
it. The edge of the architrave should be set back from the face of the door lining
tongue and grooved
to create an equal parallel gap all the way around the frame; this gap is referred to boards when they are
as the margin. Margins are usually 6–9 mm wide, but this usually depends on the making matchboarded
width of the architrave. Bigger architraves may have a wider gap. Margins enable doors.
door hinges and other ironmongery needed to hang a door to be recessed into the Jambs: the long lengths
lining without interfering with the architraves. They also prevent the door from of timber used to form
binding when hung and avoid an unsightly joint that would result if the architraves the vertical sides of a
were flush with the face of the lining. door lining or frame.
Binding: when something
The profiled edge of the architrave should always face towards the door opening is prevented from moving
in the centre of the lining. It is then mitred at 45° in the top corners to allow the freely, such as a door
profile to return continuously around the frame at 90°. The sequence shown below being prevented from
illustrates how to mark the margin on a door lining and fit a set of architraves. You opening fully because
it is binding against the
should either fix the head architrave first or one of the legs (the long lengths of
architrave, or the side
architrave). This will make the task easier by avoiding the need to fit two mitres at of the saw sticking and
the same time. rubbing on the material
The tools that you will need to mark out, cut and fix architraves are: during the cutting
process.
l 2H pencil Head: the top component
l combination square in a frame.
l rule and tape measure
l sliding bevel (needed to set out and mark out when the corners are not square)
l tenon saw INDUSTRY TIP
l mitre box, mitre saw or powered chop saw (also referred to as a mitre saw)
l block plane It is best to use nail guns and
l claw hammer and a fine nail punch or second fix nail gun power mitre saws to cut and
fix architraves and skirtings
l PPE.
because they enable you to
complete the tasks more
quickly and more accurately
than when using hand tools.
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Fixing architraves
Corner check line
Margin
STEP 1 Set up a combination square so that the STEP 2 Cut a 45° mitre on one end of the head STEP 3 Cut the mitre marked out on the head
adjustable rule extends the same distance as architrave, making sure that the moulding will architrave and fix it in position. If you are
the margin. Place a pencil against the end of the face towards the margin when fitted. Place the cutting the joints and fixing the architrave
combination square and mark a line all the way architrave onto the edge of the door lining, so by hand, then the oval nails used to hold it in
around the edge of the door lining. that the bottom edge lines up with the margin position should be left sticking out at this stage.
line marked out. Adjust the position of the If the joints have been cut with a power mitre
architrave so that the corner of the mitre lines saw, then a bead of grab adhesive should be
up with the vertical margin line marked out on applied to the back of the architrave and it
the jamb, then mark the position of the mitre of should be permanently fixed with a nail gun. You
the opposite end. should always hide the fixings used to secure
the architraves by nailing through either the
fillet or the quirk. These are the lower parts of
the profile that cast a shadow, so they are more
likely to disguise the nail holes.
STEP 4 Hold one of the leg STEP 5 Cut the mitres you have STEP 6 If necessary, you can plane STEP 7 If you have temporarily
architraves against the door lining just marked out on the architraves the mitres to achieve a perfect fixed the architraves and left the
and mark the top of the fixed head and check that they fit against the fit; this is referred to as dressing nails raised, you can now drive
architrave on the back of the leg door lining. the timber. When you are satisfied them below the surface with a
architrave. The position of the with the result, you can glue and claw hammer and nail punch. If
mitre can now be marked properly nail both architraves in position. a nail gun was used to secure
on the face of the architrave. It is common practice to space the the architraves, the brads will
Repeat this step for the other side fixings 200–300 mm apart. have already been fired below the
of the frame. surface of the timber, ready for
filling by the decorator.
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INDUSTRY TIPS KEY TERMS

Grab adhesive: a strong
You should avoid nailing too close to the ends of the architraves when you are fixing them glue used to bond
by hand because this may cause the timber to split. When fixing the mitres together, either timber and timber-based
drill a small pilot hole first or blunt the point of the nail with a hammer. Avoid nailing the materials like MDF to
mitres together if the architraves are made from MDF because nailing causes the fibres to different surfaces, such
part, splitting the joint. as plaster, bricks and
concrete blocks.
Fix the mitred joints on architraves together with quick-setting mitre adhesive and nail
them together through the head; this will provide a strong joint and hide the fixing. Fillet: a sunk or raised
flat surface on a timber
moulding, such as
There will be times when you need to fit architraves around corners that are not skirting and architrave.
square, such as under a staircase or where the ceilings are angled in a loft room. Quirk: a narrow, deep
To do this, you should bisect the angles needed for the mitres. This simply means indentation forming part
dividing the angles equally by two and is not as difficult a task as it may seem of a moulding.
(see Figure 4.49). Dressing: planing the
surface of a piece of
Hold a length of timber trim on the lining head and mark its width onto the face timber with a hand plane,
of the wall with a pencil, then repeat the process for the leg architraves. From the such as a block plane.
point where both lines cross over (intersect), you can mark a line to the inside
corner of the door lining to bisect the angle. At this stage, you should adjust and
set up a sliding bevel to the bisected angle. You can then transfer the angle onto
the architrave to mark out your mitre joints. A similar process can be used to mark
out and cut skirting boards to fit around obtuse angled walls.
Width Adjustable bevel

? of trim set up to mitre
2 line
Mitre
? Intersecting
mitre line
Width
of trim
p Figure 4.48 Bisecting angles for architraves
Bisecting angles for skirting
STEP 1 Draw the thickness of the skirting on STEP 2 Bisect the angle on the floor.
the floor.
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STEP 3 Transfer the setting out lines from the STEP 4 Cut and fix the mitred skirting together.
floor to the skirting.
The tools that you will need to mark out, cut and fix skirting are:
Moulded section
mitred l 2H pencil
l combination square
l tape measure
l sliding bevel
l handsaw
l coping saw
Waste removed l mitre box, mitre saw or chop saw
Return moulded l block plane
section
l claw hammer and a fine nail punch or second fix nail gun
p Figure 4.49 A splayed heading l power drills (cordless screwdriver and SDS hammer drill).
joint (skirting)
Once the architraves have been installed, the skirting can be fitted. Where the
skirting changes direction at the internal and external corners it must be jointed; it
may also have to be joined in its length. All the external corners must be mitred at
INDUSTRY TIPS 45° so that the profile of the skirting continues around the corner; this also prevents
the unsightly end grain from being visible. This can be done with a chop saw or a
It is bad practice to scribe mitre saw or marked out with a combination square and cut with a handsaw. Using
an internal joint of skirting a chop saw is the preferred method because it is quick and extremely accurate.
that has a bullnose profile
because the scribe produces Any mitres that do not come together perfectly may have to be dressed (planed)
a weak top edge that could with a sharp block plane until there are no visible gaps in the joint. Mitres are
easily break. This problem not suitable for internal corners because they will reveal large gaps between
can be overcome by using a the skirtings if they shrink, so these joints must be scribed. A scribed joint has
false mitre joint. This type of the profile of the skirting shaped on the end grain on one part of the joint, to fit
joint is a combination of a neatly over the other section against the wall. The scribed joint is usually under-
mitred top edge for strength cut slightly so that the visible front edge remains tight fitting and the back of the
and a scribed lower portion.
joint that fits against the wall has a slight gap. Undercutting the joint makes an
Always cut the longest allowance for the corner of the wall being slightly out of square (not square),
lengths of skirting required which is often the case.
first. Any offcuts of timber
can be used for the shorter Sometimes, the skirting you have will not be long enough for a wall in one length
walls. This method helps to and another piece will be needed to extend it. The best joint to use in this situation
reduce the amount of time is a splayed heading joint rather than a butt joint (see Figure 4.50). The joint should
it takes to fit the skirting by be glued together, nailed securely and sanded to make sure it is perfectly flush.
minimising the number of
lengthening joints needed. The method used to fix skirting to a wall is determined by the materials used to
construct it. If the wall is made of timber and covered with plasterboard, then the
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skirting can be bonded with grab adhesive and secured with nails, either using a
HEALTH AND SAFETY
nail gun or oval nails and a claw hammer. If the skirting needs to be fixed to a brick
You should not use a nail
or concrete block wall, you will need to use an SDS hammer drill to bore holes into
gun to secure skirting to
the masonry to accept plastic plugs and screws or another suitable fixing, such as masonry walls because
a hammer-in fixing. If the skirting is to be painted, the heads of the screws should doing so could damage
be countersunk below the surface of the wood so that they can be filled. Fixings the power tool and cause
should be counter-bored (see Chapter 5) on skirting that is to be stained or will it to misfire. A hazard
have a clear finish applied so that a timber pellet with matching grain can be glued could also be created
if nails hit the masonry
and inserted into the fixing hole to hide the head of the screws.
wall because they could
bounce off the wall and
towards the operator or
people nearby.
KEY TERM
Misfire: a nail gun failing
to operate properly,
causing the nail or
fixing to get jammed
in the chamber of the
p Figure 4.50 Timber pellets tool. Always follow
the manufacturer’s
instructions to avoid this
ACTIVITY happening.
Research and list a range of suitable fixings that could be used to secure
hardwood skirting to a masonry wall. Write a short sentence to explain the
benefits of using each of the fixings you have found, such as cost and speed
of use.
Skirting/architrave mouldings
The detailing on the profile of skirtings and architraves usually suits the style of
the property or building in which it is fixed. In new build house construction, the
profiles are often extremely simple, so it is easier to cut the internal scribes, quicker
to install and cost-effective. Traditional buildings had deeper and more elaborate
mouldings to reflect the grandeur of the property. The following illustrations are
some of the most used profiles for both skirtings and architraves.
p Figure 4.51 Bull nose, splayed, torus, ogee and grooved mouldings
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Practical task
Drawing a setting out rod
Outline of task
You are required to draw a setting out rod for a frame incorporating six
different types of woodworking joints discussed in this chapter. Mark out the
components to make the frame from the setting out rod. Produce the joints
marked out and assemble the frame.
Before starting each task, ensure that you have been given permission
by your tutor or teacher to proceed. You should be given feedback on the
completed task and any retraining as required.

Used a range of setting out tools to produce an
accurate setting out rod
Used face side and face edge marks
Used a range of marking out tools to mark out the
components from the setting out rod
Safely used a range of hand tools to produce a
variety of woodworking joints, free from gaps of
more than 0.5 mm
Assembled a frame and checked to make sure it
is flat and square
Made sure all the joints are flush and that the
frame has been sanded
Removed the sharp edges
Activity Further training required detailed here
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Test your knowledge

1 Name the two methods used to season timber.
2 Explain how timber or timber-based sheet materials should be stored.
3 Label the following profiles:
a b c d e
4 What kind of joints are used on skirting for external and internal corners?
5 What is a squaring rod used for?
6 What ratios are used to make dovetail joints?
7 Draw face side and face edge marks in the boxes below:
Face side
Face edge
8 What type of handsaw is commonly used to cut the shoulders of

woodworking joints?
9 What is the correct term for the sharp corners on a piece of timber,
usually removed with abrasive paper?
10 Name the three classifications of woodworking joints.
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CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF FIXINGS AND IRONMONGERY
INTRODUCTION
The terms fixings and ironmongery are used to describe the different types of hardware used in the carpentry
and joinery industry.
This chapter outlines the most common types of fixings and ironmongery used today. It includes a discussion
of where to place different types of fixings and ironmongery, their specific uses, how to select appropriate
types and fixing techniques.
Your choice of fixings and ironmongery impacts not only on the finished look of the project, but also the
effectiveness of the hardware when used for its required task.
KEY TERMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Fixings: types of screws,
nails, adhesives and In this chapter, you will learn about:
sealants used within 1 materials used in the manufacture of fixings and ironmongery
carpentry and joinery and 2 fixings used in carpentry and joinery
the construction industry 3 types of ironmongery
as a whole. 4 installing ironmongery.
Ironmongery: hardware,
such as locks, handles
and hinges.
1 MATERIALS USED IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF FIXINGS AND
IRONMONGERY
A wide range of fixings and ironmongery is available for use within carpentry and
joinery in many different types of materials, designs, and colours.
Ironmongery and fixings are usually made from either ferrous or non-ferrous
INDUSTRY TIPS metal. The type of materials the fixings and ironmongery are made from will
determine their most suitable location, along with their suitability for specific tasks.
Ferrous metals contain iron
while non-ferrous metals do Ferrous metal
not. Metals containing iron
Ferrous metal contains iron and unless it is protected in some way it is liable to rust
and steel are prone to rusting.
if exposed to damp conditions or used in external environments. Ferrous metal is the
Do not use iron and steel with
most widely used material in the production of ironmongery and fixings, usually in
acidic timbers such as oak,
the form of mild steel. This is often the cheapest material. The appearance of mild
which can cause unsightly
staining to the joinery. steel can be enhanced by a process called electro-brass or zinc plating, which also
adds protection to the mild steel, enabling it to be used in external situations.
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Chapter 5 Types of fixings and ironmongery
Heavy-duty iron or cast-iron ironmongery is suitable for heavyweight doors but

cast iron can be brittle. Although stainless steel contains iron, the manufacturing
process for this type of steel makes it very resistant to rusting or staining. It is
frequently used in damp or external situations.
Non-ferrous metal
Non-ferrous metal does not contain iron and includes metals such as aluminium
and brass, which are used in some fixings and ironmongery, as well as other metals
such as copper, lead, gold and silver. These metals are extremely resistant to
rusting and staining and are suitable for both internal and external use. Brass and
aluminium are often used in the production of screws and ironmongery, but they
are soft metals that can easily be damaged. If you do not take great care when
using brass screws, they may break when being screwed into hard materials such as
beech and oak.
2 FIXINGS USED IN CARPENTRY

AND JOINERY
Fixings used within carpentry and joinery usually fall into one of the following
categories:
● nails
● screws
● coach screws and bolts
● wall plugs and cavity fixings
● adhesives.
Nails
Loose nails are not used nowadays in carpentry and joinery as often as they were
in the past. Most carpenters and joiners use powered nailers and collated nail strips
when fixing materials, though several types of loose nails are still available and in
common use, as shown in Table 5.1.
q Table 5.1 Types of nail and their uses
Type of nail Description Uses

Cut clasp nails These nails are known as floor brads and Traditionally used to fix wooden
are sheared or punch cut by machine floorboards and door and window frames.
from steel plate, producing a nail with a
distinctive wedge shape that ends in a
blunt point. This helps to reduce the risk
of splitting the ends of the timber.
➜
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Lost head nail (oval nail) These are manufactured in varying Used when the head of the nail needs
lengths and gauges, each having a small to be hidden or lost in the surface of the
oval head shape that is easily driven material; has limited holding abilities.
below the surface of the material.
Bright steel round head nails These are manufactured with large flat Used for multi-purpose fixing situations
round heads. and available in a variety of different
lengths and gauges. This type of nail head
gives the nail better holding properties
than an oval nail and is used in situations
where seeing the nail head is not a
problem.
Annular ring shank nails These are manufactured with large The raised ridges give this nail increased
flat heads and a series of raised ridges pulling resistance compared to other types
around the shank of the nail. of nail.
Galvanised clout nails These nails have extra-large heads and a Used in external fixing of items such as
galvanised coating. tile lath and roofing felt.
Collated nails (also known as brads) These are manufactured from galvanised Used with power fasteners and available
coated steel and glued in place as strips as either straight or angled collated
of nails. Available as either ring shank versions. Used in internal and external
nails or smooth shank nails. fixing, such as fixing roof members and
studwork with heavier longer nails and
skirting and architraves for shorter light-
gauge versions.
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Masonry nails Masonry nails look similar to lost head Used for direct fixing into masonry such
nails but have slightly larger heads. They as brickwork.
are made of hardened zinc for added
strength.
PVCu covered nail heads This type of nail is manufactured from Used with the installation of PVCu
stainless steel with small annular rings materials such as fascia and soffit. The
around its shank. The nail head has a annular ring shank has high pulling
covering of PVCu. resistance once fitted.
INDUSTRY TIP KEY TERMS

Tile lath: length of
As a rule, the nail should be roughly 2½ times greater in length than the thickness of the treated timber used to
material being nailed through. For example, 20 mm wide material being fixed would require help hold roof tiles in
a nail that is 50 mm long. place.
PVCu: polyvinyl chloride
unplasticised. This is
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS often referred to as uPVC,
but the abbreviation was
Jan has been asked to select the correct nail lengths for fixing softwood timber
changed in the 1980s
in place. Which of the following nail lengths would be most suitable for the
to PVCu, so that British
different standard finished thicknesses of timber?
manufacturers now use
Nail lengths available: 40 mm, 65 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm. the same term as their
Timber thicknesses requiring fixing: 15 mm, 30 mm and 44 mm. European counterparts.
Screws Metric
diameter (mm) Length (mm)
Screws are available in different sizes, materials and head shapes Type of driving
and require a wide range of drivers to fix them. bit required
Many screws are designed to suit specific types and styles of

ironmongery so will vary in style and material.
Pack size
Wood screw sizes are defined by two different numbers, as
● In imperial screw sizes, the first number given is the gauge Imperial gauge Length (inches)
of the screw, which refers to the screw’s thickness or gauge,
p Figure 5.1 Example wood screw sizing chart
but it is not the screw’s diameter in inches.
● In metric screws, the first number refers to the screw’s
diameter in millimetres.
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For both imperial and metric screws, the larger the number, the larger the diameter
Head
of the screw.
The length of the screw is given in the second number, which is always the depth
Shank that the screw penetrates the timber, or other material being fixed, and does not
include the length of any raised or pan-headed screws.
Parts of a screw
There are 4 distinct parts to a wood screw, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Thread
Head
The shape of the screw head determines the suitability of the screw for different
types of tasks. The most common types of screw heads are as follows.
Tip
A countersunk head has a flat surface along the top of the screw and a straight
taper from its underside down to the start of the shank. This design allows the
p Figure 5.2 Parts of a screw
head of the screw to finish flush (just below the surface of the timber). Some
screws offer an improved double countersunk design, which gives the screw head
additional head strength and makes the countersinking process easier.
A raised head or pan head has a countersunk underside to the screw head but is
combined with a raised head. The head protrudes above the finished surface as a
decorative feature. It is a common type of screw head used with ironmongery such
as lever handles on door locks.
Raised oval head
Flat top
Tapered
Tapered underside
underside
Shank
Shank

p Figure 5.3 Countersunk screw head p Figure 5.4 Raised oval head screw
KEY TERM A washer head screw has a large flat underside to the screw head that appears
to incorporate a washer. The screw head has a wide flat surface area and is used in
Japanned: a black lacquer situations where a countersunk head may cause splitting. This type of screw head is
applied to the surface of
the screw or ironmongery commonly used with a pocket screw jig.
and then baked hard. A round head has a large flat base with a rounded or domed shape to the top of
the screw head. It is available as either a coarse (spread out) thread, such as with
wood screws, or a fine machine thread like those used on bolts with nuts and
ACTIVITY washers. This type of head provides a larger surface area for the screw head to
Compare a flat head grip and stop and is typically used on black japanned screws with traditional black
screw and a countersunk
screw in a pocket screw
ironmongery and also with pocket screws.
hole and consider the A bulge head is a variation of the countersunk screw head, but the bulge head
capability of the different design has a curve to the slope of the countersink. This screw is typically used on
screws to form a strong
drywall wall screws for plasterboard, because the bulge design helps to reduce any
tight joint.
tearing of the paper surface of the plasterboard.
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Curved
underside
p Figure 5.5 Pocket screw and drill p Figure 5.6 Bulge head used on a drywall screw
Shank and thread KEY TERM

The thread of a screw wraps around the screw’s shank and is the part of the screw Clearance hole: a hole
that drives or pulls the screw into the material. Some screws have a full thread; in that is slightly drilled
others, the thread stops before it gets to the head and approximately a quarter of through only the upper
the shank is not threaded. component being fixed.
This hole should be
Traditional screws usually have partial threads. The lack of a full thread allows slightly wider in diameter
for a higher level of security between the connected materials. For example, the than the gauge or
threads at the bottom of the screw drive into the lower material, pulling the upper diameter of the screw.
material down and forming a secure connection. If fully threaded screws are used This enables the screw to
pass cleanly through the
without a clearance hole, they can sometimes allow the upper material to have
material without binding.
limited or even no contact with the lower material, although the screw is fully
driven home. This problem has largely been eliminated by the introduction of
impact drivers and modern screws. When using fully threaded screws, particularly INDUSTRY TIP
with hardwoods, you should drill the correct-sized clearance hole through the
upper material. When using part-threaded
screws, always use a suitable
Screws are available as single thread or twin-threaded screws. A twin-threaded
sized clearance hole.
screw has two threads running along the shank, while a single thread screw has
just one. Screws incorporating twin threads are usually faster driving screws, which
means they can be inserted and removed twice as fast as a single thread. Twin-
threaded screws hold the material more securely than a single thread screw but
are usually more expensive. Some screw designs have a serrated thread, allowing
the screw thread to cut its way through the material being screwed more easily,
thereby requiring less force and potentially saving time if driving home the screw.
Tip of the screw

Cut-away
The tip or point of the screw is designed to help start the process of fixing it. section of
Modern screws incorporate a self-cutting tip, as shown in Figure 5.7. This type of self-cutting
design has the screw tip partly cut away to form a cutting edge. The screw tip cuts screw tip
the material as it is being driven in, allowing for reduced strain on the material and
screw. In turn, the screw can be inserted more easily and this reduces the risk of
the screw splitting the material, which can be a problem when fixing near the ends
of timber. p Figure 5.7 Self-cutting screw tip
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ACTIVITY
On a spare piece of timber, compare different types of screw thread and screw
tips for their capability to penetrate timber without splitting it when the screw is
positioned within 30 mm of the timber end grain.
Types of screw
Carbon steel, brass and stainless steel are the most common materials used to
manufacture screws, but other materials such as nickel alloys and aluminium alloys
are also used.
The more usual types of screw and their uses are given in Table 5.2.
q Table 5.2 Types of screw and their typical uses
Type of screw Typical uses

Yellow passivated wood screw These are general purpose wood screws with a high resistance to corrosion, suitable
for all exterior and interior use. These screws have been dipped in zinc and treated
with a coat of yellow dye to help resist rusting.
Quicksilver wood screw These are carbon steel screws that have been electroplated with a zinc alloy
coating. They are economical general-purpose interior wood screws that are
resistant to corrosion, suitable for all types of interior work.
Stainless steel wood screw In appearance this looks like the quicksilver screw. It has a high corrosion tolerance
and superior strength compared to brass screws. These screws are suitable for
external and internal uses, particularly in areas where conditions are generally
damp. They do not react with acidic materials such as oak so do not stain the
material or corrode away.
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Type of screw Typical uses

Countersunk screws with a round head Countersunk and raised head screws are used to fix fittings such as door handles.
They are often used in conjunction with screw cups.
Screw cups
These are available in either a brass or silver finish and are used to add a decorative
finish to the fixing, often with furniture. They also provide a wide fixing surface
area, which is particularly useful when using small screw heads that provide limited
surface fixing areas.
Black japanned screw These are round headed screws with black japanned finish. They are used with
traditional black ironmongery, commonly used in restoration projects, period homes,
with some types of latches and hinges and with any type of japanned ironmongery.
The black japanned finish is a black lacquer applied to the surface of the screw or
ironmongery and then baked hard.
Concrete screw Concrete screws have been developed as a more efficient and modern alternative to
the traditional wood screw and wall plugs.
Concrete screws were developed to overcome the difficulties associated with lining
up the screw with the wall plug through hollow materials such as PVCu windows and
doors.
Concrete screws do not require wall plugs but they do require a pilot hole of the
correct size, which is stated on the screw’s box.
When using concrete screws, the correct size pilot hole is drilled through the frame
and into the masonry beneath. The thread of the screw has a special cutting design
that cuts into the pre-drilled masonry hole, giving a firm and secure grip.
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Brass is an exceptionally soft material but is particularly good at resisting corrosion.

INDUSTRY TIP Brass screws are ideal for use with brass ironmongery and furniture where the
screw head will be on display. They are also suitable for external use, but because
When using brass screws, first
of their softness they tend not to be used apart from with brass door hinges
use a steel screw of the same
size and then replace it with and other forms of ironmongery. Brass screws are weak and can easily break,
the brass screw. Using a small particularly when being fixed in hard materials such as oak. It is essential that you
amount of lubrication such always use suitable sized pilot and clearance holes when using brass screws to
as beeswax, petroleum jelly, avoid breaking the screw.
furniture wax or candle wax
on the screw thread will help Screwdriver bits
to drive brass screws home
Many different screwdriver bit designs are available that correspond with the shape
and reduce the likelihood of
stripping the screw head or of the recess (sunken area) cut into the head of the screw. You should select the
breaking the screw. correct design bit to match the type used on the head of the screw, because using
a different bit design to that intended for the screw head can result in damaged
screw heads. This can make it difficult to either fully drive the screw home or
remove it. It also leaves an unsightly damaged screw head which gives a poor
impression of the quality of your work.
The most common types of screw heads are Pozidriv (PZ), Phillips (PH), slotted,
Torx®, square recess and hex, as shown in Table 5.3.
q Table 5.3 Types of screwdriver bit and screw head designs
Screw head design and type of

screwdriver bit Description
Slotted This is a traditional screw head design consisting of a single slot, used mainly with imperial
screw sizes and some forms of ironmongery. This type of screwdriver bit can easily slip out
of the screw head in use, resulting in damage to both the screw head and the surrounding
material.
The slot in the screw head should always be finished with the slot running vertical
(upwards).
Phillips (PH) This screw head design is an improvement on the slotted head. The single cross-
shaped recess gives better contact with the screwdriver bit and better resistance to the
screwdriver head, preventing it from slipping in the screw head.
Pozidriv (PZ) This is the most common form of screw head. It has two sets of cross recesses in the
head, one smaller shallower set cross at 45˚ to the larger and deeper set cross.
The screw heads require screwdriver bits ranging from the smallest, size 0, to the largest,
size 3, with size 2 being the most frequently used.
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Screw head design and type of

screwdriver bit Description
Torx® The Torx® screw head has a six-pointed star design and allows for higher torque, better
grip and improved driving angles than the Pozidriv head. It is ideal for use with combi drills
and impact drivers for fast driving of the fixing.
Square recess This type of screw is also known as a Robertson screw. It has a square-shaped socket in
the screw head and a square protrusion on the driving bit, with both the screw head and
bit having a slight taper. It is often used in furniture manufacturing and pocket screw jigs.
Hex This type of screw head has a six-sided recess in the head of the screw and can be
driven in with hexagonal driver bits or Allen keys. This type of screw is like a hex bolt. It
is commonly used with a corresponding nut and washer, as well as being a type of fixing
found on kitchen appliances such as fridge doors, where it is often necessary to change
the hanging side of the door.
It is important that you use the correct shape and size of screwdriver bit to prevent
ACTIVITY
slippage and for ease of use.
Compare how the
Typical screwdriver sizes needed for varying screw sizes are as follows. appropriate type of
screwdriver bit locates in
● 3.0 mm and smaller screws require screwdriver size 0. the screw head and resists
● 3.5 mm screws require screwdriver size 1. slippage for the:
● 4.0–4.5 mm screws require screwdriver size 2. ● slotted screw head
● 5.0 mm and larger screws require screwdriver size 3. ● Pozidriv screw head
● Torx ® screw head.

Outline the main differences between ferrous, non-ferrous and zinc-coated
screws. Identify which types are the most suitable for external uses and present INDUSTRY TIP
your recommendations in a simple information leaflet that could be placed in
your ironmongery stores. Ironmongery should be fitted
in accordance with Building
Regulations approved
documents.
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Timber pellets
In some cases, it is not acceptable for a screw head, even a countersunk screw,
to be on display. Better-quality work requires that screw heads are hidden. One
solution, if the screw head is driven deep enough, is to cover the screw head with
filler and paint over it. In other cases, the fixing can be hidden beneath a door
stop such as with door linings. However, on particularly high-quality work, such
as hardwood joinery or timber frames and linings requiring a clear finish, a more
Timber pellet effective finish is needed. The type and quality of finish will determine the way a
fixing is used and hidden.
One of the best methods of hiding screw heads is to use timber pellets to conceal
fixings. Timber pellets are cut in such a way that the grain direction of the pellet
follows the grain direction of the material it is being inserted into. Timber pellets
p Figure 5.8 Timber pellet are available in a wide variety of timbers and manufactured to fit specific sized
covering a screw head bored holes; alternatively, they can be home made with special plug cutters.
Fitting timber pellets

After determining the location of the screws, make a counter-bored hole of a
suitable diameter to match the size of the pellet and drill to a depth that will allow
the screw head to be driven fully home (fully tightened) while leaving enough room
above the screw head to insert the timber pellet to a depth of at least 6 mm.
After fully driving home the screws and when you are satisfied with the location of
your work, glue the timber pellets in place. When positioning the matching timber
ACTIVITY pellet, it is important to position it with its grain direction matching that of the
Practice forming, fitting, material being fixed.
and cleaning up timber When the glue has fully set, clean the pellet flush with the timber surface. A chisel
pellets manufactured from and block plane are usually used to cut back the protruding section of the pellet.
different materials such as
softwood and oak.
The pellet is then further finished with abrasive paper to finish flush with the
timber surface.
Coach screws and bolts

Coach screws are heavy-duty fasteners consisting of a part-threaded shank and a
large hexagonal head. These types of screws are specially designed for fastening
heavy timbers and metalwork to timber. A suitable size clearance hole should
always be used with this type of fixing.
Pilot hole size no greater

than this measurement
p Figure 5.9 Coach screw

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Coach bolts tend to have a rounded or domed head with an anti-slip square
section beneath. The shank is only part-threaded with a much finer thread that
accepts a nut and washer. This type of fixing requires a clearance hole and is used
to firmly clamp two pieces of material together. The coach bolt is typically used in
conjunction with ‘dog tooth’ connector plates, which are placed on the coach bolt
between the two pieces of material being clamped. When fully clamped together
the teeth of the dog penetrate (dig into) the timbers, gripping them and helping
to prevent the two connected pieces of timber from slipping and twisting, thereby
helping to form a strong connection.
Squared
section just
beneath head
p Figure 5.10 Coach bolt and nut p Figure 5.11 Dog tooth connector
Wall plugs and cavity fixings

Masonry walls tend to be porous and brittle. As standard thread wood screws
do not have sufficient grip to hold fast and support a weight on a masonry wall,
they are used in combination with wall plugs. Wall plugs enable wood screws to
be driven into them to hold the fixing to the masonry wall, such as for kitchen KEY TERM
cabinets. Wall plugs are now almost exclusively made from nylon, although
Nylon: a type of plastic.
originally timber and fibre would have been used.
Wall plugs
Wall plugs need to be inserted into the correct size of clearance hole. It is
important that you choose the size of drill bit that corresponds to the diameter of
the wall plugs you intend to use. Wall plugs are colour coded to help with the sizing
of suitable screws and clearance hole diameters. Slight variations on clearance
hole sizes will depend on how porous and brittle the masonry is. As a rule, use a
slightly smaller sized clearance hole for porous and brittle masonry. Table 5.4 gives p Figure 5.12 Standard type nylon
guidance on suitable size comparisons. wall plug
For example, when drilling into a firm masonry background, a 7 mm masonry drill bit
should be used to form the clearance hole for a brown plug using 5 mm gauge screws.
q Table 5.4 Wall plug size comparisons
Plug colour Clearance size Screw gauge

Yellow 4.5 or 5 mm 3 mm
Red 5.5 or 6 mm 3.5 to 4 mm
Brown 6.5 or 7 mm 4.5 or 5 mm
Blue 7 or 8 mm 5 or 6 mm
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Cavity fixings
Where you need to fix into a cavity (such as those found in plasterboarded stud
partitions) a different type of fixing is required, as the standard type of nylon
wall plug cannot provide sufficient holding power. A cavity fixing (often called a
drywall fixing or cavity anchor) that increases the surface area grip of the fixing is
required. Various types have been developed specifically for hollow cavity walls,
the most common of which are listed in Table 5.5.
q Table 5.5 Fixings for hollow cavity walls
Type of fixing Description Advantages Disadvantages

Nylon expanding anchor This is a plastic fixing that expands Cheap and easy to install. Limited ability
as the screw is tightened into the to hold heavy
anchor. The back edges of the weights.
fixing expand (get bigger), making it
harder for the anchors to be pulled
out.
Metal expanding anchor This is a metal version of the nylon Able to hold heavier weights. More expensive
anchor that requires a special lever- and difficult to
operated setting tool. As the lever is use.
pumped, the anchor’s inner section
expands and tightens against the
plasterboard.
Self-drilling plasterboard anchors This is an easy-to-use self-drilling Can be screwed straight Can easily strip
plug, available in either a plastic or into plasterboard without plasterboard.
a metal construction. The cutting predrilling. Supplied with
end forms its own starting point, relevant size screws.
while the wide course threads drive
into the plasterboard to provide
a firm fixing. These should only
be screwed in by hand, as power
drivers can easily strip out the
plasterboard.
Gripit® plasterboard fixings This is a relatively new addition Available in four different Expensive to
to plasterboard anchors. It has sizes to suit different weight purchase.
anti-rotational fins on the back side, categories and different
which provide a firm fixing. thicknesses of plasterboard.
Provides a firm stable fixing
suitable for heavy use.
Supplied with relevant size
screws.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Use different types of cavity fixings to attach a coat hook onto a plasterboard
surface. When the coat hook is securely attached using each type of cavity
fixing, pull the coat hook from the surface. Rank the fixings in order of resistance
to pulling, where 5 is extremely difficult to remove and 1 is easily removed.
Present your findings in a suitable bar chart.
Types of adhesives and their uses

Several types of adhesives are commonly used in carpentry and joinery.
Although site carpenters and bench joiners tend to use different adhesives, both
trades can use any type of adhesive. Site carpenters mostly use faster acting
adhesives, such as foam adhesive, grab adhesive and contact adhesive, while
bench joiners use more slowly acting adhesives that usually set under pressure
from clamps. Table 5.6 outlines the most commonly used adhesives within the
carpentry and joinery industry.
q Table 5.6 Most commonly used adhesives within carpentry and joinery
Adhesive type Description and uses

PVA This adhesive is a resin dissolved in water; it usually comes mixed and ready for immediate use. As the
Polyvinyl acetate water evaporates and is absorbed by the timber, the adhesive dries (goes off).
(Also known as white PVA is available in internal grades and also exterior grades, which can be used where damp and wet
glue) conditions are likely to be met. It has good gap-filling properties and provides a strong permanent bond
(grip) between surfaces.
This type of adhesive dries clear, but if not cleaned up properly can leave visible marks when the
product is varnished or stained. It can react with some hardwoods to leave black joint lines or marks.
PU This is a yellow-brown resin that foams when exposed to the air. It forms a strong, water-resistant bond
Polyurethane and has excellent gap-filling properties. It can be used to join damp timbers.
(Also known as foam The glued joint must be secured together while the glue dries, otherwise the foaming action of the
glue) adhesive could force the joint apart. The excess glue can easily be removed after it has dried by
scraping it off the joint, but not before it has dried, as this will result in the adhesive spreading over the
work piece, tools and potentially yourself.
PU glue is normally supplied with a pair of disposable gloves, which should always be worn when using it.
UF This adhesive is mixed with water before use. A chemical reaction causes the adhesive to set after a few
Urea-formaldehyde hours, depending on the surrounding temperature.
(Also known as This type of adhesive forms a strong water-resistant bond. It is used for high-quality work as it does not
powdered resin glue) stain the timber being joined.
Synthetic resin This is supplied in a tube or cartridge and applied using a skeleton gun, either to the back of the
(Also known as grab moulding or direct to the wall and frame prior to final positioning. Some grab adhesives form a skin as
adhesive) soon as they are exposed to the air, which prevents them bonding as well as other adhesives. Some are
also very thick, which may cause the surfaces to sit slightly apart and reveal a gap in the joint.
Although it is not often used in the joinery workshop, it is used for site work such as bonding timber
to walls. Modern grab adhesives are popular for providing an additional method of securing moulding
such as architraves and skirting to the lining and wall. They also allow for any imperfections in the wall
surface and help to prevent any gaps caused by shrinkage.
Contact adhesive This type of adhesive is used for bonding plastic laminates to manufactured board, such as kitchen
edging strips.
A thin layer is applied to each surface, left until touch dry, and then the two surfaces are brought
together for an instant permanent bond.
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Adhesive type Description and uses

Mitre adhesive (also This is a clean and quick-drying adhesive and activator used for fixing architrave corner mitres on
known as super glue) skirting boards, cornices, pelmets and plinths.
Mitre adhesives consist of a two-part system of a cyanoacrylate bonding adhesive and a spray-applied
activator. The adhesive is applied to one surface and the activator sprayed onto the other. As soon
as the activator has evaporated, the two surfaces are brought together to form a bond that is solid in
approximately 10–15 seconds.
Extreme care is needed to prevent contact with skin, which can quickly and easily be stuck together.
Polyurethane fixing Polyurethane fixing foam is now commonly used when fixing all types of frames and linings and is
foam applied using an applicator gun.
It is a bit like polyurethane (PU) adhesive. It fills gaps and bonds most products to all surfaces and
materials. Different grades of foam may have different properties, such as accoustic insulation
(resistance to the passage of sound), thermal insulation (ability to retain heat or reduce the transfer of
heat) and fire ratings (ability to act as a fire barrier). It is particularly useful in fixing and sealing door
frames and window frames when used in conjunction with mechanical fixings.
HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

When using adhesives, Download the health and safety data sheets for mitre adhesive (super glue) and
always follow the produce a simple fact sheet for using it safely.
manufacturer’s
instructions and use
suitable hand protection
to prevent skin 3 TYPES OF IRONMONGERY
contamination.
Traditional ironmongery was made from iron, but modern manufacturing
techniques now enable the use of an almost unlimited choice of materials, designs
and colours. Ironmongery is sometimes referred to by its location, such as door,
window, gate and kitchen furniture, as well as by its type, such as:
● hinges ● bolts and security devices
● locks and latches ● door closers
● handles and knobs ● cabinet hardware.
On larger building projects, the ironmongery may be listed on an ironmongery
KEY TERMS
schedule, identifying the specific type of ironmongery to be used in specific locations.
Ironmongery schedule: For example: door A should use 1½ pair of 100 mm high-performance ball-bearing
a document used to list
stainless steel hinges, a cylinder night latch and a security viewer. The schedule will
repeated ironmongery
that is used throughout a also give further details on the positions of the ironmongery on the door.
project such as new build
housing. Hinges
Butt hinge: a type of Hinges are frequently used to hang doors. They are available in a wide range of
hinge consisting of two sizes, materials and designs to suit different applications.
flat leaves revolving
around a pin (hinge), When selecting a size and style of hinge, you need to consider the size and type of
the knuckle of which screw to use with the hinge.
pivots. Commonly used
to support internal and When fitting butt hinges to doors, use the following lengths of screw as a guide.
external timber doors. ● For a door that is 35 mm thick, use 25 to 32 mm screws.
● For a door that is 44 mm or 54 mm thick, use 32 to 40 mm screws.
Whatever length of screw you use, it is important to ensure that the countersunk head
of the screw matches the countersunk recess in the hinge. This is to prevent the screw
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head from either protruding above the hinge, which can cause the door to ‘bounce’
open, or having too small a screw head that fails to properly hold the hinge in place.
One of the most common types of hinge you are likely to fix is the butt hinge
(see Figure 5.13). Butt hinges consist of two leaves joined by a fixed pin that
passes through the knuckles formed on the inner edges of both leaves. There are
several variations: some have washers between the knuckles while others contain INDUSTRY TIP
small ball bearings. Butt hinges should be fitted so that both leaves are recessed
equally into the door and frame, leaving a small gap between them when the There is a helpful rhyme to
door is closed to help the door to operate without binding. The knuckle is usually help you remember how to fit
positioned to project just past the face of the door to give increased clearance for butt hinges: ‘the most to the
the door to swing open when it is being used. There is normally an odd number post’, which means that the
leaf with the most knuckles is
of knuckles on butt hinges. The leaf with the most knuckles is usually fitted to the
fixed to the door frame.
door frame and the leaf with the least knuckles is fitted to the door.
Pin through centre Hinge knuckles
of knuckles
Countersunk screw
recess holes
Hinge leaf
Most knuckles
on this leaf
p Figure 5.13 Parts of a standard butt hinge

Butt hinges are available in a range of sizes, from 25 mm up to 100 mm. Brass
butt hinges are susceptible to wear on the knuckles, so stainless steel or phosphor-
bronze washers are fitted between the knuckles to prevent this. The washers also
reduce squeaking.
Table 5.7 outlines some of the common types of hinges in general use.
q Table 5.7 Types of hinges in general use
Type of hinge Description and typical uses

Ball race butt hinge High-performance ball bearing or ball race hinges give a much
smoother action. They are durable and particularly good for use
with heavy doors. They are available in sizes from 75 mm to
150 mm.
Ball
bearings
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Loose pin butt hinge Loose pin butt hinges enable easy removal of the door by
Loose removing the pin from the hinge knuckle. This enables the door
pin lifts to be removed without having to remove the hinge from either
the door or the door jamb. The pin can be tapped upwards out
of the hinge to allow the door to be lifted away with little effort.
This type of hinge should not be used on outward swinging
exterior doors.
A variation on the loose pin hinge is the lift off butt hinge, which
enables the door to be lifted off when it is in the open position.
The hinges are handed for doors that are opening either from
the right or the left and incorporate one long pin hinge and one
short pin hinge. The long pin hinge is positioned at the bottom
of the door and the short pin hinge is the upper hinge.
KEY TERM
Door jamb: the part of the door frame running
vertical on either side of the door opening
Rising butt hinge Rising butt hinges have a spiral-shaped knuckle, allowing the
door to rise as it opens. They are particularly useful in clearing
uneven floors or mats and rugs. The shape of the knuckle also
gives the door a self-closing action.
The top of the door requires a taper on the hinge side known as
a leading edge. This allows the door to move past and clear the
head of the door frame as it opens and closes.
These hinges are handed, meaning that you need to choose
different hinges depending on whether they will be fitted to a
right-hand opening door or left-hand opening door.
Parliament hinge Parliament hinges have wide leaves that allow the knuckles of
the hinge to protrude away from the edge of the door.
This type of hinge allows the door to swing open and away from
the hanging side of the wall. It is particularly useful when the
door needs to be folded back close to the wall.
Flush hinge Flush hinges are only suitable for lightweight doors such as
those used for encasing services (such as pipes and waste
traps) for easy access, for furniture and for hatches.
These hinges are quick and easy to install as they sit on the surface
edge of the door and frame, eliminating the need for the time-
consuming process of cutting recesses into the door and frame.
Fit this
part to
the door
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Spring hinge Adjustable spring hinges are designed to make a door self-
closing. They have large cylindrical (tube-like) knuckles that
can be tensioned to the required closing action.
Single-action spring hinges have two leaves and are used to
open and self-close to one side of the opening.
Double-action spring hinges are designed to make a door
self-closing. They have large cylindrical knuckles that can be
tensioned to the required closing action. They have three leaves
and open 360°.
To correctly install double-action spring hinges, fit a planed strip
Fitted double-action spring hinge of timber that is the same thickness as the door to the hanging
Jamb edge of the frame. This allows free movement of the cylindrical
knuckles. Double-action spring hinges are often used in
Batten corridors of public buildings such as schools and hospitals, and
between kitchen and dining areas in restaurants and pubs.
Door 90° 90°
Door open Door closed Door open
Tee hinge Tee hinges are made from thin-gauge steel and are usually
black japanned or galvanised. They are mainly used with
matchboard doors and gates.
KEY TERM
Matchboard: a term given to tongue and grooved
timber boarding, often used on doors and gates.
Hook and band hinge Heavy-duty hook and band hinges are made from stronger
galvanised or stainless steel. They are used for heavier
industrial or garage doors and farm gates. They are also used
for framed, ledged and braced doors, which consist of vertical
boards strengthened with horizontal boards on one side.
Hook and band hinges can be straight or cranked (bent) and
can have a means of adjusting the hinge, usually through a
threaded bolt adjustment.
Concealed cupboard hinge This is commonly used to hang kitchen unit doors. Kitchen
cabinets are usually made with artificial boards, such as
chipboard and MDF, which do not hold screws well on their
edges. To overcome this problem, a ‘blind’ circular recess is bored
into the inside face of the doors to accept the hinge. The recess
has a diameter equal to the diameter of the concealed hinge; this
is usually a standard 35 mm diameter, but smaller versions are
available at 26 mm diameter. The concealed hinge is inserted into
the blind recess and secured with 3.5 × 16 mm screws.
This type of hinge ranges from a basic design with limited
adjustment to a soft-close (smooth and silent closing) fully
adjustable version.
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Invisible closers/hinges This type of concealed hinge is intended not to be seen when
fitted unless the door is open. It is suitable for flush doors with
timber, steel and aluminium frames. One of the most common
types is the Soss hinge, which is available is several sizes
Soss hinge suitable for full-height doors down to small furniture doors. Soss
hinges are suitable for both internal and external use and can
be used for heavy-duty doors and fire doors.
Selecting hinges for use

It is essential that you select the correct type and number of hinges required for
hanging a door to ensure that it works properly. If it is not hanging perfectly within
the frame, the door may sag and drop over time. This means that the lock or latch
may fail to locate correctly and the door will not shut and lock correctly.
150 mm
● Lightweight internal doors, such as hollow core doors, usually require only one
pair of 75 mm hinges per door. However, a manufacturer’s information may
specify that bathroom and en-suite doors should be hung on one and a half
Equal pairs of 75 mm hinges (three hinges).
● Install 35 mm-thick timber doors, such as panelled and glazed internal doors,
using one and a half pairs of 75 mm hinges.
● Install all 44 mm-thick doors, whether internal or external, with one and a half
pairs of 100 mm hinges.
Equal ● Fire doors should be installed using one and a half pairs of fire-rated 100 mm
hinges. The specified hinge positions for some fire doors may be different
because of their size, construction method and fire certification. It is not
225 mm
uncommon to see the middle hinge moved to 200 mm below the top hinge or
p Figure 5.14 Standard door hinge for there to be 4 hinges used on heavier doors.
positions Hinge positions for doors have regional variations, but the standard positions are
150 mm down from the top of the door and 225 mm up from the bottom, while
the centre hinge is positioned an equal distance between the top and bottom
hinges. On heavier doors, the middle hinge is often moved up to 200 mm below
the top hinge.
Locks and latches

Locks and latches are mostly made from steel, with a variety of finishes that can
be matched to the finish of other door furniture. They are usually supplied with
fitting instructions.
Most locks and latches are morticed (recessed) into the closing edge of the door,
although a few, like rim locks, sit on the face of the door. An increasingly wide variety
of locks and latches is available, but most fall into the following three main categories:
● mortice latch/lock
● mortice latches
● rim locks and latches.
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The main difference between a mortice latch and a mortice lock is that a door
fitted with a mortice lock can be locked as well as just latched shut, while a door
fitted with a mortice latch can only be latched shut and not locked. The lock is
controlled by levers and activated by a key: the more levers the lock has, the more
secure it is because it is more difficult to pick. A lock works when the correct key
lifts the levers within the lock to the correct height, allowing the bolt to move
either forwards or backwards as the key turns. Three-lever and five-lever locks are
the most frequently used types.
A mortice latch/lock is also known as a sash mortice lock and is a combination of
KEY TERMS
a mortice latch and mortice lock. This type of latch/lock is available in vertical or
horizontal versions. Vertical versions are suitable for fitting in most types of doors. Stiles: the vertical
sections on the outer
Horizontal types are only suitable for fitting in doors with wide stiles or when
edges of a door.
positioned in the middle of the lock rail and these are typically used with doorknobs.
Back set: the distance
Both types are available with different lengths of back set (see Figure 5.15) so that between the face of the
the handle or knob can be positioned closer or further away from the edge of the lock and the centre of the
door. This type of lock also has reversible latches to enable it to be used with left- handle, knob spindle or
hand (LH) and right-hand (RH) opening doors. key hole.
Removable
Latch faceplate Strike plate
Back set
Spindle hole
for handle
Case depth
Keyhole Lock bolt
p Figure 5.15 Parts of a mortice latch/lock
Variations on mortice locks include the following.

● Mortice dead locks: this type of lock only has the locking
bolt part of the mechanism, meaning that the door will only
remain shut when the door is locked as there is no latch part to
the lock. It is usually used on doors that are used as a security
measure and need to remain locked and opened only by those
Latch
with keys, or as an additional lock to a door fitted with a
standard mortice lock/latch. Lock
● Privacy locks: these are used to lock bathroom or toilet doors activation
from the inside. Privacy locks must be fitted with bathroom lever Lock
release
lever handles to enable the door to be unlocked from the Lock bolt slot
outside in the event of an emergency, by turning the release slot
on the outside handle with a flat-head screwdriver or coin.
Table 5.8 outlines other types of locks and latches in general use. p Figure 5.16 Privacy lock
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q Table 5.8 Other types of locks and latches in general use
Name of ironmongery Description

Mortice latch Mortice latches are used mainly for internal doors that do
Spindle hole not need to be locked. The most common type is the tubular
Back set mortice latch. The latch engages into a striking plate on the
Latch lining or frame, which keeps it shut. It is operated from either
side of the door by a pair of lever handles or doorknobs.
They are available in different lengths and backset depths to
suit different applications.
Case depth
Faceplate
Striking plate
Cylinder night latch Cylinder night latches are used mainly on entrance doors,
Keep or staple typically in domestic properties. The door is opened by a key
Night latch from the outside and by turning a handle from the inside. The
latch bolt engages with a keep that is fixed to the door jamb.
Better-quality night latches have a double-locking facility,
Connecting which improves their security: when double-turned from the
tail bar inside, they prevent the lock from being opened from the
outside, even with a key. They are available with different
back sets to fit narrow door stiles.
The cylinder night latch is fitted so that the cylinder part of
the lock is inserted into a hole bored through the door and
screwed in place through its backplate. The night latch part of
the lock is then fixed to the inside of the door via a backplate
and inserted onto the connecting tail bar from the cylinder,
which allows the lock to function from the outside.
Cylinder
Cylinder washer
Rim lock Rim lock/latches are fixed on the surface face of the door
Latch unlike mortice lock/latches which fit into a mortice. Rim
lock/latches are traditionally operated by a pair of doorknobs.
This type of lock is often used on ledged and braced doors,
as these are not thick enough to receive mortice locks. Rim
lock/latches are more commonly used in period properties or
where an authentic appearance is required.
Keep or This type of lock is handed and will need to be purchased
staple either as a left or right rim lock, depending on which side of
the door the lock is being fitted in relation to its hanging side.
Lock
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Name of ironmongery Description

Euro pattern lock Mortice latch/locks are available with European (Euro) pattern
cylinder lock sections. With this type of lock, the key-operated
Euro lock mechanism can be easily replaced without taking out the
location hole whole mortice lock.
Euro pattern lock inserts
Digital code-operated locks Digital keypads and code-operated locks are used in
conjunction with deadlocking mortice latches or cylinder night
latches to provide keyless entry.
This type of lock requires a number and/or alphabet code to
release the lock. Entry is then made by simply turning a knob
or a handle on the body of the lock. This type of entry is often
used by hotels which usually use a card-operated version of
the locking mechanism.
Thumb latch Thumb latches are used on matchboard ledged and braced
doors. Traditionally, they were made by a blacksmith from
mild steel. A variety of designs are available, usually with a
black japanned finished.
The most widely known are the Suffolk latch (with two parts,
one either side of the door) and Norfolk latches.
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ACTIVITY
Produce a list of the benefits of fitting Euro pattern locks in public buildings
compared to fitting standard mortice locks. Present your conclusions to the rest
of your group.
Fixing positions for locks and latches

There may be regional variations to the fixing positions for latches and locks. You
should always refer to your employer or to specified fitting instructions when
selecting the exact location for the ironmongery Figure 5.17 outlines the standard
locations for mortice latch/locks and cylinder night locks.
Cylinder night
latch between
Mortice 1200−1500 mm
latch/lock from floor
spindle at
990 mm
from floor
p Figure 5.17 Standard fixing positions for mortice latch/locks and

cylinder night latches
INDUSTRY TIPS
Insurance companies usually require that entrance doors to private dwellings are fitted with
locks that meet British Standard (BS) 3621.
When replacing doors, you may have to fit locks and latches at the same heights as on
doors adjoining the room, so that they match.
Door furniture
Door furniture usually refers to items of ironmongery that are fixed to the face
of the door, such as handles, knobs, bolts and door closers. Like most types of
ironmongery, these items are available in multiple different types, colours and
materials. In most cases, the choice of ironmongery is determined by factors
such as security and practicality first and then by preferences of colour and style.
Examples of types of door furniture are given in Table 5.9.
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q Table 5.9 Type of door furniture
Type of door furniture Description

Lever handle furniture Door handles are used to operate the latch part of the latch/lock to enable the door
to open. During assembly, the handle is inserted onto the spindle from the mortice
latch/lock and then screwed onto the face of the door. The lever furniture, as it is
known, is available in multiple varieties of designs and finishes.
Euro pattern lock handle for a mortice

latch/lock
Round handle to operate the latch and a

separate matching round lock escutcheon
Ornate black japanned mortice latch/lock

handle
Knobs These were traditionally only used with rim latch/locks, but now they are often used
on mortice latch/locks as well.
Knobs should not be used with mortice latch/locks that have a small backset. This is
because the knob will need to be fitted too close to the edge of the door, which may
cause your hand to catch the door frame or lining as the door is opened and closed.
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Espagnolette bolt Espagnolette bolts are a latch and locking system fitted into the lock stiles of doors.
They provide multi-point locking down the door stile, providing higher security.
Traditionally, these bolts were only used with PVCu entrance doors but are now
available for timber doors as well.
Panic bolt Panic bolts and latches are usually used on the inside of emergency exit doors.
This type of locking system means the door remains bolted shut but allows for easy
opening in an emergency by simply pushing the panic bar, which disengages the
bolts at the top and bottom of the door from the keeps that are recessed in the
frame.
Barrel bolts and tower bolts Barrel bolts are generally used on doors and gates, while the larger and longer
versions, called tower bolts, are used to secure larger doors and gates, such as
those used on industrial unit doors and garages.
These types of bolts are sometimes referred to as monkey tail bolts due to their long
handles which allow for easy reach. Bolts are also available as cranked or necked for
doors and gates that open outwards.
Flush bolts Flush bolts finish flush with the door. They are fixed on the edge of the door stile and
are used primarily to secure one half of a pair of doors. One bolt is positioned at the
top of the door and another at the bottom of the door.
This type of bolt is unobtrusive and can only be seen when the door is open.
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Rack or ratchet bolt The rack or ratchet bolt is a type of deadbolt that is fitted into a bored hole on
the edge of the door. The bolt is operated by a key that is inserted through the
Keep
escutcheon fitted on the inside face of the door to engage in the rack of the bolt.
The rack is shaped to match the key. As the key is rotated, the rack drives the bolt
out into the door frame or withdraws it from the door frame into the door, allowing
the door to open.
Ratchet bolt
Escutcheon
Key
Escutcheon An escutcheon provides a neat finish to any open keyhole and is typically used in
conjunction with rim locks and deadlocks.
In most cases, the keyhole is covered by the lever furniture. Where it is not, an
escutcheon is required to protect the door face as well as providing a neat finish to
the lock key hole.
Security viewer Door viewers enable occupants of a room to see who is on the other side of the door
without having to open the door. Security viewers are fitted into a hole that passes
through the door at a suitable height and gives the occupier a wide-angled view of
what is on the other side of the door.
Security chains Security chains permit the door to be opened by only a small amount but without
risk of the door being snatched fully open. This enables conversation to take place
with anyone on the other side of the door while still maintaining a high level of
security.
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Letter plate Letter plates are usually positioned centrally in the middle of the door but can be
fitted in the bottom rail of the door if no middle rail is available. Smaller vertical letter
plates can be fitted into the door stile.
Traditionally, letter plates were fitted by drilling a series of holes and cutting out the
shape with a padsaw. This is now done with the aid of a jigsaw or with a router and a
jig to suit the size of the letter plate.
Proprietary threshold Most purchased thresholds form a weather-proof seal between the bottom of a door
and the door frame cill. They are usually made of aluminium with nitrite seals and
can easily be cut to length with a hacksaw to suit the door width.
Thresholds are usually supplied with fitting instructions. However, they are normally
laid on a generous bead of silicone sealant and secured to the cill.
Some aluminium thresholds are designed to be fitted with a compatible rain
deflector at the foot of the door to direct water away.
44 mm
Outside Inside
20 mm
Clearance
min 12 mm
max 16 mm
Drainage holes 13 mm
48 mm
Trickle vents Trickle vents are used in door and window frames to provide a means to ventilate a
building. Most vents have panels on the inside face that can be opened or closed to
control the amount of ventilation being supplied through them.
In some circumstances, trickle vents are required by the Building Regulations.
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Weather seals There are many different examples of weather seals. Each is designed to suit the
position in which it is intended to be used, usually in a door or window frame.
Weather seals are designed to prevent draughts, water ingress and heat loss.
They are available in a basic range of colours to match natural wood or painted
joinery finishes. A continuous groove is usually machined around the rebated frame
and the weather seal is pushed into this groove to hold it firmly in place.
Door closer Door closers are used to ensure that doors close on their own and are used to
prevent the spread of fire, draughts and sound or to ensure privacy throughout a
building.
Overhead door closers are fitted to the top of the door or the door frame above. They
work by means of either a coiled spring mechanism or hydraulic system enclosed
within the casing, with an arm to either pull or push the door shut.
Drawer runners Drawer runners are available in a range of different finishes and lengths to suit the
unit that they will be fitted into. Standard drawer runners usually only allow the
drawer to extend midway out from the face of the unit. However, ‘full extension’
examples are also available for better access to the drawer. The runners can either
be fitted to the underside of the drawer or to the sides. Good-quality runners will
have ball bearings fitted for smooth operation; they may also have a soft-close action
to prevent the drawer from slamming closed and possibly damaging the unit.
Plinth feet Plinth feet are commonly fixed to the bottom of kitchen units. They are simply
turned at the bottom to adjust the height of the unit and level it. The plinth fixings
(clips) attach to the plinth feet for quick and easy installation and removal of the
plinth.
INDUSTRY TIP IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

Identify the types and quantities of ironmongery you would
Building Regulations usually require that fire doors consider necessary for use on a typical solid timber front
have some form of door closer. However, some door. Present your selections in a suitable format that could
types of closer can spoil the look of the door set, be used to order the required ironmongery from your
so you could fit a concealed door closer in the supplier.
door edge and door frame. Alternatively, you could
install fire-rated butt hinges with a concealed
spring in the knuckle that provide the self-closing
action needed to meet current regulations.
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IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

List the different types and quantities for each type of hinge, latch and lock used
to hang all the doors in your home.
Barrel or
Hinge Hinge
rack bolt
bolt bolt
Signage
1500 mm
Cylinder rim
latch 1200–
1
2 1500 mm
Letter plate height
Hinge Hinge
760–1450 mm security
bolt bolt
chain
Barrel or
rack bolt
p Figure 5.18 Standard ironmongery heights for doors
4 INSTALLING IRONMONGERY
This section outlines standard fitting procedures for installing ironmongery to
standard doors using basic hand tools. Some ironmongery manufacturers provide
fitting instructions along with paper templates to aid fitting, which may be used
where necessary.
Doors are hung and finished with ironmongery in three distinct stages. It is
important to follow each stage carefully to ensure that both the door and the
ironmongery can function correctly. These stages are described in Table 5.10.
q Table 5.10 Stages of hanging a door and installing ironmongery
Stage Description
Stage 1: Fitting This involves trimming the door to the required size for the opening. It
the door is unusual for a door not to require some form of fitting, even if it is only
giving the door a leading edge to its closing side (a slight taper on the
closing edge).
Internal doors usually have a 2 mm clearance gap around each side and
along the top of the door, with a slightly increased gap of 4 mm along
the bottom edge of the door.
External doors have increased clearance gaps of 3 mm along each side
and the top.
Stage 2: Swinging This stage involves fitting the hinges and ensuring that the door swings
the door or opens and closes correctly without the door binding or sticking.
Stage 3: Installing This stage involves fitting any latches/locks and other required
the ironmongery ironmongery.
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Installation and fitting guides

These items of ironmongery are covered in the following general fitting guides.
● Butt hinge
● Mortice latch/lock
● Cylinder night latch
● Letter plate
● Escutcheon
● Rack bolt
Fitting butt hinges to standard doors

Butt hinges can be installed using traditional hand tools or with power tools and
jigs, as is typically the case when installing doors into new build frames and linings.
The following step-by-step guide outlines a method used to mark, cut and fit a
standard butt hinge to an internal door using basic hand tools.
1 Using a suitable door stand, securely hold the door with the hinge stile facing
upwards.
2 Mark the starting position of the hinge, either 150 mm down from the top or
225 mm from the bottom, ensuring that the hinge is on the correct face edge
of the door. Carefully and accurately score along each side of the hinge using a
marking knife.
3 Set up a marking gauge to the width of the butt hinge leaf. Transfer this to the
face edge of the door and mark out the width of the hinge recesses between
the score lines only.
This distance
4 Adjust a second marking gauge to the thickness of one butt hinge leaf. Transfer
this to the face of the door, only marking between the score lines. This is the
finished depth of the hinge recesses. Hinges that have large or wide knuckles
will need to finish slightly below the surface of the door and frame to maintain
the correct door clearance (2 or 3 mm) within the frame; adjust the marking
gauge as necessary to allow for this increased depth.
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5 Using a bevel edge chisel and mallet (or hammer if the chisel has a metal insert
to allow it), accurately cut down on each marked end of the hinge recess. Ensure
that the flat edge of the chisel is always to the outside of the recess and the
chisel is kept vertical, so that the result is a square cut.

6 Turn the chisel around so that the flat edge is facing upwards. Holding the
chisel at an angle of about 45˚, start cutting at the end of the hinge recess that
is furthest away from you and work your way along the recess using a walking
action of the chisel. Holding the chisel at an angle of 45° helps to lift the grain
of the timber as it is being chiselled, making the cuts easier to remove in the
next steps.
7 Keeping your chisel flat, carefully pare back the recess to the required depth,
as marked by the marking gauge. Slightly angling your chisel and cutting in a
slicing action can help to achieve a neater flat bottom to the recess.
HEALTH AND SAFETY

Always keep both hands
behind the cutting edge
of the chisel. Do not be
tempted to hold the back
of the door behind the
recess while cleaning out
the hinge recess with a
chisel.
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8 Clean out the back edge of the recess and trial fit the hinge.
INDUSTRY TIP
For a deep hinge recess,
several shallower cuts may
produce a neater finish.
KEY TERM
9 When you are satisfied that the hinge fits correctly within the recess, drill a
Pilot hole: a small hole
pilot hole for the screws with a hinge drill bit. Using this type of drill bit means
drilled (or bored) into
that the screws will automatically be centralised within the hinge holes so the timber to prevent it from
screw heads sit central and flush within the countersunk holes of the hinge. Fix splitting when the fixing
the hinge in place, remembering ‘most to the post’, to fit the hinge to the door screws are inserted.
by the leaf containing the fewest moving parts to the knuckle.
p Figure 5.19 Finished hinge p Figure 5.20 Trial fit the hinge for p Figure 5.21 Using a hinge drill
recess fit bit to form the pilot holes
Installing a mortice latch/lock

The procedures required to install a mortice latch and a mortice latch/lock are
ACTIVITY
similar, though installing a mortice latch is an easier task and can be completed
Cut and fit a 100 mm
more quickly. Mortice latch/locks require a longer mortice recess to accept the butt hinge onto a suitable
latch/lock’s case and an extra hole in the door’s face to receive the key for the lock. section of timber using
A simple procedure that can be used to fit either a mortice latch or a mortice hand tools. Show your
finished project to your
latch/lock is outlined in the following step-by-step guide. Use Figure 5.22 to help tutor and outline how you
you. may improve the task or
1 The standard height for a mortice lock/latch spindle is 990 mm from the how you would do things
differently next time.
bottom of the door. Measure up from the bottom of the door to the required
height of the spindle hole on the lock stile of the door. From this measurement
all the following measurements can be marked on the door:
INDUSTRY TIP
● the lock’s backset for the spindle and key holes (B in Figure 5.22)
● the case height of the lock (C) plus an extra 3 mm above and below When fitting a replacement
● a centre line on the edge of the door for the latch/lock case, running door, the spindle height will
between lines marked for (C); this will be the centre of the mortice recess to usually need to correspond
accept the mortice latch/lock. with the heights of the
spindles on any adjacent
doors unless specified.
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F A
B
900 mm
E C spindle
D height from
bottom of
door
A = Case depth D = Centres

B
B = Backset E = Forend length
C = Case height F = Forend width
Spindle hole p Figure 5.22 Fitting a mortice latch or mortice latch/lock

2 Drill the spindle and keyholes from each side of the door using a suitably sized
drill bit. Plenty of clearance should be given for the spindle to turn within the
hole; a 20 mm drill bit is usually sufficient. When selecting a suitable size drill
bit for the lock hole, it is common practice to use the same-sized drill bit as that
used for the spindle hole, or a slightly smaller 18 mm drill bit. Drilling this larger
hole saves a considerable amount of time forming the lock keyhole compared to
Lock hole
forming a traditional keyhole shape, but this larger keyhole can at times make it
more difficult for you to locate the key into the mortice case lock hole. Drilling
p Figure 5.23 Spindle and lock a large keyhole is considered poor practice by most traditionalists, but pressure
holes from many employers to install doors quickly has led to the single larger keyhole
becoming more standard practice in modern door installation.
3 When the preferred key shaped lock hole is to be used, two holes are used to
form the basic shape of the keyhole: a larger 10 mm hole with a 6 mm hole
centre lining just below. The finished shape of the keyhole is formed using a
padsaw and file. Considerable accuracy is required when forming the keyhole
shape as only a slight misalignment will result in difficult key location in the lock
case.
4 Form the lock case mortice by drilling a series of overlapping holes that are
slightly larger than the lock case width, to the required depth. Drill the two
outermost holes first and then work your way in towards the centre. Mark
p Figure 5.24 Keyhole formed the drill bit with tape at the required depth or set up the drill's depth stops if
with two holes available. When fitting a mortice latch, you need a single hole with a diameter
just big enough to accept the latch.
INDUSTRY TIP
Drilling the spindle and lock
holes before the mortice +5 mm
recess prevents the side of
the mortice recess splintering
and spelching inward when
the spindle and lock holes are
drilled through. This limits
damage to the door and
p Figure 5.25 Drill a series of holes to help form the mortice recess for the case of the latch/lock
possible weaknesses to the
door’s face and means that
5 Mark down each side of the mortice recess with a mortice gauge, as shown in
there is no need to further
clean out the mortice recess. Figure 5.26. This gives a clean straight line to use as a guide for the chisel when
you clean the mortice recess out.
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INDUSTRY TIP
Most locks/latches are
accompanied by paper
templates that can be used to
mark out the lock on the door.
p Figure 5.26 Using a mortice gauge to mark the sides of the mortice recess
p Figure 5.27 The steps for installing a mortice latch/lock
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6 Clean out the mortice recess with suitable sized chisels.

7 Insert the latch/lock into the mortice recess and check for size. Mark around
the forend (front face) of the latch/lock with a marking knife, then remove the
latch/lock and form the recess for the forend with a suitable sized chisel. Fit the
latch/lock into the door.
p Figure 5.28 Fitting and marking forend and forming recess in door frame
8 Fit the lever door handles on either side of the door. If the lever furniture has
straight sides, fit it vertically. For round furniture, ensure that the handle is
horizontal.
ACTIVITY
Cut and fit a mortice latch/lock into a suitable section of timber.
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Installing a cylinder night latch

Cylinder night latches are mostly fitted on doors that need to limit entry to a room
or building, allowing only some people to gain access but allowing anyone to exit.
When the door is shut, a key is needed to gain entry, but it is easy to open the
door from the inside and exit. Cylinder night latches are usually only fitted to doors
that open inwards, such as front doors in domestic properties or doors to rooms
opening in from a corridor.
Most cylinder night latches are provided with a paper template and fitting
instructions to make the installation a simple and straightforward operation. The
following step-by-step guide outlines a procedure that can be used to fit a cylinder
night latch.
1 Mark the top of the cylinder night latch on both sides of the door, usually
1200–1500 mm from the bottom of the door.
2 Mark the required backset of the night latch from the edge of the door. This is
the centre of the hole for the cylinder, usually 40 mm or 60 mm from the edge
of the door.
3 Drill a 32 mm hole through the door, working from each side.
4 Insert the cylinder into the hole from the outside and mark the end of the
connecter bar as it passes through the door. Remove the cylinder and cut the
connecter bar 8–10 mm longer than where marked.
5 Refit the cylinder and tighten to the back plate, ensuring that the key will be
vertical when placed in the lock.
6 Locate the night latch onto the back plate and screw home.
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ACTIVITY
Cut and fit a cylinder night latch into a suitable section of timber using
hand tools.
p Figure 5.29 Fitting sequence for night latch
Installing a rack bolt

Rack bolts are used as a replacement to barrel bolts, in circumstances when a barrel
bolt would look unsightly and out of place on the door’s surface. The following
step-by-step guide outlines a simple method to follow when installing a rack bolt.
1 Mark the centre position of the rack bolt on both sides of the door and the
centre of the door edge. When selecting the rack bolt’s location, ensure that
you allow sufficient fixing depth for the faceplate screws and that the rack bolt
does not destroy or weaken the integrity of the door’s jointing system.
2 Using a drill bit, allow a suitable amount of clearance and drill a hole from both
sides of the door to form the hole for the rack bolt key.
3 Drill a hole for the rack bolt in the edge of the door, ensuring that it is in the
centre of the door’s thickness.
4 Insert the rack bolt and, ensuring that the faceplate is square to the door edge,
mark around the rack bolt faceplate with a marking knife. Use a mortice gauge
to mark the sides of the recess.
5 Form the recess for the faceplate using a suitable sized chisel.
INDUSTRY TIP 6 Fit the rack bolt and screw home.
7 Insert the key through the key escutcheon and locate it in the rack bolt, then
Always ensure that the door
align the escutcheon and fix in place.
has the correct amount of
clearance before fixing the 8 When the door is shut, turn the rack bolt key so that the rack bolt’s point locates the
rack bolt. centre position for the rack bolt’s keep. Position the keep so that the marked point is
in its centre and mark out the position of the keep. Cut the recess and fix the keep.
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Practical task
Fit a butt hinge
You are required to fit a 100 mm butt hinge in a section of softwood timber
that represents a section of door stile.
your tutor or trainer to proceed. As each task is completed, you should
be given feedback on the completed task and any retraining that may be
required. Always work according to a risk assessment and environmental and
health and safety regulations.
Task instructions
You are required to:
● mark out the correct position of the butt hinge
● set up marking gauges to the required sizes from the butt hinge
● mark the location of the hinge using the marking gauges
● chop out the hinge recess using the correct size chisel and mallet
● fit the hinge using the correct size pilot holes, screws and screwdriver.
Equipment required
● Completed risk assessment for fitting butt hinges
● Selection of PPE
● 1 length of softwood timber measuring 450 mm × 44 mm × 94 mm
● Vice or clamps
● 100 mm butt hinge
● Marking knife
● Two marking gauges
● Selection of bevel edge chisels
● Mallet
● Selection of drill bits
● Selection of screws
● Selection of screwdrivers
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Work to a given risk assessment and select the
required personal protective equipment for the
outlined task.
Correctly mark out location of hinge 150 mm from
one end using marking knife.
Correctly set up marking gauges to match hinge
sizes.
Correctly mark out hinge position with marking
gauges on timber without extending beyond marked
lines.
Safely cut out hinge recess with suitable size chisel
to correct size and depth using a mallet.
Select suitable screws and drill the correct size pilot
holes.
Securely screw home the butt hinge, ensuring the
hinge’s correct location, correctly fitting the screws
using the correct size screwdriver.
All work is carried out in accordance with current
practices.
Work area is left clean and tidy with all tools and
equipment correctly stored away safely.
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Test your knowledge

1 Which of the following is classed as a non- 7 When installing butt hinges, which phrase is
ferrous metal? used as a reminder for positioning?
a Mild steel a Least to the post
b Iron b Down to the door
c Brass c Most to the post
d Cast iron d More to the door
2 Which type of nail has small raised ridges 8 Which type of hinge is purchased in pairs,
around its shank? depending on the opening side of the door, and
a Cut nails acts as a self-closing hinge?
b Lost head nails a Rising butt hinge
c Bright steel round head nails b Parliament hinge
d Annular ring shank nails c Flush hinge
3 Which type of nail is most suitable for driving d Double-action spring hinge
into brickwork? 9 Which type of lock has easily replaceable lock
a Clout nails sections?
b Masonry nails a Cylinder night latch
c Brad nails b Digital code lock
d Cut nails c Euro pattern lock
4 Which type of screwdriver bit has a head shaped d Escutcheon
like a six-pointed star? 10 Where would you find an escutcheon?
a Pozidriv a On the end of a cylinder night latch
b Phillips b Operating mortice lock spindles
c Slotted c As an insert with Euro pattern locks
d Torx® d Covering a keyhole
5 Which of the following is a fast-acting adhesive 11 Describe the main differences between a
considered suitable for joining mouldings, such mortice lock and a cylinder night latch.
as architraves and cornices, at joints? 12 List the main differences between ironmongery
a Mitre bond adhesive made from non-ferrous metal and ironmongery
b Polyvinyl acetate made from ferrous metal.
c Synthetic resin grab adhesive 13 List the tools you would require and the process
involved in cutting a butt hinge recess.
d Contact adhesive
14 Acquire purchase prices for three sets of
6 Which type of screw has a black lacquered finish
ironmongery typically used on a domestic front
applied to it?
door. Produce an invoice detailing the purchase
a Brass wood screws price before VAT and including VAT.
b Black japanned screws 15 Design a toolbox safety poster that could be
c Zinc-plated wood screws used with a training session on cutting out
d Yellow passivated wood screws recesses and installing butt hinges on a timber
entrance door.
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CHAPTER 6
HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE IN CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Construction sites and workshops can be extremely hazardous working environments for everyone working
in them or visiting them or for anyone nearby. Reducing the risks to people’s safety and long-term health and
welfare to the lowest possible level must be a priority for all those who plan and manage work. The law places
legal responsibilities, referred to as duties, on people involved in the construction process. Everyone has a
responsibility for the health, safety and welfare of themselves and others at work, including young people,
apprentices, trainees and those on work experience placements.
This chapter discusses the legal responsibilities for duty holders and how everyone can manage and monitor
the workplace to make it a safer environment for all.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will learn about: 5 handling materials and equipment safety
1 health and safety regulations, roles and 6 access equipment and working at height
responsibilities 7 working with electrical equipment in the
2 accident and emergency procedures and workplace
documentation 8 using personal protective equipment (PPE)
3 hazards in the workplace 9 causes of fire and fire emergency procedures.
4 health and welfare in the workplace
1 HEALTH AND SAFETY

REGULATIONS, ROLES AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
Health and safety legislation
There are many risks associated with working in the construction industry, a large
number of which may be reduced or removed altogether to protect people at
work. Sadly, there are still many accidents (including some which are fatal) in the
construction industry. Some of these may be because people with moral or legal
responsibilities have failed to fulfil their duties.
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Chapter 6 Health, safety and welfare in construction
Working in the construction industry nowadays is far safer than it used to be and
KEY TERM
standards continue to improve. Many of these standards are enforced through
health and safety regulations. In 1974, a new piece of primary legislation was Legislation: a law or legal
regulation. For example,
introduced to protect people at work and those affected by work activities, known
the Health and Safety at
as the Health and Safety at Work Act (abbreviated to HASAWA, HASWA or HSWA). Work Act 1974 is a piece
The HASAWA was introduced because of the poor working conditions and the of legislation.
disproportionately high number of fatalities (deaths) across many industries
for many decades prior to 1974. The HASAWA imposes many ‘general’ duties
on employers, as well as on other duty holders. Many regulations control the
way we act and work, so it is important to understand how they affect you
and what your duties are under each of them. In some cases, regulations are
updated to reflect the changes in industry standards and practices, as well as
new technology.
There are many regulations governing the construction industry. Table 6.1 outlines
the main regulations that carpenters, joiners and their employers regularly have a
duty to follow. Further details of some of these regulations will be given later in
this chapter to put them into context.
q Table 6.1 Health and safety regulations that carpenters, joiners and their employers have a duty to follow
Regulations Abbreviation Introduced Overview

Health and Safety HASAWA 1974 A piece of legislation used to protect all people at work and from work
at Work Act activities.
The general objective of the HASAWA: ‘It shall be the duty of every employer
to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare
at work of all their employees’.
An employer's duties are:
● to provide and maintain plant and systems of work so that they are safe
and do not cause risks to health
● to make arrangements for the safe use, handling, storage and
transportation of articles and substances, such as wood glue
● to provide information, instruction, training and supervision as necessary
to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at
work of their employees
● to ensure safe access to and egress (exit) from any place of work under
the employer’s control and without risks
● to provide and maintain a working environment for their employees that
is, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe, without risks to health and
adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for employees’ welfare at
work.
Employees also have duties that are explained later in this chapter.
Further information about the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 can be
found on the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) website: www.hse.gov.uk/
legislation/hswa.htm
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Construction, CDM 2015 These are the main regulations that cover the management of health, safety
Design and and welfare on all construction projects, regardless of size. They say that:
Management ● work should be sensibly planned so that any risks involved are designed
Regulations or managed out from the start to the end of the project
● the right people should be employed for the right jobs at the correct time
● any work carried out should be done with the co-operation and
co-ordination of others
● people should have access to the right information about the risks and
how they are managed
● information about the risks should be communicated effectively with those
that need to know
● workers need to be consulted and engaged with about the risks and how
they are being managed.
The key duty holders under CDM regulations are:
● client
● designer
● principal designer
● contractor
● worker.
On a construction project, you would be regarded as a ‘worker’ and would
have to comply with the following duties.
● Only carry out construction work for which you have the relevant skills,
training, knowledge and experience, unless you are being trained with
supervision to enable you to complete the job safely.
● Always follow the procedures and site rules.
● Make yourself aware of the health and safety risks on every site and how
they are being managed. This is usually done at a ‘site induction’.
● Report any risks you discover to your supervisor, regardless of whether it
affects your health and safety or not.
Control of Asbestos No common 2012 There are several different types of asbestos, some more hazardous to
at Work Regulations abbreviation remove than others. The Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations defines
used the different types of asbestos and the type of work that can be carried out
by different suitably qualified and competent people. The types of work fall
broadly into the following categories.
● Licensed work: high-risk work that should only be completed by a
licensed contractor.
● Notifiable non-licensed work: minor work/repairs with asbestos-containing
materials (ACM) where the exposure is sporadic and of low intensity. Work
may be carried out by a competent non-licensed contractor providing they
fulfil certain conditions.
● Non-licensed work: non-continuous, short-duration work on lower risk
ACMs, such as drilling into a textured coating containing asbestos to
secure a shelf.
All work with asbestos must be risk-assessed by a competent person. If you
suspect that you have discovered asbestos at work, stop and report it to your
supervisor immediately.
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Control of COSHH 2002 This regulation requires employers to control the use and handling of
Substances substances that are hazardous to health. The law states that workers’
Hazardous to exposure to hazardous substances (such as hardwood dust) can be reduced
Health or prevented by:
● assessing the risks to health
● deciding how to prevent harm, such as the use of PPE
● implementing control measures to reduce harm to health and making sure
that they are used
● providing training, instruction and information to employees and others
● providing health surveillance and monitoring when appropriate
● making adequate plans for emergencies.
Manual Handling MHOR 1992 Many carpenters and joiners suffer long-term health effects from the
Operations incorrect handling of materials and equipment. The MHOR sets out the
Regulations following measures to deal with the risks of manual handling.
● Avoid manual handling so far as is ‘reasonably practicable’, such as using
a forklift truck to unload a delivery of timber rather than lifting by hand
wherever possible.
● Assess the hazards if they cannot be avoided.
● Reduce the risks of injury so far as reasonably practicable, such as
spliting the load into smaller loads.
Provision and Use PUWER 1998 PUWER places legal duties on people who own, operate or have control over
of Work Equipment work equipment and organisations whose employees use the equipment.
Regulations This law says that equipment should be:
● suitable for its intended use
● safe, maintained and inspected
● only used by people who are trained, instructed and informed
● provided with health and safety measures, such as controls and devices,
like an emergency stop button on a table saw
● used in accordance with specific requirements.
Reporting Injuries, RIDDOR 2013 These regulations place legal duties on employers, the self-employed and
Diseases and those in control of premises to report specified dangerous occurrences
Dangerous (referred to as near misses), occupational diseases and serious accidents in
Occurrences the workplace.
Regulations
Personal Protective PPE 2018 This law says that PPE should be used as a last resort if the risks cannot be
Equipment suitably controlled by other measures. This includes taking reasonable steps
Regulations to protect workers and others from coronavirus (COVID-19). The regulations
also require:
● an assessment to be made to ensure that PPE is fit for its intended
purpose
● employees to be provided with instructions on how to use PPE safely
● that PPE is used correctly by employees
● that PPE and RPE (respiratory protective equipment) must be stored
properly and well maintained.
Work at Height WAHR 2005 These regulations apply to employers and people who are responsible for
Regulations work at height, such as a maintenance manager. All work at height must be
adequately planned for, including an assessment of the risks and the right
type of access equipment for the work.
● Employees also have the following duties under WAHRs.
● Take reasonable care of themselves and others who may be affected by
their actions.
● Co-operate with their employer to enable them to fulfil their health and
safety duties.
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Control of Noise at No 2005 The aim of these regulations is to protect the hearing of people at work
Work Regulations abbreviation from excessive noise (such as that produced by woodworking tools and
used machinery), which could lead to hearing loss or damage, such as tinnitus.
This must be done by assessing the risks to workers’ health and identifying
measures to eliminate or reduce their exposure to the noise. Employers have
a duty to:
● assess the risks to workers’ health and provide information and training at
80 decibels
● provide personal hearing protection at 85 decibels
● use control measures, such as safety signs or hearing protection zones
● provide health surveillance for workers regularly exposed to noise above
85 decibels
● not expose workers to the ‘upper action value’ of 87 decibels or above.
This takes into account any reduction in noise provided by hearing
protection.
Control of Vibration No 2005 Employers have a duty under these regulations to assess the risks and
at Work Regulations abbreviation measure the amount of vibration that their employees are exposed to in a
used working day. The regulations introduce action and limit values for hand-
arm and whole-body vibration to protect people from the risk of hand-arm
vibration syndrome (HAVS). For example, a small random orbital sander
produces vibration above the action level specified in the regulations, so an
employer requiring its use should reduce the risk of harm to their employees
by introducing control measures, such as limiting the time spent using the
tool without a break.
Electricity at Work No 1989 These regulations are concerned with electrical installations and both
Regulations abbreviation employers and employees have duties under them. The regulations are
used technical. However, they clearly state that only trained and competent
contractors should carry out electrical work.
Lifting Operations LOLER 1998 Any organisation or business that undertakes lifting operations or provides
and Lifting lifting equipment for others to use must control and manage the risks to
Equipment avoid damage or personal injury.
Regulations Lifting operations must be:
● properly planned
● supervised appropriately
● undertaken by competent people
● carried out in a safe manner.
KEY TERMS ACTIVITY

Tinnitus: a permanent Besides employers and employees, there are additional duty holders under the
ringing in the ears. Health and Safety at Work Act, who are:
This is often caused to ● self-employed persons
carpenters and joiners by ● people in control of premises for persons other than their employees
long exposure to noise
● manufacturers.
produced by routers and
woodcutting machinery, Use the internet to research the legal responsibilities of these duty holders and
when adequate protective make a list giving an overview of each.
measures have not been
taken.
Decibels: a unit used to
measure the intensity of
sound levels. It is often
abbreviated to dB.
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ACTIVITY INDUSTRY TIP

Imagine that you are a self-employed carpenter/joiner and have a project
to complete. You could base the project on the replacement of a kitchen for Under the CDM Regulations,
a member of your family or a friend. Under the CDM Regulations, you are every project must be
required to consider all the risks on the project before starting work and plan correctly planned and
for welfare facilities. Use the CDM Wizard or other CDM app to complete organised with regards to
details of the project. health, safety and welfare,
Once completed, reflect on the points that you would not have considered regardless of its size. Free
planning for if you hadn’t used the app, and the importance of these areas with apps are available to do this,
regards to the health and safety of yourself and others. such as CDM Wizard produced
by CITB ConstructionSkills,
which can be used to help
Employer and employee responsibilities
support employers to manage
Employer responsibilities this process for small
construction projects.
For a young person or someone new to the industry, the regulations may seem
overwhelming; however, broadly speaking they are very straightforward. When you
arrive at work you will have expectations that your employer will provide a safe
working environment and they will provide you will all the information, adequate
training and equipment that you need to work safely. (Workplace inductions and
toolbox talks are covered on page 277–278 later in this chapter). It can take time to
learn how to do new tasks and become competent; until then, your employer must
provide supervision while you are at work to protect you from harm.
Anything likely to cause harm is referred to as a hazard. Your employer has a duty
to assess all the significant hazards in your workplace on a document known as a
risk assessment. If your employer has five or more employees, the law says that
risk assessments must be written and kept in case there is an inspection or for
insurance purposes. Figure 6.2 is an example of a risk assessment.
KEY TERM
Hazard: something that has the potential to cause harm. For example, a
nail gun has the potential to cause harm to your eyes or body from the nails
it fires. The noise that it creates could also cause damage to your hearing
over a period of time. Remember, your employer has a legal responsibility to
protect you from all potential hazards in the workplace.
p Figure 6.1 Examples of hazards
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Risk Assessment
Activity / Workplace assessed: Return to work after accident Location:
Persons consulted / involved in risk assessment Risk assessment reference number:
Date: Review date:
Reviewed on: Review by:
Significant People at risk and what is Existing control measure Risk rating Further action required Actioned to: Due date: Completion date:
hazard the risk What is currently in place Use matrix identified in What is required to bring Who will When will the Initial and date
Describe the harm that is likely to control the risk? guidance note. the risk down to an complete the action be once the action has
to result from the hazard (e.g. Likelihood (L) acceptable level? Use action? completed been completed.
cut, broken leg, chemical burn Severity (S) hierarchy of control by?
etc.) and who could be described in guidance note
harmed (e.g. employees, Multiply (L) * (S) to when considering the
contractors, visitors, etc.). produce risk rating (RR) controls needed.
Uneven Operatives Verbal warning and L S RR L/M/H None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing
floors supervision 2 1 2 M
Steps Operatives Verbal warning 2 1 2 M None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing
Staircases Operatives Verbal warning 2 2 4 M None applicable Site supervisor Active now Ongoing
Likelihood
1 2 3
Unlikely Possible Very likely
1
Slight/minor
1 2 3
injuries/minor
damage
Severity
2
Medium
injuries/significant 2 4 6
damage
3
Major
3 6 9
injury/extensive
damage
1 – Low risk: action should be taken to reduce the risk if reasonably practicable.
2, 3, 4 – Medium risk: is a significant risk and would require an appropriate level of resource.
6 & 9 – High risk: may require considerable resourced to mitigate. Control should focus on elimination of risk,
if not possible control should be obtained by following the hierarchy of control.
p Figure 6.2 Risk assessment
The risk assessment may identify a particular hazard associated with completing
ACTIVITY a task such as cutting a piece of timber to length on a mitre saw. The noise level
Think of a hazard that
produced by the saw can cause hearing damage, so it is recommended that hearing
you are likely to encounter
at work. Now list all the protection is worn. Your employer must supply you with any personal protective
practical measures that equipment (PPE) necessary, free of charge. This will include items that you
could be taken to protect routinely wear, such as safety footwear, a high-vis vest or jacket or a hard hat. If the
you from the risk of injury. PPE becomes worn or damaged, your employer must replace it when requested,
Discuss your answers with but you have a responsibility to look after it.
your trainer or employer.
Could more be done to The poster Health and Safety Law: What you need to know (HSE 2009, ISBN
reduce the risk as low as 9780717663149) is one of many sources of written health and safety information
possible? that you will see displayed in your workplace. The Health and Safety Information
Regulations require all employers to display this poster or provide workers,
including yourself, with an HSE-approved equivalent leaflet. The poster contains
three important headings, with the main points of the law:
● what employers must do for you
● what you must do
● if there is a problem.
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Employers have a responsibility to protect their workers from injuries and ill
KEY TERM
heath at work. Reflect for a moment on what you would do if you had an
accident that prevented you from working. An accident can be life-changing not Negligent: a term often
referred to in health and
only for the injured person, but also for their families. If, following an accident,
safety law when someone
you considered your employer had been negligent, you may seek to claim does not fulfil their
financial compensation. responsibilities.
The Employer’s Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act places a duty on businesses
that have employees to make sure they have adequate liability insurance (at least
£5 million cover). If the employer is found to have been at fault by a court, the
insurance will help to pay any compensation due to their employees. If your INDUSTRY TIP
employer does not display a valid certificate of liability insurance or they cannot
The health and safety pocket
provide one when requested by a HSE inspector, they can be fined up to £1000. In
cards are published free by
addition, employers can be fined up to £2500 for every day that they do not have
the HSE. Use the following
suitable insurance. link to download a copy for
Carpenters often work at various locations and occasionally joiners will also fit items yourself as a reference of key
they have made on site, especially if they are in component form, such as a staircase information, such as what
with a change of direction. In these situations, workers may not have access to the to do if there is a problem
information contained on the HSE approved law poster in the vehicle they travel at work and what your
in, or at a domestic client’s property. For this reason, employers can now fulfil their responsibilities are: www.
hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/
legal responsibility by issuing their employees with handy ‘pocket cards’ that outline
lawposter.htm
what they need to know with regards to staying safe and healthy at work.
Employee responsibilities KEY TERMS

So far, this chapter has considered the employer’s responsibilities under the main
Near miss: an incident
health and safety regulations. As an employee, you also have duties under the that occurred that could
regulations. They are not difficult to understand and should be easy for you to follow. have caused harm to
If there is anything you are unsure about, you must always ask your supervisor. someone but did not. It
is important to report
Health and safety at work is common sense. Unfortunately, accidents still occur near-miss incidents
because people do not follow some simple rules. to prevent them from
The Health and Safety at Work Act says you must do the following things. happening again.
Control measures: a
● Take reasonable care for the health and safety of yourself, and others who may system used to protect
be affected by the things you do or do not do. Work safely and act responsibly, people from harm, such
follow your employer’s rules and report any hazards, near misses or accidents as the use of PPE,
that you see to your supervisor. Remember, your behaviour not only affects guards on machinery,
safety signs and fire
you; it can also have an impact on others.
extinguishers.
● Co-operate with your employer to enable their duty or requirement to be
performed or complied with. For example, if you removed your PPE at work
because you preferred not to wear it or did not use the dust extraction provided
on a power tool, you would be breaking the law. These are examples of control
measures that your employer has put in place to protect you. You must follow
the training and instructions that your employer has provided.
● Do not intentionally or recklessly interfere with or misuse anything provided in
the interests of health, safety or welfare. For example, if you were to remove
or alter any components on a scaffold or a guard on a woodworking machine
without it being agreed with your supervisor, you would be failing to comply p Figure 6.3 A near miss to be
with the HASAWA. reported
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KEY TERM Roles and responsibilities of the Health and

Improvement notice: a Safety Executive
formal document issued
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a government organisation responsible
by the HSE to employers
when they have fallen for enforcing health and safety law in the workplace. It has many powers to
short of their health and enforce the law, which include being able to enter a workplace at any reasonable
safety responsibilities, time without notice. It may carry out inspections and investigations to help
usually in non-life- with an enquiry, especially if a serious accident or incident has occurred. If the
threatening ways that can HSE inspectors suspect that a machine or process is dangerous and could lead
be easily corrected.
to an accident, they can stop the work from continuing immediately by issuing
a prohibition notice. For example, if your employer has erected a scaffold to
construct a new roof, and during a visit the HSE identify parts of the scaffolding
ACTIVITY that are missing and there is a serious risk of it collapsing, the prohibition notice
1 Use the internet to they issue would prevent anyone from using it. If hazardous equipment and
find out how much
the Health and Safety
machinery cannot be made safe, the HSE has the power to seize and destroy it.
Executive currently If the HSE visit your workplace, you should carry on doing your job until you are
charge (per hour) for instructed to do otherwise, either by your employer or by the HSE inspector.
their time.
During their visit they may want to speak to you and ask for you to provide a
2 The HSE have other
statement as part of their investigation. A visit from the HSE does not necessarily
powers to enforce the
HASAWA. Have a mean that your employer has broken the law. It may just be a routine call to offer
look at their website to advice and guidance on best practices. However, if during their visit they find that
see what else they can your employer has failed to comply with health and safety law, they could issue an
do: www.hse.gov.uk/ improvement notice or in some cases fine them in a court of law.
enforce/enforcement.htm
If during the time an HSE inspector is at a workplace, they discover breaches of
health and safety law, they can charge the employer for their time. This will include
any time investigating, helping to put things right and taking any enforcement
action.
Sources of relevant health and safety

information
As you progress through your training as a carpenter and joiner, you will work for
various qualifications. A fundamental part of your training will be about health
and safety at various levels depending on your experience. Employers also must
have an up-to-date knowledge of health and safety law, to make sure that they are
fulfilling their duties to provide a safe working environment.
There are many sources of health and safety information for you to refer to while
training and working. If you had to set up and use a new power tool that you were
p Figure 6.4 An example of a unfamiliar with, it is most likely that you would look at the manufacturer’s manual
source of information provided or instructions. It is a legal duty for manufacturers to provide all the information
by the HSE needed on the safe use of their products under the Health and Safety at Work Act.
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ACTIVITY
The following table contains a list of organisations that are further sources of
health and safety information. Follow the links given in the column opposite the
names of the organisations to discover what they do and how they can support
you. Write a brief overview of each organisation.
Organisation Website
British Safety Council www.britsafe.org
British Standards Institution (BSI) www.bsigroup.com/en-GB
Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) www.citb.co.uk
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) www.hse.gov.uk
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health https://iosh.com
Royal Society for Public Health (RSPH) www.rsph.org.uk
Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) www.rospa.com
Site inductions and toolbox talks

Employers have a duty to provide you with information and instructions under the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Before entering your place of work, you will
be told the rules and procedures to follow. In a joiner’s workshop, this may be given
to you by your employer in the form of an induction when you initially start work. KEY TERM
The hazards in a workshop or factory are usually consistent. On a construction site,
CSCS card: a card
the environment can change from day to day as the work progresses or as you visit
confirming your level of
new sites. For each new workplace (site and workshop) that you attend, you will be training depending on
given a site induction by the construction site manager or another senior manager. your role.
The content of a site induction will vary depending on the size of the site, the stage
the building work has progressed to and the nature of the work undertaken. The
following points are some of the topics that may be covered during a site induction. INDUSTRY TIP
● Welfare facilities, such as toilets, drinking water and washing facilities. The Construction Skills
● First aid provision, who the first aiders are at work and who to report an accident to. Certification Scheme (CSCS)
● Pedestrian routes and traffic plans for site vehicles. was developed by the CITB as
● Site rules, such as no spitting on site. a way of training, testing and
● Alcohol and drugs policy. awarding construction workers
● Areas where smoking and vaping are allowed. with an identification card to
● Personal protective equipment (PPE). show employers that they can
● Emergency procedures, such as escape routes, assembly points, fire alarm and be safe on the job. There are
fire-fighting equipment. various types of cards to suit
● Environmental issues, such as lighting, noise, dust, pollution of water ways and
the role and level at which
people will be working on site.
the disposal of waste.
● Site security. Under the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
The CITB supports the
(CDM), members of the public should be protected from all construction work construction industry with
the development of training,
activities. This is usually done with physical barriers or fencing around the
qualifications, careers and
perimeter of the site, and a signing-in and -out system, using a book, a card
standards. You may recognise
reader or even a fingerprint scanner. the CITB as it is a training
● Card schemes. Some employers will not allow workers or visitors on their
provider for many apprentices
construction sites without a valid CSCS card or similar card. These cards across the country.
identify the holder, their levels of health and safety competence and any
relevant industry-recognised qualifications.
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p Figure 6.5 Personal protective equipment (PPE) p Figure 6.6 A site office where toolbox talks can take place
p Figure 6.7 An example of a CSCS card p Figure 6.8 An operative (worker) with a portable power tool
As changes take place in the workplace and work progresses, the risks that are
HEALTH AND SAFETY present will also evolve, so your employer has a legal responsibility to make you
Statistically, you are most
aware of these changes. Updates and advice on matters of health, safety and the
likely to have an accident
on a new construction environment are communicated to workers through a brief training session known as
site or joinery workshop a toolbox talk. This training is usually undertaken on site, in a setting that enables
when you first start everyone to clearly understand the information given on the topic, without any
work because it will be disturbances. You could be asked to attend a toolbox talk on a number of subjects,
unfamiliar to you and you such as a new piece of equipment or using ladders because of a reported near miss.
may not be aware of all
the hazards. To reduce
the likelihood of an
accident, you must have 2 ACCIDENT AND EMERGENCY
an induction.
PROCEDURES AND
DOCUMENTATION
Legislation used for reporting accidents
Working in the construction industry is hazardous by its nature. All accidents and
near misses must be reported to your supervisor and recorded. This is important
because employers have a legal responsibility to keep records of all accidents in
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the workplace and to investigate their causes to prevent a reoccurrence. They also
have an obligation to their insurance company to keep accident records, which are
referred to if a claim for compensation is made against them. Serious accidents,
illnesses and dangerous occurrences must be reported to the HSE under the key
legislation, Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations.
(RIDDOR0).
It is important to be able to distinguish between an injury, a disease and a
dangerous occurrence. A minor injury in the workplace, such as a small cut to a
finger, is usually treated by a first aider and recorded in the first aid book. Even
small cuts should be properly treated and covered to prevent infections being
contracted and spread.
RIDDOR states that the types of incidents outlined in Table 6.2 are more serious
and should, therefore, be reported to the HSE.
q Table 6.2 Types of serious incidents that should be reported to the HSE
Type of incident Report

Injuries The death of any person.
Specified injuries to workers, such as:
● fractures, other than fingers, thumbs and toes
● amputations
● any injury that could lead to permanent loss of sight
● any crush injury to the head or body
● serious burns
● any removal of skin from the head requiring hospital treatment
● any loss of consciousness caused by a head injury or similar
● any other injury caused by working in an enclosed space, such as
hypothermia.
If a worker is unable to perform their job or is away from work for more
than seven consecutive days because of an injury at work.
Non-fatal accidents to non-workers (such as members of the public) that
resulted in them receiving hospital treatment.
Occupational Diseases caused because of work, such as asthma, dermatitis or
diseases cancer.
Dangerous The collapse, overturning or failure of lifting equipment.
occurrences Construction vehicles or equipment coming into contact with overhead
powerlines.
The accidental release of a substance which could cause injury to any
person, such as a major chemical spill.
Fire or explosion.
Gas incidents The accidental leakage of gas.
Incidents where someone has died, lost consciousness or been taken to
hospital for treatment in connection with the gas.
Source: www.hse.gov.uk/riddor/reportable-incidents.htm
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Accidents resulting in the death of a person at work, a specified injury or hospital

treatment to a non-worker and other dangerous occurrences must be reported to
the HSE without delay. If an accident results in a person being unable to work for
seven days or more, then the HSE must be informed within 15 days.
Major types of incidents that could occur

in the workplace
Some of the hazards that a carpenter will face on a construction site will be
hugely different from those faced by a joiner in a workshop. Your employer has
a duty to consider all the significant hazards in their workplace and take steps to
safeguard workers from them. Poor housekeeping and untidiness can cause trip
hazards and result in waste materials building up around the site or workshop,
which is a major cause of fires. In 2017, there were over 400 fires on construction
sites, 170 of which were started deliberately (arson). A good security system in
the workplace will reduce the likelihood of unauthorised people entering the site
during working hours and other times. Your employer should have considered the
best security methods; as a minimum, perimeter fencing or hoarding should be
used to restrict access.
Figure 6.9 illustrates the most common causes of fatal accidents in the
construction industry. As the graph shows, falls from height are still the biggest
causes of accidents in the workplace. This is looked at in more detail later in this
chapter.
Fall from a height 47%
Trapped by something 16%

collapsing/overturning
Struck by moving object,

12%
including flying/falling object
Struck by moving vehicle 10%
Contact with electricity or

4%
electrical discharge
40 fatal injuries to workers in 2019/20

This is similar to the annual average number of 37 fatalities for
2015/16–2019/20
p Figure 6.9 Key accident trends in the construction industry in the UK
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p Figure 6.10 Construction work at height
During a building project, you are likely to see many construction vehicles on site
delivering goods, moving materials or excavating the ground for the foundations ACTIVITY
of buildings to be laid. A well-planned construction site will have safe pedestrian Watch Your Step is a
walkways to keep people clear of moving vehicles and to prevent accidents. short toolbox talk on
the importance of good
Digging or drilling the ground on a site can be very hazardous and must be properly housekeeping:
controlled by restricting this type of work to competent people who have been www.hse.gov.uk/
authorised by the site manager. For example, if you had to drill a hole in a wall, construction/campaigns/
would you be confident that you would not be about to come into contact with watchyourstep/video/
index.htm
a water or gas pipe or an electrical cable? Drilling and excavating the ground is
not too dissimilar, because you could also make contact with buried service pipes
and cables if the correct precautions are not taken. In addition to these risks, in
certain areas of the UK there is also the potential to unearth unexploded bombs or
military ammunition from the Second World War.
Deep trenches, holes and wells in the ground have the potential to collapse if they
are not adequately supported, and they may also flood. Such spaces are referred to
as confined spaces. You should avoid working in them if possible.
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p Figure 6.11 Construction plant clearing a site p Figure 6.12 Pedestrian walkways on
a construction site
ACTIVITY
Draw three columns with the following headings: ‘injury’, ‘disease or ill health’ and ‘dangerous occurrence’. Place
the following examples of emergencies and illnesses in the correct columns. If you are unfamiliar with some of the
terms below, research them on the internet.
● The sides of a trench collapsing ● Occupational asthma (lung condition)
● A fall from a ladder that resulted in a bruised elbow ● Stress tendonitis
● A cut arm ● A twisted ankle
● Sawdust in an eye ● Vibration white finger
● A wall collapsing ● Cancer
● Electrocution ● Hearing loss
● A burnt leg ● Gas leak
● A broken finger ● Fire
● A pulled muscle ● Discovery of an unexploded bomb
● Dermatitis (skin inflammation) ● Fuel leaking from a site vehicle
Actions to take when discovering an accident

At work, there will be trained first aiders who can treat a casualty when called for
in an emergency. It is unlikely that a first aider will be the first person to discover
an accident, so everybody in the workplace needs to know how to react in this
situation. Employees have a legal duty to report unsafe conditions and accidents to
their employer whenever they witness or experience them.
If you discover an accident in the workplace, it is important to stay calm and make
a quick assessment of the situation. Things you may consider include the following.
● How serious is the accident?
● Are there any other witnesses who could help?
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● How did the accident happen? It may be obvious at this stage.

● Are you and others safe from danger? For example, if a person was electrocuted,
you may be able to isolate the power supply to avoid further injuries?
● Are you likely to get injured by helping the casualty?
● If something has fallen from height, are further materials likely to fall?
You should always act quickly, calling for help and first aiders as soon as possible
after witnessing an accident. You should never attempt first aid on a casualty
unless you are a trained first aider or the emergency services direct you to do so.
Your employer will appoint a person to be responsible for notifying the emergency
services as quickly as possible, with details of the accident and the location of the
workplace, among other details.
Employers should be well-prepared for an emergency and will have company
procedures that everyone should follow when necessary. It is important that you
understand the role that you will play in an emergency; if you do not know what
you would do then you should talk to your supervisor as soon as possible.
First aid and first aid kits

The role of a first aider is to preserve life, prevent the casualty’s condition from
worsening and promote recovery until the emergency services arrive. First aiders
are not doctors and cannot issue medicines from the first aid box.
Employers should assess their first aid needs to reflect the hazards and risks of
their workplace. The nature of the work being carried out, the number of workers
and the spread of the workforce will indicate what provision is needed. If people
are mobile or work in remote locations, then more first aid kits and first aiders
may be needed. Employers should also ensure that there is adequate cover if first
aiders are absent from work due to holidays or sickness. Your site induction should
tell you who the first aiders are in your workplace and how to contact them in an
emergency. You should also be told where the first aid kits are located.
Your employer will nominate a worker to be responsible for taking care of the
first aid kits by making sure that they are fully stocked and remain in their
designated position.
Eye wash
Burn dressing
Foil blanket Bandages
Sling Resuscitation
Microporous face shield
tape Nitrile gloves
Safety pins
Cleaning wipes
Plasters Scissors
p Figure 6.13 Contents of a basic first aid kit
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Reporting and recording accidents (the accident book)

ACTIVITY
Make a list of all the
The accident book (BI 510) is an essential document for employers and employees;
details you think will be it is used to report and record all accidents that cause injury in the workplace. It
needed to complete an is normally kept with the first aid kit so that it can easily be found and completed
accident report. Once by the first aider, the injured person or a witness as soon as possible after an
you have finished, ask accident. Once a report has been completed in the accident book, there is a legal
your employer or tutor requirement that it should be removed and stored safely for a minimum of three
if you can compare
your suggestions with
years.
the details given in the Over a period of time, a picture can emerge of the types of accidents that recur.
accident book at your Your employer will address this issue and rectify the problem with further training,
place of work or training
if needed, for those workers likely to be affected.
centre.
Authorised personnel involved in dealing with accident and
emergency situations
When an accident first occurs, several people may be involved in dealing with the
injured person as a priority; these could include:
● first aiders
● emergency responders (ambulance, fire brigade and police)
● managers and supervisors.
Many serious accidents and dangerous occurrences must be reported under
RIDDOR. It is likely that once the report has been completed, either online or
over the phone, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) will visit the scene of
the accident to investigate the cause. If a major accident has occurred in the
workplace, it will inevitably have an impact on production and work may be
stopped. During an investigation, the HSE will talk to the employer and their
health and safety officer, managers and employees/witnesses. If necessary,
the HSE could isolate an area of the site or workshop; in extreme cases, they
could close the entire site.
An employer may also want to conduct their own investigation into the cause
of an accident. The investigatory process described above may have a negative
impact on production time and could result in missed deadlines and possibly
financial penalties. These cases could be reported in the news and on the HSE’s
website. An employer with a reputation for having poor health and safety
standards could have a poor company image, lose future contracts and have
difficulties recruiting and retaining staff.
3 HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE

Risk assessments and method statements
Risk assessing is something that you do every day in normal life. Before crossing a
road, you assess whether it is safe to do so by looking and listening for any signs of
traffic before stepping out. There are lots of hazards present on construction sites,
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such as plant and equipment and working at height. As building work progresses,
these risks will evolve. Other changing circumstances that should be considered
ACTIVITY
are periods of extreme weather, such as flooding, intense heat, wind and snow. Consider some of the
hazards at your place of
These can seriously affect the ground conditions, workers’ wellbeing, the stability work or training centre.
of scaffolding and so on. It is a legal requirement for employees not to be made to These could be a piece of
work in extremely hot or cold conditions. The current HSE recommendations are woodworking machinery,
that indoor temperatures should be ‘reasonable’: at least 16°C for workrooms and a process or a substance
13°C if much of the work involves rigorous effort. Further guidance can be found that is used. Choose one
on the HSE’s website: www.hse.gov.uk/temperature of these hazards and
try to complete a risk
Your employer has a duty to assess and record all significant hazards in the assessment using the
workplace on a document known as a risk assessment. There are five key steps to template provided on
completing a risk assessment, which are to: the HSE’s website: www.
hse.gov.uk/simple-health-
1 identify the potential hazards in the workplace safety/risk/risk-assessment-
2 identify who could be harmed and how template-and-examples.
3 evaluate the risks and decide how likely it is that harm will occur htm
4 make a record of all the significant hazards, how people might be harmed and Talk to your employer or
tutor if you feel that more
what measures are already in place to control the risk
could be done to protect
5 regularly review the risk assessments and decide if improvements can be made, you from the hazard you
such as new equipment to reduce the risk. have identified.
It is important to remember that even though your employer may already be doing
everything practically possible to protect people at work from any hazards, they
still legally must complete risk assessments. KEY TERMS
Method statement: a
Although not a legal requirement, many employers produce written documents
document used to detail
referred to as method statements. These documents outline the process of how to carry out a job
completing a practical task, while addressing the hazards identified in the risk safely to control the
assessments. Many of the larger construction sites in the UK insist on contractors hazards identified in the
having both risk assessments and method statements for the work they are risk assessment.
completing. The term used for both documents together is RAMS. RAMS: an abbreviation
often used in the
construction industry for
Types of hazards in the workplace ‘risk assessments and
To complete a risk assessment, you must first identify the things that could cause method statements’.
harm (the hazards). If you look at a table saw in a joiner’s workshop as an example,
you may say straight away that the saw blade is the hazard, because it could cut
you. However, there are other risks that you may not have thought of immediately,
such as the hazardous dust created when you are sawing that can cause lung
damage or the risk of dermatitis from handling hazardous substances. If you can
recognise the potential to cause harm, you can usually do something to prevent
it from happening in the first place. This chapter looks at the following workplace
hazards in more detail:
● fire hazards
● electrical hazards
● manual handling hazards.
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p Figure 6.14 A worker manual handling
Slips, trips and falls from height are some of the main causes of accidents on site,
but some health hazards may cause ill health progressively over a long duration
and can often go undetected until they have caused damage that cannot be
undone. Have you ever heard somebody say that they will do a task quickly
without taking the correct precautions, such as wearing PPE? It does not matter
how long each task takes or whether anyone notices: hazards may still cause harm
to your health.
Dust that is created from concrete, stone, rock and some timbers while they are
being cut or worked with can cause lung damage and diseases. There are several
ways to reduce the risk of harm from dust. The safest method is to avoid creating
dust altogether by using a different process to complete the task that is less
dangerous or that does not create any dust. Alternatively, you could use a dust
extraction system, known as a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system, or an
extraction plant for fixed wood machines. This collects the dust at its source and
protects everyone from the hazard. PPE should only be used when all the other
methods have been considered first, because PPE only protects the user, not
anyone else nearby.
Hearing loss can affect young people just as much as older adults. Damage is often
caused over a prolonged period and can often go undetected until it is too late.
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Primary school
classroom Arc
Tractor welding
cab
Quiet Road drill
Loud
office
Conversation radio Power
Bar or Chainsaw
drill
nightclub
60 80 Punch press
Quiet
TV and 40 100
library Riveting
sound studio boiler shop
20 120
Faintest Jet aircraft taking

audible sounds 0 140 off 25 m away
p Figure 6.15 A chart illustrating a range of sounds
Asbestos is a naturally occurring mineral mined from the ground that used
to be mixed with other materials, such as cement, to make building products.
It was used because it was fire-resistant, strong and would not rot. Since the
use of asbestos began many years ago, it has been discovered that breathing
in asbestos fibres can lead to lung diseases and types of cancer. Asbestos was
banned from use in the UK in 2000; however, it can still be found in many
buildings constructed before this date. The Control of Asbestos Regulations
places duties on your employer and people in control of premises to protect
people who work with asbestos. If you suspect that you have found asbestos in
ACTIVITY
a building, you should stop work and report it to your supervisor immediately.
Use the HSE website to
Asbestos should only be removed by trained and competent workers under discover the materials and
special conditions. If you are likely to be working with it, your employer must areas of a building that
provide you with the proper training on how to identify asbestos and what to could contain asbestos:
do if you discover it. www.hse.gov.uk/
asbestos/building.htm
Lead is a construction material that has been used for hundreds of years in roofing,
plumbing and paint. However, it can cause serious health risks such as kidney
damage, nerve damage and brain damage if the correct safety precautions are
not taken. The Control of Lead at Work (CLAW) Regulations places a duty on
employers to prevent or control employees’ exposure to lead. Though the use of
lead is not banned in the UK, its high cost and the development of alternative
materials mean that it is no longer used as much as it once was in the construction
industry.
Although you may not be working directly with some of the hazardous materials
mentioned, carpenters and joiners could still work in an environment where they p Figure 6.16 Lead flashing joining
are exposed to the same risks. a roof to an adjacent wall
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Some materials and substances can contaminate people’s bodies to cause harm to
their health in the following ways:
● inhalation (breathing in a substance)
● absorption (a substance passing through the skin)
● exposure to the hazard (for example a loud noise or the Sun’s harmful rays)
● ingestion (swallowing a substance)
● cross-contamination (a substance unintentionally transferring from one object
or substance to another)
● injection (a substance entering through broken skin, such as cuts and grazes).
If you understand the way that materials and substances may cause harm, you can
then take precautions to prevent it from happening. Once you have identified the
hazards in the workplace, you must understand how they cause harm to people so
that you can put precautions in place to avoid or minimise the risk to health and
safety.
Precautions required
Your employer should inform you of the precautions that must be taken at your
KEY TERMS
place of work to reduce the likelihood of an accident or illness. Simple precautions
Housekeeping: keeping can be taken, such as housekeeping, to prevent trip hazards and avoid blocking
a space clean, tidy and
emergency escape routes. Waste materials should not be allowed to build up in the
organised.
workplace and must be disposed of responsibly.
Leptospirosis or Weil’s
disease: a rare infection
that can be passed from
infected animals, such as
rats, to humans through
contaminated water or
urine.
p Figure 6.17 An example of good housekeeping on a

construction site
Washing your hands regularly before you eat, drink or smoke and after using the
toilet will prevent the spread of germs and harmful bacteria. This is particularly
important if you are working near animals or water (streams and rivers) or on
waterlogged sites. In these areas, there is potential for the spread of a disease
known as leptospirosis (Weil’s disease). You can catch the disease if you come
into contact with soil or water containing the urine of infected mice, rats, cows,
pigs and dogs. Although the chances of infection are low in the UK, you should still
take the necessary precautions, such as wearing gloves and washing your hands
before eating, drinking or smoking.
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p Figure 6.18 A construction worker washing their hands
When working outdoors in the warm weather, you may feel tempted to wear
KEY TERMS
shorts and a tee shirt; however, the harmful UV rays from sunlight can cause
sunburn and potentially skin cancer if you do not protect yourself properly. Some SPF: an abbreviation of
‘sun protection factor’.
construction sites may have a policy that prevents you from wearing shorts or
exposing too much skin. If you work outdoors in the heat, your employer should UVA: an abbreviation of
‘ultraviolet A’, the harmful
provide you with a high-factor sun cream (SPF 30 or above with a UVA protection long-wave rays from
rating of 4 or 5, as recommended by the British Association of Dermatologists) sunlight that can cause
and keep you hydrated with a supply of fresh drinking water. skin damage.
Some of the materials that you work with, such as wood dust and resins, can
remove the natural oils from the skin in your hands. If your skin loses its natural
oils it can dry out and become cracked and sore: it could also lead to conditions
such as dermatitis. You should wear barrier cream to protect your hands during
work when you are unable to wear gloves.
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations require
manufacturers of materials containing hazardous chemicals to provide health and
safety information about their products on a document known as a safety data
sheet. This is a source of information that employers refer to when completing risk
assessments; safety data sheets are sometimes referred to as COSHH assessments.
If there is a chemical spill in transit or the workplace, it is important to understand
how to deal with it without causing further hazards. A COSHH assessment explains
what the risks are and how you should avoid them. Some products that could be
used to clean up a spill can react badly with hazardous chemicals, so employers
should provide spill kits designed for use with a specific chemical in an emergency.
COSHH Regulations control the use, transportation, handling, storage and disposal p Figure 6.19 Nail gun gas
of substances that are hazardous to health by preventing or reducing workers’ canisters are a hazardous
exposure to them. Asbestos is not covered by these regulations as it has its own substance covered by COSHH
regulations, the Control of Asbestos Regulations. Regulations
ACTIVITY
Research hazardous solvents that are used in your trade. Find the safety
data sheet for one of those products from an online retailer. You will find lots of KEY TERM
technical information about the product, but most importantly you need to find
Solvent: a substance
out how you should use the product safely.
that can dissolve other
Are there any precautions that you should take that you are not taking currently? substances.
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Many different activities are undertaken by construction workers, besides building

new housing developments. The demolition of old buildings and existing homes
to make way for new developments is also technically construction. If it is safe
KEY TERM to do so, explosives are sometimes used by demolition companies as a quick way
Raze: to destroy or to raze a building or structure. Only suitably trained and qualified workers are
demolish to the ground. permitted to use explosives, following the strict guidelines set out in the Explosives
Regulations 2014.
As part of your initial training as a carpenter and joiner, you will be taught
how to use portable power tools (see Chapter 3). You may already be aware of
some of the hazards associated with using these tools, such as sharp blades and
cutters. Some tools may have other risks. Tools that are connected to a mains
power supply can cause electrocution and serious burns if they are not properly
maintained and used as instructed. Sanders, jigsaws and multi-tools are examples
of power tools that produce vibration as they operate, which can cause muscular,
ligament and nerve damage to your hands, your arms and even your whole body
in extreme cases. It can also a lead to a condition known as hand/arm vibration
syndrome (HAVS) or vibration white finger. Early signs of the damage caused
by vibration are tingling, numbness and a loss of sensitivity in your fingers and
a loss of strength in your hands. Poor blood circulation caused by the vibration
can also result in a loss of colour in your fingers. Taking regular breaks from
using these tools and wearing anti-vibration gloves will help to reduce the risk of
injuries. You should also try to avoid using the tools in cold and damp conditions,
because these conditions can worsen the effects. The Control of Vibration at
Work Regulations set clear guidelines that employers must follow to protect their
workers from the risks of vibration. These include calculating the level of vibration
produced by tools and restricting the duration of time for which they are used.
New tools and equipment are designed to minimise the amount of vibration
they produce. Failure to regularly service tools can cause an increased amount of
vibration to be produced.
p Figure 6.20 A random orbit sander is a power tool that produces p Figure 6.21 Ground workers using concrete breakers (power tools)
vibration
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Later in this chapter, different types of PPE are discussed, along with how to wear
it correctly and why it is important. Most construction sites have rules stating that INDUSTRY TIP
a minimum amount of PPE must be worn by everyone. This usually includes the
It is unlikely that your
following five points of PPE:
employer will have a minimum
● a hard hat to protect against head injuries, such as cuts, bumps and falling PPE policy while working in
objects a joiner’s workshop, because
● a high-visibility vest so that you can be seen by moving vehicles on site or on the hazards are different from
public roads those on a construction site.
● steel toe-capped footwear to protect your toes and feet from crushing and If you work with woodworking
machinery, there may be
sharp objects
items that are mandatory
● safety glasses or goggles to protect your eyes from flying objects, dust and
for you to wear, such as ear
chemicals defenders and eye protection.
● gloves to protect your hands and skin from hazardous materials and infections.
Storage of materials including KEY TERMS

combustibles and chemicals on site Segregate: to divide,
isolate or keep apart.
Employers normally have a system of ordering materials for jobs ‘just in time’. This
Shelf life: the expiry date
means that the materials are purchased and delivered by the suppliers just before of a material.
they are needed. If materials are ordered too early, there may not be anywhere to Stock rotation: using the
store them and they may get in the way. They could get damaged by moving plant oldest products first to
and equipment on site and by the weather. It is also not uncommon for materials maximise shelf life and
to be stolen from construction sites, because these sites are difficult to secure. avoid wasting materials.
Building materials such as timber, bricks and sand are usually stored in a designated
compound with easy access for vehicles and segregated walkways for pedestrians.
To prevent construction plant coming into contact with people in this compound, the
walkways will have physical barriers and clear safety signs to control the movement
of traffic and reduce the risk of accidents. Valuable items such as windows, doors and
ironmongery are secured in lockable containers with racks and shelving. Materials
such as adhesives and fillers have an expiry date, referred to as a shelf life, after
which they start to dry up and may not work as well as they were intended to. It is
important that any materials with a shelf life are rotated, so that the oldest materials
are the first to be used; this system is referred to as stock rotation.
Materials such as timber that are not stored in the correct environment may be
p Figure 6.22 Timber sheets
damaged by rain, wind and sunlight, for example, while other materials may cause
stored off the ground on
a fire risk or explosion. Employers have a duty to ensure that combustibles and bearers to prevent damage
chemicals are stored safely and securely in a well-ventilated designated space
to minimise the risk to others. Hazardous substances should always be stored in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and kept to a minimum. Further
guidance is available from the HSE. Small quantities of hazardous substances can
be stored in a robust storage cabinet with a removable tray to contain any leaks
and spillages that occur. This is sometimes referred to as the COSHH cupboard (see
Figure 6.23). Any spillages from the cupboard should be cleaned up immediately
with a spill kit. Substances that could react with one another must be kept in
separate storage containers. p Figure 6.23 COSHH cupboard
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Waste control procedures

Manufacturing industries are responsible for producing excessive levels of carbon
emissions during the production of building materials, which are harmful to
the environment. Careful consideration should therefore be given to the use of
alternative materials, such as sustainably sourced timber, that have less of an
impact on the environment.
Some of the issues surrounding waste control and their solutions are outlined in
Table 6.3.
q Table 6.3 Waste control issues and solutions
Waste disposal Issue Solution

Burning materials on open fires Can be extremely dangerous if not properly controlled Avoid if possible
on construction sites Can cause air pollution and a nuisance to neighbours If not possible to avoid, seek
permission from the local authority
Materials sent to landfill sites Can take hundreds of years to break down and can Avoid sending waste to landfill
produce dangerous gases, such as methane and Reduce waste materials
carbon dioxide, as this process takes place
Reuse and recycle materials
Careless disposal of waste on site Can cause ground and water pollution Dispose of waste responsibly and in
Harmful to wildlife and their natural habitat designated bins or skips
Sawdust and shavings from Transporting waste away from the site creates carbon Reuse or recycle the waste materials
joinery manufacturing emissions, which is dangerous to the atmosphere on site
General waste skips may be used on small construction projects, but they can
be expensive. The most cost-effective and considerate way to dispose of waste
materials is to segregate them into different bins or skips; the materials can then
be either reused or recycled. You should never allow large quantities of waste to
build up, as this may cause a fire risk and invalidate any insurance.
Signs and safety notices used in the

workplace
In the workplace, you will notice many different signs, notices and posters displayed
in various locations. Many of these sources of information relate to the health, safety
and welfare of people or to warn others of work activities. Employers must display
safety signs when all other relevant measures have been taken but a significant risk
remains. The purpose of the signs is to communicate health and safety information
quickly and clearly so that everyone understands what actions need to be taken.
p Figure 6.24 A safety sign showing the minimum PPE requirement for entering the workplace
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The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 set out
standardised categories of safety signs that must be used under UK law. These are
illustrated in Table 6.4.
q Table 6.4 Categories of safety signs that must be used in the UK
Category of sign Meaning Action to take

Prohibition signs You must not do … Stop what you are doing as a
(For example, no smoking) matter of emergency
Mandatory signs You must do ... Follow the actions or

(For example, ear protection behaviour shown on the sign
must be worn)
Warning signs A warning of a hazardous Take precautions and be

material, object or careful
environment
(For example, beware of the
laser beam)
Safe conditions signs Emergency escape or first-aid Locate/take note of the fire
signs doors, escape routes, safety
(For example, a fire assembly equipment and facilities that
point) are signed
Firefighting signs Location of firefighting Identify the fire hose, fire

equipment and facilities extinguishers and fire alarms
that are signed
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Each safety sign is identified by its shape, its colour and the symbol or pictogram
(picture) contained on it. Employers should avoid displaying too many safety signs
in the workplace, because they may become confusing and be ignored. The safety
signs listed above may also be supported with ‘supplementary’ signs, such as a
directional arrow along an emergency escape route to exit a building.
p Figure 6.25 Supplementary sign

The safety signs illustrated in Figure 6.26 are not covered by the regulations already
INDUSTRY TIP mentioned, but they do form part of the COSHH Regulations. You will probably
recognise many of these signs from the packaging of some of the hazardous
Since the last revision
cleaning products that you have at home.
of the Health and Safety
Toxic Gas under pressure Caution
(Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations, the warning
sign for harmful or irritant
material (a black cross on
a yellow triangle) has been
removed and should not be
used anymore. The law says Flammable Explosive Dangerous to the environment
that where this sign would

have been used, employers
should now use one of the
most relevant remaining
safety signs.
Oxidising Longer term health hazards Corrosive
p Figure 6.26 COSHH warning signs used in chemical labelling and packaging
ACTIVITY
Create a list of the products you have at home that display one or more of the COSHH safety signs. Now reflect
on the use of these products by asking yourself the following questions.
● Are they stored correctly (for example, away from heat sources and young children)?
● Are they always used safely?
● Are they disposed of responsibly (as some can be hazardous to the environment)?
● How are spillages dealt with?
● Is there anything more you could do to protect the people at home from harm?
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4 HEALTH AND WELFARE IN THE

WORKPLACE
Welfare facilities in the workplace
At work, your employer will provide you with basic facilities for your welfare.
Facilities provided for joiners are usually located at the company premises and
are easier to control and maintain than those provided for carpenters and other
workers on construction sites. Joinery workshops are usually equipped with toilets,
washing facilities and an area to have your break; they are also dry and relatively
warm. The workforce on a construction site can be spread over a large area and
can frequently change as different tradespeople come and go at different stages of
a project. The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations (CDM) place a
duty on employers to provide the welfare facilities given in Table 6.5 as a minimum
for construction sites under their control.
q Table 6.5 Minimum welfare facilities to be provided by employers on construction sites under
their control
Facility Requirements
Toilets These should be well-lit, ventilated, clean and well-maintained. A ratio of 1 toilet for every 7 people is recommended.
There should be a good supply of toilet paper, and for women’s toilets, a method of disposing of sanitary waste.
Separate lockable rooms should be provided for men and women who share facilities.
Drinking A fresh supply of drinking water must be made available in suitable locations on the construction site.
water The water must be clearly labelled as ‘drinking water’ with an appropriate sign and positioned so that it cannot
become contaminated with other substances.
Adequate cups should be provided for use unless the water comes from a fountain that enables a person to drink
from it comfortably.
Washing Basins for washing hands, forearms and face must be supplied.
facilities The facilities should include clean hot and cold running water (if possible) and soap with towels or another suitable
method of washing and drying.
These should be in the vicinity of the toilets (and changing rooms if these are required).
Showers must also be provided, with separate rooms for men and women, if the nature of the building work is
particularly dirty.
Changing These must be made available for workers who have to wear specialist clothing for their construction work or are
rooms unable to change elsewhere.
with Separate changing rooms must be provided for men and women, with seating and a method of drying their clothing.
lockers
Lockers must be provided for specialist clothing that has to be stored on site, for personal clothing that is not worn
during working hours and for personal items.
Facilities These must include an adequate number of seats with backs and tables for the number of workers likely to use them
to rest at one time.
Workers should also have access to facilities to boil water and prepare and eat meals.
The rest rooms or rest areas should have a method of maintaining a comfortable temperature at different times of the
year.
Employers must provide facilities for any women at work who are pregnant or for a nursing mother to rest lying down.
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p Figure 6.27 Rest facilities p Figure 6.28 Changing room with lockers p Figure 6.29 Clean drinking water
The number of welfare facilities needed at work will depend on several factors
and must be calculated by your employer. It is recommended that 1 toilet and
basin is provided for every 1–15 men only, and 1 to 5 for women only or for
mixed use.
Health effects of noise

Noise at work is a hazard that can cause harm to your health. An employer’s
responsibilities under the Control of Noise at Work Regulations are outlined on
page 272. It is important to understand what health effects can be caused by noise
and the reasonable precautions that can be taken to reduce or control the risks. In
the workplace, it is unrealistic to expect to remove the sources of all sounds, but
‘noise’ is an unwanted or nuisance sound.
Tradespeople are regularly exposed to the noise caused by machinery and
p Figure 6.30 Ear defenders
powered tools. Explosive noises from cartridge-operated nail guns and impact
noises from hammering, for example, can also cause damage to the inner parts
of your ears. Hearing loss can be either temporary, from working in a noisy
environment, or permanent, from extremely loud or sudden explosive sounds.
Regularly suffering with temporary hearing loss can lead to more serious
conditions and should never be ignored. Working in a noisy environment may
cause a distraction or loss of concentration and even balance problems, which
are equally as dangerous, especially when working at height or with tools and
equipment.
Legislation requires that, where possible, employers should eliminate or reduce
people’s exposure to noise by:
p Figure 6.31 Ear plugs
1 removing the source of the noise
2 replacing the tool or equipment with something less noisy to reduce the sound
to an acceptable safe level
3 isolating the noise with physical barriers, preventing unauthorised access with
warning signs and limiting the amount of time that people are exposed to the
noise
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4 providing information and training to employees on the dangers of working in a

noisy environment and the control measures to be used
5 providing PPE, such as ear defenders or ear plugs.
PPE is the least effective way of preventing harm to your hearing and should only
be used when all the other measures have been considered first.
Risks associated with drugs, alcohol and

medication in the workplace
The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 Section 7 states that every employee
must take reasonable care for the health and safety of themself and of other
persons who may be affected by their acts or omissions.
The use of recreational drugs and alcohol in society is a health and safety
concern for employers at work. Drugs and alcohol in a person’s system can
affect the way that they perform, which can be extremely dangerous, especially
when they are working with machinery and equipment. The effects of drugs
and alcohol can last anywhere between 15 and 30 minutes to 12 hours and
these substances can remain in your system for several days after they have
been taken.
They are less

productive (get less
work done) They have slow
reaction times
They appear
lethargic
They are absent more
often and/or have poor
punctuality
They seem anxious
and paranoid Key indicators that a
worker may have
taken drugs or alcohol
They become worse at
spotting risks
They develop low
self-esteem
They have short highs They become withdrawn

of overconfidence (quieter and interact
and happiness less with others)
p Figure 6.32 Key indicators that a worker may have taken drugs or alcohol
Most employers will have a written health and safety policy that prevents the use
of recreational drugs and alcohol or excludes people under the influence of them
from the workplace. Employers may also have a policy to allow random drug and
alcohol tests at work. This is particularly important for employees who are in
control of high-risk plant and lifting equipment, where the consequence of losing
control is more dangerous.
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The production, supply and possession of illegal drugs are criminal offences,
regardless of whether you are at home or work. Therefore, if you are caught
breaking your employer’s rules, you could not only be removed from site and
potentially lose your job but you could also be arrested.
If you were under the influence of drugs or alcohol at work and responsible for an
accident involving others, you could also be prosecuted (taken to court). While
it is not illegal to use drugs at work if they are prescribed by a doctor, you must
still inform your employer in case of an emergency and so that they can consider
the effect that the medication may have on your ability to drive or operate
machinery safely.
5 HANDLING MATERIALS AND

EQUIPMENT SAFELY
Legislation for safe handling of materials
and equipment
Manual handling is a term used to describe the physical act of pushing, pulling,
KEY TERMS
lifting, carrying or lowering objects. These actions have resulted in a lot of workplace
Musculoskeletal system: injuries. Repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) and injuries that occur to the arms, legs and
the parts of the human
joints, for example, are referred to as musculoskeletal disorders or MSDs for short.
body that provide its
shape, movement and Whenever manual handling is required, there is always an element of risk, although
stability. This includes there are lots of things that you can do to reduce this risk to an acceptable level.
the skeleton (bones), The Manual Handling at Work Regulations provides the legislation that employers
muscles and joints.
must follow to protect their workers from harm. The regulations state that if the
Lifting aid: an item or
manual handling task cannot be avoided, then a suitable risk assessment must
piece of equipment
used to reduce the be carried out to reduce the risk of injury. A manual handling assessment should
risks involved in manual consider the following points.
handling, such as a
● Task: Can the task be avoided by using mechanical lifting equipment or
wheelbarrow or a sack
truck. machinery, such as a forklift? What needs to be done? How long will the
Centre of gravity: the task take? Will it have to be repeated? Can a lifting aid be used? (These are
point of an object where discussed on pages 300–301.)
the weight is evenly ● Individual: Is the task within the person’s capacity (are they able to do it)?
distributed. Have they received the necessary training, instructions and information? Can
the item(s) be lifted by a team rather than an individual?
● Load: Consider the weight, shape and size of the object. Is it hot or cold?
Does it have sharp edges? Is it stable? Where is its centre of gravity?
Will PPE be needed? Can the load be broken up into smaller and more
manageable loads?
● Environment: Are the ground conditions suitable? What are the weather
conditions (is it windy, raining or icy)? How far will the load need to be carried?
Is the route clear?
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Lifting equipment such as forklifts and loader cranes (a type of crane, often
mounted on a delivery lorry, sometimes referred to as HIABs) are controlled by the
Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER). People in control
of lifting equipment must make sure that it is fit for its intended purpose and
appropriate for the task. All equipment used for lifting must be regularly examined
by a competent person. Any defects found must be recorded and reported to the
person responsible for the equipment. Operations involving lifting equipment must
be carefully planned and supervised and should only be carried out by competent
people to ensure that they are completed in a safe way.
Lifting aids and machinery are work equipment so their use is also covered by the
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER).
Safe lifting and manual handling procedures

Using your body to complete a manual handling task is referred to as kinetic
lifting. Unfortunately, this is the cause of most musculoskeletal disorders,
p Figure 6.33 A cherry picker
particularly back pain, in the construction industry. It is a common mistake to only
consider using a lifting aid when something cannot physically be moved manually:
we should consider using a lifting aid whenever possible. Before lifting a load by
yourself, take the following steps.
ACTIVITY
1 Plan your route: Make sure there are no obstacles on the floor. Consider a rest
Watch this HSE
point midway for long lifts.
presentation about work-
2 Prepare before you lift: Assess the load and think before lifting. Is it safe? related musculoskeletal
Could it move? Is the weight evenly distributed? Is the weight of the load disorders and safe
indicated on the box? lifting techniques:
3 Position yourself: Crouch down with your knees bent. Lift one corner of the www.youtube.com/
load to put your hands underneath it, making sure that you have a good grip. watch?v=KIMSsJunXB4
Face the direction in which you intend to carry the load with your head up.
Stand close to the load, with your feet shoulder-width apart and only slightly in
front to maintain your balance.
4 Perform the lift: Stand up slowly in a smooth motion, while keeping your back KEY TERM
straight, as shown in Figure 6.34. Keep the load as close to your chest as possible
Kinetic lifting: the action
and try not to lean forwards. Never lift more than you can easily manage. of using the human body
5 Complete the lift: Place the load down and then adjust its position. Try to to move, lift, lower, pull
avoid any sudden movements or twisting. and carry objects.
p Figure 6.34 The sequence of safe kinetic lifting
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ACTIVITY
Now that you are aware of how to lift safely, you should assess the tools and equipment that you lift regularly
at work. Design a chart listing ten different types of tools and equipment like the template given below and add
your findings.
Frequency of lifting Duration Safe practice?

Tool or equipment type Weight Shape Size (number of times a day) (mins) (Y/N)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Reflection
What do I do well?
What could I do better and
how can I achieve this?
Analyse the information you have gathered. Are there any tools and equipment that you manually handle that
you could avoid lifting or possibly lift using an aid?
Lifting aids used for handling materials

and equipment
The Health and Safety at Work Act says that employers have a duty to protect
the health, safety and welfare at work of their employees. Providing lifting
aids is one way to achieve this because it reduces the risk of manual handling
injuries. There are lots of different types of lifting aids available for use, but you
must receive training and be considered competent before being allowed to use
them safely.
Examples of lifting aids

Large heavy loads can be moved and handled with the use of mechanical lifting
equipment, such as a telescopic handler, a fork lift, a loader crane or a scissor
lift. This type of machinery is used on construction sites and for the delivery of
materials from suppliers. You will not be expected to use these mechanical lifting
aids, but you will certainly be working with them and must have some awareness
about their safe use.
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p Figure 6.35 Wheelbarrow p Figure 6.36 Gin wheel p Figure 6.37 Pallet truck
6 ACCESS EQUIPMENT AND

WORKING AT HEIGHT
A person is working at height when they may possibly fall any distance that could
cause personal injury. This includes falling above or below the ground. For example,
a delivery driver lifting timber from the back of his lorry is working at height; so
too is someone working next to a hole in the ground. Working at height is still
one of the main causes of fatalities and injuries in the construction industry. Many
reported accidents are the result of falling from ladders, but also falling through
fragile surfaces such as an old roof. This section looks at some simple practical
measures that can be taken to reduce the chances of falling from height. p Figure 6.38 Scissor lift
p Figure 6.39 Working at height on a ‘boom’
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Legislation for working at heights

Employers and other people in control of work at height have duties under the
Working at Height Regulations (WAHR) to prevent death and injuries caused from
a fall. They must ensure that all work at height is planned and supervised and is
INDUSTRY TIP only carried out by competent people. Before undertaking any work at height,
consider whether the task could be completed another way that would avoid the
Further guidance on working hazard or reduce the risk. There are many tasks that can now be done at ground
at height can be found on the level with planning and the right equipment. For example, inspecting a roof can
Health and Safety Executive now be completed with a fixed camera on a drone, as shown in Figure 6.41,
website: www.hse.gov.uk/ rather than by someone balancing on a long extension ladder. Using the drone for
inspection eliminates the hazard.
Employees do not have specific duties under Working at Height Regulations but
they do have general duties to take reasonable care of themselves and others who
may be affected by their actions. They must also co-operate with their employers
to allow them to comply with their duties.
Any equipment used for working at height will be regulated by the Provision
and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, meaning that it must
be suitable for its intended use, safe and maintained. Employers must ensure
p Figure 6.40 Drone fitted with a that equipment is only used by people who have received adequate information,
camera instruction and training.
KEY TERM Types of access equipment

Access equipment: any Your choice of access equipment should be determined by your answers to the
item of equipment used following questions.
by a person to safely gain
height. ● How long will the job take?
● Will the access equipment be expected to support heavy loads?
● What type of work is being undertaken?
INDUSTRY TIP ● How many people will be using the access equipment?
● What are the weather conditions?
Avoid using painted access
● Are the ground conditions suitable to support the access equipment?
equipment because the paint
● Are you trained to use the access equipment?
may be hiding defects that
could weaken it. ● Are there any additional hazards, such as working near water, asbestos or live
power lines?
Ladders
The risk of a fall from a leaning ladder or a step ladder is extremely high. The HSE
recommends that ladders and step ladders are only used when it is not reasonable
to use other forms of equipment to complete the task or when only used for no
more than 30 minutes at a time. Pole ladders made from wood are rarely used today
because they are heavy and easily damaged. Aluminium ladders are much lighter
and stronger than wood, but they can be dangerous when working near overhead
electrical cables. Ladders made with fibreglass stiles (sides) do not conduct electricity
so they are preferred by electricians. Leaning ladders must be positioned at an angle
of 75° or a ratio of 1:4; this means that for every unit (for example, every metre) that
the ladder projects out at the bottom, it must rise by four units in a vertical direction.
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Whenever possible, ladders must be tied at the top (such as to a building or

scaffold) and secured at the bottom to prevent them from slipping. They should
never be rested against fragile surfaces, such as roof guttering, as they can be
unstable and affect the steadiness of the ladder. Never use a ladder that has
damaged or missing parts, such as the non-slip feet at the ends of the stiles. Strong upper
resting point
There is an element of risk when using a simple hop-up, even though the risk of
injury may be less serious than a fall from a ladder. You should always follow the Adequate lap on
extension ladders
manufacturer’s instructions for safe use, inspection and maintenance of access
equipment.
IMPROVE YOUR MATHS

Which one of the following leaning ladders is the correct angle? Use a
protractor to find out.
A B C D
Ground back slope

should not exceed 6°
Ground side slope should not

exceed 16°; ground should be
clean and free of slippery algae
and moss
p Figure 6.41 A leaning ladder

Leaning ladder extending
past the working platform
Leaning ladder secured Leaning ladder by at least 1 metre or 4 rungs,
at the bottom secured at the top with an adequate handhold
Step ladder positioned

directly in front of the
Knees positioned below Not overreaching on work area, to avoid
the top step the ladder working from the side
p Figure 6.42 Safe working practices on leaning ladders and step ladders
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Working from the

side can make
stepladders
unstable, so
do not overreach Do not stand
on the top
three steps
Stepladder
should be
fully open
Lock the
stepladder open
firm and level
on the ground
p Figure 6.43 A roof ladder (the wheels are p Figure 6.44 A wooden pole ladder p Figure 6.45 A stepladder
used to help position it on the roof when being used to access scaffolding
setting up to use)
Other types of ladder

Podiums are a safer alternative to step ladders for access to low heights because
they have a small working platform and a suitable guard rail. They are made of
lightweight aluminium, making them extremely strong and very stable to work
from. The lockable gate on a podium prevents the user from falling, but also allows
them to work freely with both hands.
Work platforms
The risk assessment may identify that a work platform is the safest form of access
equipment to use in order to carry out specific tasks. A platform provides an area
for multiple people to work safely with both hands free; it also provides a place for
some of the materials and tools needed to be stored for a short period of time.
There are several different examples of working platforms, including:
● trestles – for low height work
● mobile tower scaffolds – used for lightweight work for short durations; the
p Figure 6.46 Podium castors at the bottom of the tower allow it to be moved safely without
completely dismantling it
● scaffolding – used for work at various heights.
If there is a significant risk of falling from a work platform, then a suitable handrail
should be used with an intermediate rail and toe board. Toe boards are used to
prevent materials from being accidentally knocked off the work platform. If materials
need to be stacked higher than the toe board, then a brick guard is normally used to
totally enclose the gap between the handrail and the working platform.
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Toe boards and

Intermediate rail
hand rails
Not overloaded
Free from trip hazards

No debris or or gaps through which
trip hazards persons or materials
could fall
Sufficient dimensions to
allow safe passage and
safe use of equipment
and materials
Level and
stable ground
p Figure 6.47 A safely constructed trestle
Mobile tower scaffolding is produced in a kit Two-rung guardrail

form, which can quickly and simply be erected frame
and disassembled by a competent person in

the workplace following the manufacturer’s
instructions. When the tower is positioned ready
for use, all four castors must be in contact with the End toe boards Side toe boards
floor and the brakes applied. The work platform
can then be accessed by ladders in the middle of
the tower rather than ladders resting against the Platform (fixed
outside, as shown in Figure 3.48, because this and trap door
decks)
would alter the centre of gravity and may cause
Horizontal brace
it to become unstable and fall over. As you climb
through the tower, you will have to go through an
access hatch in the work platform. You must close Ladder frame Diagonal brace
this as soon as it is safe to do so. A tower scaffold

should never be moved with people or materials on
the platform.
Span frame
There are two forms of tubular scaffolding:
independent and putlog. Independent scaffolding
is self-supported with pairs of vertical poles known
as ‘standards’ and a series of ledgers, transoms and
braces to tie them together. Within a scaffold, there
may be multiple continuous working platforms
referred to as lifts.
Putlog scaffolds are usually built into the brickwork of p Figure 6.48 Mobile tower scaffold (proprietary scaffold)
a building as it is being constructed; this prevents the
need for additional standards too close to the building.
The putlogs are removed from the brickwork joints
when the scaffolding is taken down and the holes
are filled with mortar.
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Standards
1.07m Working platform
Toe board
Standards
Putlogs
Working platform
Toe board At least
75mm
Ledgers
1.8m Ledgers
Putlogs
1.8m
Transoms
Tube wedged in window Horizontal tie
for tying in
Tube wedged in window
for tying in
Wall
Wall
Sole plate
Sole plate
p Figure 6.49 Independent scaffolding p Figure 6.50 Putlog scaffolding
Brick guard Guardrails Toe board Working platform
150 mm
p Figure 6.51 Guard rails on a scaffold
Tubular scaffolding should only be erected, altered and taken down by trained
and competent scaffolders. Once it has been erected, the scaffolder will inspect
it and issue a handover certificate to the site manager to confirm that it is safe to
use. The scaffolder will return to the site again at regular intervals, often weekly,
to complete routine inspections. If there has been any adverse weather that could
affect the stability of the scaffolding in between planned inspection dates, then
p Figure 6.52 A debris chute further safety inspections may be needed.
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To reduce the risk of falls from height, guardrails are installed 950 mm above
the work platform and toe boards are fitted to prevent materials falling.
Additional intermediate rails are fitted between the toe boards and handrails
to reduce the gap to no more than 470 mm. The risk assessment may require
you to wear a harness and lanyard, which is a form of PPE that will prevent
you from falling from height. Waste materials should never be thrown over the
sides of the scaffold to the ground below, because of the risk to people working
below and to passers-by. It is far safer to use a chute to drop debris into a skip
below, possibly covering the top of the skip with netting to reduce the risk
further. Temporary safety netting and airbags may also be installed in areas
where there are people working at height. These will not prevent workers from
falling (and should never be jumped onto) but they will reduce the severity of
any injuries caused by a fall.
7 WORKING WITH ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT IN THE WORKPLACE
Avoiding risks to yourself and others
Carpenters and joiners are at risk of the dangers of electrical equipment almost
every day in the workplace. For example, many of the tools you use for cutting,
shaping and sanding are powered in some way by electricity. Other hazards that
you may encounter on site include cables buried in walls, floors and ceilings or
overhead power lines when working at height on ladders and scaffolding.
The power supplied to a domestic home in the UK is 230–240 V, which is enough
to kill somebody if they had an electric shock. The power supply recommended
for use on construction sites and joinery workshops is reduced to 110 V, because
this provides enough power to operate the tools and equipment but reduces the
risk of death. It is important to remember that the risk of electrocution from a
240 V supply is the same as 110 V, but the outcome of an accident may be vastly
different. 110 V tools are connected to a 240 V supply through a transformer
unit/box. Transformers have a short lead and plug to keep the unit near to the KEY TERM
240 V supply, reducing the risk of death or serious injury by keeping the length Transformer: an electrical
of the high voltage lead as short as possible. Extension leads and tools are then appliance that is used
plugged into one of several sockets on the transformer and safely routed above to reduce 230–240 V
supply to 110 V.
head height or clear of walkways to where they are needed. 110 V and 230 V
supplies can also be supplied above head height in joinery shops, with ‘power cubes’
suspended from the ceiling, to reduce the risk of harm. The risk of electrocution
can be reduced further if an alternative source of power is used, such as using
compressed air with pneumatic tools.
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Mains-powered electrical tools and equipment used in the construction industry

HEALTH AND SAFETY
usually have different-shaped plugs and sockets to those used at home. These
If you cannot avoid
more robust plugs and sockets are designed to keep moisture and dirt out of the
placing trailing leads
across walkways, they connection and provide a strong joint that cannot be easily pulled apart by mistake.
should be covered up with If it is not possible to use a 110 V supply, you may use a protection device known
a cable cover protector
as a residual current device (RCD) as an alternative. These are trip switches that
(shown in Figure 6.53)
to reduce the risk of a stop the supply of the electricity as soon as a fault is detected in the system. The
tripping. RCDs that you are likely to use at work will be on a plug, on an extension lead or
on a fixed socket in a wall. There are usually two buttons on RCDs, one to test that
it is working and the other to reset it; you should always check them before use.
p Figure 6.53 Cable cover protector

The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 state that any electrical equipment
that has the potential to cause an injury must be maintained in a safe condition.
Power tools often get knocked and damaged because of the environment they
are used in, so they must be examined for any visual signs of wear and tear
before each use.
First, isolate the tool from the power supply. Then complete the following checks.
● Plugs: make sure the casing of the plug is intact and there are no missing or
loose pins.
● Leads: look for signs of cuts or damage to the outer cable (sheath) exposing
any bare wires. Make sure that there is a secure connection between the
p Figure 6.54 A transformer
cable and the tool or plug. Look for any early signs that the inner wires are
twisted or broken because of winding the cable around the tool after use.
● Body of the tool: check for any obvious signs of cracks or missing parts. Make
sure that any guards operate freely.
● Switches: make sure that the on/off switches work freely and that any other
functions operate smoothly without defects.
● Tooling (for example, blades, cutters and discs): check that the tooling is correct
for the task in hand and that it is sharp and free from defects.
Some defects on power tools cannot be found by visual inspections alone,
so further routine tests should be completed by a competent person. Most
employers will have their tools and equipment portable appliance tested (PAT)
to ensure they are safe to use. Items that have passed the test are usually
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labelled with a small sticker, with the name of the person who completed the
test and the date when the test took place. Any tools or equipment that fail the
test are no longer safe to use; they must be put out of service immediately and
either marked for repair or scrapped. It is currently recommended that power
tools used on construction sites are PAT tested every 3 months. Your employer
may suggest a longer period between tests for tools that are used in lower risk
environments. During your visual inspections of power tools, you should always
check for a current PAT certificate or label; if it is not in date, you must stop
work and report the tool to your supervisor.
Dangers of using electrical equipment

p Figure 6.55 PAT testing label
When voltages above 110 V must be used for tools, equipment and machinery,
then a defined set of procedures, known as a safe system of work, needs to be
put in place. This considers the people, equipment and substances involved in a
task. It then identifies all the possible hazards and assesses the risks. A method
statement can then be produced, detailing a process for workers to follow to
minimise the risks involved in the task. Safe systems of work do not have to
be written down; they can be verbal or made up of less formal lists. However,
written systems of work are the preferred method because they are clear and can
be referred to in the future.
Where there is no access to connect to a main source of power on site, you
may have to use a generator. Generators are powered with either petrol or
diesel engines to produce electricity. They produce toxic exhaust fumes, which
can damage your heath, especially when working in confined spaces. Therefore,
they should always be used in well-ventilated areas, ideally outdoors.
p Figure 6.56 Voltages and colour coding
The leads connected to power tools and equipment contain copper wires that
conduct the electricity from the supply. Different wires are encased in different-
coloured plastic. Blue (neutral) and brown (live) wires are used to make the
electrical circuit, and the green and yellow (earth) wire is the safety wire. If the
live wire becomes loose and touches the casing of the tools or equipment, the
earth wire provides a path for the electricity to flow and causes the fuse to
blow, which then switches off the appliance. Figure 6.57 illustrates the wiring of a
240 V plug.
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If the tool has a plastic casing or is designed so that if the live wire becomes
Earth E
wire L loose it cannot touch the casing, it will not conduct electricity and is known
Neutral Fuse as double-insulated. Double-insulated tools and equipment do not need an
wire earth wire and are labelled with the symbol shown in Figure 6.58.
N
Live wire
You should never attempt to repair a tool by wiring a plug or replacing a cable
at work unless you are a qualified electrician.
Cable grip
It is safer to use battery-powered tools than mains-powered tools because
Outer
insulation their voltage is low, typically only 18 V. This means that there is little chance
of suffering a serious accident. Battery-powered tools do not have any trailing
p Figure 6.57 A wired plug
leads, so they can be used safely in remote locations and damp conditions.
However, battery charging units need mains power and they must be used
safely. Your employer may have a designated charging station set up in a safe
location at your place of work to control the risk.
p Figure 6.58 Double-insulated

symbol
p Figure 6.59 A battery-powered jigsaw
Methods of storing electrical equipment

Portable power tools are some of the most expensive items of equipment that
a carpenter and joiner will use or possibly own, so they should be looked after.
During the working day, power tools and their trailing leads should be stored clear
of walkways to prevent trip hazards for the user and other people. While moving
power tools from one location to another or lowering them down from height,
they should never be held by their leads because this will weaken the connections.
Tools that are neglected are a hazard, will become unsafe to use and have the
potential to cause an electric shock, electric burns and fires. Manufacturers have a
duty to reduce this risk by providing specific instructions on the safe use, handling
and maintenance of power tools. In general, tools should be cleaned after use and
inspected for any signs of wear or damage or for missing parts. Early signs of wear
identified at this stage may not be significant enough to stop you from continuing
p Figure 6.60 Power tool in a to use the tool but will give you or your employer enough time to source
moulded storage box replacement parts.
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Many power tools are stolen from construction sites and workshops every day.
When not in use, they must be stored in a dry and secure location and never left INDUSTRY TIP
unattended. Storing power tools in a work vehicle may provide adequate protection
Suppliers do not always
during the day, but it is not recommended for overnight storage.
provide storage boxes
with their power tools,
although they can also
usually be purchased from
the manufacturer. Most
carpenters and joiners prefer
to use square stackable boxes
that can be neatly clipped
together to secure them
while they are in transit or in

a central storage area in a
p Figure 6.61 Stackable power tool storage boxes joinery shop. Some suppliers
also make moulded inserts
to match the power tools
8 USING PERSONAL PROTECTIVE and accessories. These are
a useful addition to help you
EQUIPMENT (PPE) organise your equipment
and prevent it from getting
damaged.
Legislation governing the use of PPE
Personal protective equipment must be provided to employees when a risk has
been identified that cannot be controlled in other ways. In other words, it is a last
resort. This section looks at some of the different types of PPE that are used to
protect people at work from harm and why PPE must be worn.
The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 control the provision,
suitability, maintenance and use of PPE. Both employers and employees have
responsibilities under the law, which they must uphold, as shown in Table 6.6.
q Table 6.6 Employers’ and employee's responsibilities under the Personal Protective Equipment at
Work Regulations 1992
Employers’ duties Assess the PPE before it is used to make sure that it will control the
risk.
Provide PPE free of charge and replace it when necessary.
Provide information, instructions and training for employees to make
sure that they know how to use the PPE correctly.
Make sure that the PPE is properly used.
Make sure that the PPE is cared for by employees.
Employees’ duties Wear the PPE provided by their employer as they have been trained
and instructed to.
Not mistreat the PPE and store it in the facilities provided when not in
use.
Report any damaged or lost items of PPE.
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PPE is considered to be work equipment, so it is also controlled by the Provision

and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998. This legislation requires
that PPE must be safe, well-maintained and inspected before use and should only
be used by workers who have been suitably trained and informed. Although you
may consider it to be common sense to wear certain types of PPE, such as a hard
hat or dust mask, you must also know how to use the PPE correctly, because if
they are not fitted correctly they could compromise your safety.
Types of PPE used in the workplace

Types of PPE used in the workplace are given in Table 6.7, together with hazards
associated with their use.
q Table 6.7 Types of PPE and hazards associated with their use
Body part Hazards that could harm the

protected body part Personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect the body part
Body Extremes of heat and cold, Disposable overalls, aprons, boiler suits and chemical suits, high-visibility
falls from height, the weather, clothing such as high-vis vests, waterproofs, harness and lanyard.
vehicles
Ears Loud noises Earmuffs, ear plugs, semi-insert/canal caps
Eyes Chemicals, dust, flying objects, Safety goggles and glasses, visors, face shields, face screens
sparks, strong sunlight
Feet and legs Uneven and slippery surfaces, Wellington boots with midsole protection, safety boots, safety shoes and
water, chemicals (such as safety trainers, knee pads
cement), discarded timber with
nails sticking out, heavy objects
with the potential to crush
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Body part Hazards that could harm the

protected body part Personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect the body part
Hands and Splinters and sharp edges (such Barrier cream; various types of protective gloves, such as cut-resistant and
arms as glass), vibration, extremes of anti-vibration; gauntlets and protective sleeves that cover the forearm
heat and cold, chemicals
Head Falling materials and objects, Hard hat, bump cap, hair net
risks of bumping your head,
machinery
Lungs Contaminated air (such as wood Dust masks, half-face and full-face respirators, powered respirators and
and silica dust or asbestos), lack breathing apparatus
of oxygen
Skin Sunlight, chemicals Sunscreen, covering bare skin with clothing
There are types of PPE that are designed to protect your lungs from harmful
KEY TERM
substances in the atmosphere or when there is a lack of oxygen. These are referred
to as RPE (respiratory protective equipment). Silica: a mineral found
in common building
RPE supplied by your employer must be fitted to your face and tested before use; materials like concrete,
this process is known as face-fit testing. The assessment is carried out to make rock and sand. Silica
sure that an adequate seal is formed to prevent harmful dust and so on from dust can cause serious
damage to your lungs
entering the mask. Facial hair, prescription glasses or poorly adjusted straps can
if it is breathed in
cause a leak between the mask and your face and increase the amount of dust when cutting or drilling
that can get into your lungs. If an adequate seal cannot be achieved with the RPE materials that contain
provided, your employer must consider an alternative method of protection or it unless the proper
prevent you from undertaking the task. The Health and Safety Executive estimates precautions are taken.
that over 12,000 lung disease deaths are linked to people having been exposed to
workplace hazards in their past.
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At times, you may be required to wear several items of PPE at the same time, so it
is important that they are compatible with each other and still provide the same
level of protection. For example, you may be unable to wear standard earmuffs
correctly with a hard hat. In this case, the safer option would be to use a hard hat
with ear defenders attached or to substitute the earmuffs for ear plugs. If you are
unsure what PPE you should select and use, you must speak to your supervisor.
ACTIVITY
Identify the PPE that you could use to protect yourself from the following injuries,
diseases and ill health.
● Entanglement of long hair in a woodworking machine
● A bump on the head from a piece of scaffolding as you walk underneath it
● Cement burns to your legs
● A nail in your eye from a nail gun
● Abrasions to your knees
● Skin cancer
● Tinnitus
● Dermatitis
The importance of PPE

Each item of PPE has a different purpose and various types are discussed
throughout this chapter.
You will probably wear PPE in the workplace because your employer tells you to
do so and that it is a site or workshop rule; it is also a legal requirement. It makes
sense to wear safety equipment that could potentially save your life or prevent
you from becoming ill or injured. If the equipment you are wearing does not fit
correctly or becomes uncomfortable, report it to your supervisor.
Checking and reporting damaged PPE

PPE that is not in use must be stored in the facilities provided, such as a cupboard
or locker, so that it remains clean, dry and in a good condition for future use.
Equipment that has been left exposed to the elements on scaffolding or work
benches can get lost, damaged or contaminated with dirt and germs. Part of the
training you will receive from your employer involves identifying the most suitable
PPE, how to use it properly and how to detect and report any faults or damage.
The PPE that your employer provides must be in good condition. They are unlikely
to inspect it every day before use; that is your responsibility. If you discover that
any PPE has been lost or damaged or has gone missing, you must report it to your
supervisor immediately so that it can be replaced.
As of 2020, UK law requires that PPE supplied by your employer must be
manufactured to European standards and display the CE mark. PPE that is not
made to these standards or has been neglected in the workplace may not offer the
same level of protection if an accident occurs.
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9 CAUSES OF FIRE AND FIRE ACTIVITY

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES Your employer has asked
you to help complete a fire
risk assessment for your
Essential elements of a fire workshop or construction.
Your task is to identify
The Fire and Rescue Authorities (FRAs) deal with life-threatening fires in the all the possible sources
construction industry every year. Unfortunately, many of these fires could be of ignition and list them,
prevented if some basic precautions were followed. such as faulty electrical
equipment.
So what are the main causes of fire? Arson accounts for more fires than any other
cause. Although it may not be possible to completely prevent this from happening,
measures can be taken to secure the workplace at night when fires are most likely
to start. Of course, fires also start during the day, mostly because of the nature of
the work being carried out. Poorly installed electrical systems and faulty tools and
equipment are sources of ignition that could be avoided with regular maintenance
and the installation of work by competent people.
Employers or a responsible person (somebody in control) are required to plan for
an emergency by completing a fire risk assessment. They will have to identify the
hazard, the people at risk and the measures that can be taken to protect them. The p Figure 6.62 The fire triangle
information from the assessment will then help employers to plan for emergencies,
so that they can inform and train others. KEY TERMS
As shown in Figure 6.63, three elements are needed for a fire to burn: oxygen, fuel Fire action plan: a written
and heat. These are referred to as the fire triangle. If just one of these elements is plan of the actions to
be taken in the event
removed from the triangle, the fire will stop burning and be extinguished.
of an emergency in
If employers are aware of how fires can spread from one place to another, they can the workplace and the
reduce the risk by preparing a fire action plan. control measures to be
used, such as fire doors,
There are four ways that fire can spread. escape routes, fire alarm
and fire extinguishers.
● Direct burning: fire spreads by igniting other combustible materials.
Convection: a process
● Convection: as a fire starts to spread in an enclosed space, such as a room, the
where a liquid or gas
hot smoke rises from the flames and becomes trapped when it reaches the circulates, causing the
ceiling, causing the heat to travel horizontally and spreading the fire. warmer parts to rise and
● Conduction: some solid materials, such as metal, can absorb heat and carry it the colder, heavier parts
to another place away from the original source, where it can set fire to further to sink, which results in
combustible materials heat being transferred.
● Radiation: heat from a fire can be transmitted through the air to other
combustible items, such as wood. As they start to absorb the heat, they begin
to smoulder and eventually burn, causing the material to set alight.
Methods of fire prevention

Now that you know how a fire can start and spread, you should look at what you
can do to reduce the likelihood of a fire happening in the first place. Some benefits
of keeping work areas clean and tidy have already been mentioned, but an untidy
workspace littered with waste materials can also be a fuel source for fires to start.
Your employer will expect you to follow their organisational rules for fire safety,
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including removing all waste materials and disposing of them in the appropriate
areas to prevent it from building up. Your supervisor or other workers will identify
poor standards of cleanliness in the workplace and this could result in disciplinary
action being taken against you if you disregard the rules.
Some of the things that can be done to avoid the risk of fires include:
● avoiding burning waste on site
● providing and using designated smoking areas
● risk assessing and controlling high-risk activities, such as hot works (for example
welding and grinding metal)
● planning escape routes and practising emergency drills
● always keeping escape routes and fire doors clear
● disposing of waste in the designated bins or skips
● storing flammable liquids and chemicals safely
● clearing up chemical spills
● securing the workplace to reduce the likelihood of unauthorised access and arson.
We are all responsible for reducing the likelihood of an accident in the workplace,
so you should be aware of what can cause a fire and report any unsafe conditions
to your supervisor immediately.
Actions to take on discovering a fire

Would you know what to do in the event of a fire in the workplace? Your employer
should explain what actions you will need to take, how to escape the building you are
in and where to assemble. The method for raising the alarm and the systems used
are likely be different in each workplace, so it is important that you are told about
them and that you understand them clearly. Your employer will display ‘fire action
points’ on safety signs/notices with fire extinguishers and in various other locations.
The following steps outline the general procedure to follow upon discovering a fire.
1 Raise the alarm as instructed by your organisation. This could be a wired or
wireless sound system or a manual alarm such as a bell or whistle.
2 Alert others to the danger by raising your voice.
p Figure 6.63 Fire action sign/ 3 Leave the building via the nearest emergency escape route. Do not stop to save
notice your belongings.
4 Assemble at the correct assembly point (sometimes referred to as the ‘muster point’).
5 Do not leave the assembly point until you have been accounted for and instructed.
6 Do not return to the building until you have been authorised to do so by the fire
marshal.
If it is safe to do so, you should close, but not lock, all the doors on your way out of
a building to help slow down the spread of the fire.
When the emergency services arrive at the scene of the fire, their priority will be to
save people’s lives. It is vital that everybody can be accounted for at the assembly
points. If you do not go to the correct assembly point, it could cause a delay
in accounting for you and could potentially put lives at risk. Do not leave or go
straight home. Wait for instructions.
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Types of fire extinguishers and their uses

Fire extinguishers are designed to tackle small fires or to be used if a fire is blocking
your safe exit from a building. They will be positioned at various locations in your
workplace where they are most likely to be needed in the event of a fire. It is
important that they remain in these positions until they are needed, are always ACTIVITY
accessible and are never used for wedging doors open. Watch this video
demonstration of the effect
If you are expected to use a fire extinguisher in an emergency, your employer must of water on a hot oil
train you to use it safely. There are different types of extinguishers and their fire: www.youtube.com/
contents are designed to remove one or more of the three elements of the fire watch?v=dPr-tOZHmOA
triangle. Some extinguishers will put out different types of fires, while others can Using Figure 6.64, can
make them worse if they are used on the wrong type. For example, using water to you identify what type of
fire extinguisher it is safe
extinguish a hot oil fire can cause a huge fireball. Water and foam extinguishers to use on a hot oil fire?
will conduct electricity, so they should never be used on electrical fires.
The different types of fire extinguishers and the types of fire they should be used
on are shown in Figure 6.64.
CO2 extinguisher: used for Dry powder extinguisher: used for Water extinguisher: used Foam extinguisher: used for
flammable liquids, flammable wood, paper, hair, textiles, flammable for wood, paper, hair, wood, paper, hair, textiles,
gases, electrical fires. liquids, flammable gases, flammable textiles. flammable liquids.
metals, electrical fires.
 Figure 6.64 Fire extinguishers and their uses
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Practical task
Choose one of the following scenarios Scenario 2
Scenario 1 You are a joinery workshop manager of a large
company, which employs 25 staff. You are
You are a construction site manager for a new
responsible for training new employees on the
housing development and are responsible for writing
workplace hazards by raising awareness. Make a list
a ‘site induction’ for a presentation. Make a list
of all the potential workplace hazards in the joinery
of all the topics that need to be covered in the
workshop and create a visual presentation for use
induction, such as welfare and toilet facilities, and
with new employees.
create a visual presentation for use.
Test your knowledge

1 What responsibilities does an employee have c
under the Health and Safety at Work Act?
2 What actions can the HSE take against
employers who do not follow health and safety
regulations?
3 Where would you find information on the safe
use, transportation, handling and disposal of
hazardous chemicals?
d
4 List the welfare facilities that must be provided
on construction sites.
5 What voltage is recommended for use on
construction sites and what colour cables does it
use?
6 What checks should you make on a mains-
powered portable power tool before use?
e
7 What actions should you take on discovering a
fire at work?
8 What are the three elements of the fire triangle?
9 What do the following safety signs mean?
a
10 Label the wires in this illustration of

a 230–240 V domestic plug.
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Test your knowledge answers
Answers
CHAPTER 1 2 Set start and completion date; sequence the stages
of building; organise materials, resources and
tradespeople; help to avoid financial penalty as a result
Improve your maths, page 23 of missed deadlines.
3 Strip, raft, pile, pad
9.75 m × 8.65 m × 0.4 m = 33.735 m³
4 10°
5 A lintel
Activity, page 27 6 A client is the most important person in the building
a 3 and 4 team because they are responsible for requesting and
b 1 and 2 funding the construction project.
c 4 7 Knotting
d 1 and 2 8 Installing a kitchen, door linings, dado rails, picture
rails and so on.
Improve your maths, page 34 9 Prevent heat loss; improve the energy efficiency of the
building; reduce bills; conform to Building Regulations.
3 m x 15.7 m = 47.1 m² (Area of one side of the wall) 10 Date; time; the name of the person for whom the
2 m x 1 m = 2 m² (Area of the door opening) message is intended; the name of the caller; the name
of the person who received the phone call; a contact
47.1 m² – 2 m² = 45.1 m² (Area of one side of the wall, less
the door) WB phone number; message content.
45.1 m² + 45. 1m² = 90.2 m² (The total area of both sides

of the wall)
2.4 m x 1.2 m = 2.88 m² (Area of one sheet of plasterboard)
CHAPTER 2
90.2 m² ÷ 2.88 m² = 31.319 m²
Wash basin Bath
32 whole sheets of plasterboard are needed
Test your knowledge
WB Shower tray
1 (b) 6 (a)
2 (d) 7 (b)
Improve your maths, page 45 3 (c) 8 (a)
5.5 m (A) + 5.6 m (B) + 7 m (C) + 5.6 m (D) + 5.5 m (E) + 4 (b) 9 (d)
Sink
11.2 m (F) + 18 m (G) + 11.2 m (H) = 69.6Sinktop
linear metres 5 (a) Wash basin
10 (c) Bath
Improve your maths, page 57
Door Radiator
Using this method, treat the whole middle rail as 195 mm.
CHAPTER 3 Lamp
Divided by 3, each part measures 65 mm.
Bath Shower tray
Improve your maths,
Test your knowledge page 149
1 WC Window Door Radiator
The optimum peripheral speed is 24,188 rpm, rounded
a
North point Sawn timber (unwrot) down to a maximum of 24,000 rpm.
Concrete
b Test your knowledge
Radiator Lamp 1 (c) 6 (b)
2 (a) 7 (c)
Switch
c Socket 3 (d) North point
8 (a) Sawn timber (unw
4 (b) 9 (c)
Blockwork Stonework 5 (c) 10 (d) Earth (subsoil)
d
Sawn timber (unwrot) Concrete Stairs up319

1234567
Insulation Brickwork Blockwork Stonework

Stairs down
Top Bottom 1234567
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CHAPTER 4 Test your knowledge

1 (c) 6 (b)
Activity, page 181 2
3
(d)
(b)
7
8
(c)
(a)
a Tangential 4 (d) 9 (c)
b Radial 5 (a) 10 (d)
Improve your maths,

page 182 CHAPTER 6
48% - 15% = 33% moisture to be lost
33% ÷ 3 days = 11% moisture to be lost each day
Improve your maths,
page 303
Test your knowledge c – 75 degrees (ratio 1:4)
1 Air seasoning and kiln seasoning
2 Off the ground on bearers or in a rack and undercover Test your knowledge
3 a bull nose 1 Take reasonable care for the health and safety of
b splayed yourself, and others who may be affected by the
c torus things you do or do not do; co-operate with your
d ogee employer to enable their duty or requirement to be
e grooved performed or complied with; not intentionally or
4 Scribed internal corners and mitred external corners recklessly interfere with or misuse anything provided
5 To check that the diagonal lengths of a frame are in the interests of health, safety or welfare.
equal and to make sure that it is square 2 They can issue improvement notices, prohibition
6 1:6 in softwood, 1:8 in hardwood, but 1:7 sometimes notices and fines.
preferred for both 3 On a COSHH safety data sheet
7 Face side Face edge 4 Toilets; drinking water; washing facilities; changing
rooms with lockers; facilities to rest
5 110 V; a yellow cable
6 Make the following checks.
● Plugs – make sure that the casing of the plug is
8 Tenon saw intact and that there are no missing or loose pins.
● Leads – look for signs of cuts or abrasions to the
9 Arris
10 Widening, lengthening and framing joints outer cable (sheath) exposing any bare wires. Make
sure that there is a secure connection between the
cable and the tool or plug. Look for any early signs
CHAPTER 5 that the inner wires are twisted or broken as a result
of winding the cable around the tool after use.
● Body of the tool – check for any obvious signs of
Improve your maths, cracks or missing parts. Make sure that any guards
page 231 operate freely.
● Switches – make sure that the on/off switches
Timber 15 mm thick would need a 40 mm nail; timber 30 work freely and that any other functions operate
mm thick would need a 75 mm nail; and timber 44 mm smoothly without defects.
thick would need 100 mm nail. ● Tooling (blades, cutters and discs) – check that the
tooling is correct for the task in hand and that it is
sharp and free from defects.
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Test your knowledge answers
7 Take the following actions. c Mandatory sign – eye protection must be worn
1 Raise the alarm as instructed by your organisation. d Safe conditions sign – first aid point
2 Alert others to the danger by raising your voice. e COSHH sign – corrosive
3 Leave the building via the nearest emergency escape 10
Earth E
route without stopping to save your belongings. wire L
4 Assemble at the correct assembly point. Neutral Fuse
5 Do not leave the assembly point until you have wire
been accounted for and instructed to leave. N
6 Do not return to the building until you have been Live wire
authorised to do so by the fire marshal. Cable grip
8 Fuel, heat and oxygen
9 Meanings of safety signs are as follows. Outer
a Warning sign – slippery surface insulation
b Prohibition sign – no unauthorised entry
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Glossary
Abrasive: having a rough surface that architrave, or the side of the saw leaving the outside dry but the
will rub away at another surface. sticking and rubbing on the material centre still wet. It typically causes
Access equipment: any item of during the cutting process. the material to bend and twist during
equipment used by a person to safely Bisecting: dividing a line or angle cutting, resulting in binding on the saw
gain height. into two equal parts geometrically. blade and kickback.
Acute angle: an angle of less than 90˚. Bleaching: a change in the natural Centre of gravity: the point of an
colour in a solid timber or timber- object where the weight is evenly
Angle of hook or rake: the angle at
based material caused by the exposure distributed.
which the face of the saw tooth slopes
from the tooth tip, either down and to UV light, such as in sunlight. Collated nail strips: grouped
forwards from the tip, as in the case Break-out: the damage caused when a individual nails in an ordered system,
of negative tooth profiles for cross tool, such as a chisel or drill bit, is used usually held in place by paper or glue.
cutting, or down and backwards from from one face of a piece of timber and Chasing: channelling out a wall to
the tooth tip, as in the case of positive exits the opposite side. Break-out can be allow pipes and cables to be buried in it
tooth profiles for ripping. reduced if a clamp is used to hold a scrap and covered with plaster.
Architrave: a timber trim or moulding piece of timber behind the area being Chuck: the housing that the shank of
often used to cover the joint between worked on. the drill bit fits into.
a door lining and a wall. Breathable felt: a lightweight Clearance hole: a hole that is slightly
Arris: the edge of a piece of timber. waterproof material used in roofing drilled through only the upper
and external wall construction. component being fixed. This hole should
Back set: the distance between the
Water cannot penetrate through the be slightly wider in diameter than
face of the lock and the centre of the
felt from the outside face, but air the gauge or diameter of the screw.
handle, knob spindle or key hole.
from the inside can pass through it This enables the screw to pass cleanly
Backing plaster: an alternative to provide ventilation to a building. through the material without binding.
material to traditional cement render.
Bridging: when moisture travels Collated: assembled in the correct
Browning, Bonding coat and Hardwall
through a cavity wall in the materials order and held together in strips
are three examples of backing
used to construct it. Poorly installed usually with glue, plastic or paper.
plasters that can be used on masonry
cavity wall insulation and wall ties are
walls to make them flat, before Compound cut: a type of angled
examples of materials that can result
applying the finishing coats of cut that incorporates two angles
in water bridging a cavity in a wall.
plaster. Backing plasters dry much simultaneously cut, one from the
faster than cement render and are Building control officer: a professional mitre angle of the saw and one from
often preferred for use on internal who represents the local authority’s the bevel or canted angle of the saw.
walls. planning department or an independent
Concrete slab: the solid mass of
organisation. Part of their role is to
Beading: a small section of timber, concrete poured to create a floor.
visit construction sites and monitor the
often shaped with a decorative profile. Control measures: a system used to
standard of the building work at various
Bearers: lengths of timber positioned stages throughout the project, to make protect people from harm, such as the
on the ground at equal spacings so sure it meets with national Building use of PPE, guards on machinery, safety
that timber can be stored on them off Regulations. signs and fire extinguishers.
the ground. They are used to prevent Convection: a process where a liquid
Butt hinge: a type of hinge
the timber absorbing moisture from or gas circulates, causing the warmer
consisting of two flat leaves
the ground, which may cause warping, parts to rise and the colder, heavier
revolving around a pin (hinge), the
twisting and other defects. parts to sink, which results in heat
knuckle of which pivots. Commonly
Binding: when something is prevented used to support internal and external being transferred.
from moving freely, such as a door timber doors. Converted: sawing along the grain of
being prevented from opening fully a tree trunk to produce sawn boards of
Case hardening: a defect caused by
because it is binding against the timber.
the timber being dried too rapidly,
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Glossary
Countersunk: shaped so that the head before being reassembled with a wood fire doors, escape routes, fire alarm
of the screw sits below the surface of adhesive for the final time. and fire extinguishers.
the timber when it is fixed. Dry rot: a type of fungus found in First fixing: the primary work
Courses: arrangements of bricks and timber that causes it to decay. completed in a building before the
blocks laid in rows by bricklayers. Durability: how hard and resistant walls and ceilings are plastered, such as
Crown: the top section of a tree something is. Some timbers are more installing windows, doors frames and
containing the branches. resistant to the weather than others stairs.
Cupping: the curling (distortion) of because of their natural oils and resins Fixings: types of screws, nails,
timber away from the centre of the and are therefore more suitable for adhesives and sealants used within
tree. exterior work. carpentry and joinery and the
Dusting brush: a small hand brush construction industry as a whole.
Curing: the chemical process adhesives
go through before they achieve their used by painters and decorators, to Footprint: the area of ground that a
full strength. prepare surfaces to be painted by building is constructed on.
removing any loose dirt and dust. Galvanised: a protective zinc coating
Cutting in: carefully painting up to a
surface with a different colour, paint, Eccentric circles: where one smaller that is applied to steel and iron to help
stain or material using a brush. circle is offset within a larger circle. prevent rusting.
Cutting list: a detailed list of the Equilibrium moisture content: the Grooves: narrow cuts or channels
components, types of materials, point at which the moisture contained along the grain of the timber.
dimensions and the quantities needed within the timber is equal to the Growth (or annular) rings: produced
for a task. Cutting lists are used by the environment it is in. Timber with a high every year that a tree grows, therefore
wood machinists to prepare timber to moisture content in a dry setting, for increasing its size. Trees generally grow
manufacture joinery products. example a heated room, will rapidly more in spring and summer than they
dry out and shrink to reveal gaps in the do in the colder winter months. The
Damp-proof course: a layer of plastic,
joints of connecting timbers. amount of growth that has taken place
supplied on a roll, used to prevent
damp rising from the ground through Ergonomics: designing equipment during these seasons can be seen on the
the brickwork. in a way that improves overall end grain: the lighter rings are produced
performance and comfort based on in the summer and the darker rings in
Dead load: the weight of all the
an understanding of human actions, the autumn and winter.
materials used to construct a building
such as how well it suits the body of Hardwood: a category of timber that
or structure.
the user or whether it is comfortable comes from deciduous trees, such as oak.
Decibels: a unit used to measure the to hold.
intensity of sound levels. It is often Hatching: evenly spaced parallel lines,
abbreviated to dB. Expansion gaps: spaces left between running in the same direction, at 45°
materials to allow them to move from each other.
Delaminate: when layers of materials
freely if they shrink or expand. If gaps Haunch: a portion of a tenon that has
split apart.
are not left and the materials expand, been removed to strengthen the joint.
Domestic building: a property that no they are likely to buckle and distort. A haunch also creates a space where
more than one family lives in, such as The joint between floorboards and a wedges can be driven down the sides
a house. wall is a good example of where an of the tenon to strengthen it further.
Door jamb: the part of the door frame expansion gap should be left. Joiners
Hazard: something that has the
running vertical on either side of the also use expansion gaps between
potential to cause harm. For example,
door opening. tongue and grooved boards when
a nail gun has the potential to cause
they are making matchboarded
Dry fitting: a stage in the process of harm to your eyes or body from
doors.
manufacturing joinery, when a product the nails it fires. The noise that it
is put together without glue to make Felling: cutting down a tree. creates could also cause damage to
the final checks. After the checks have Fire action plan: a written plan of the your hearing over a period of time.
been made, the joinery can be taken actions to be taken in the event of an Remember, your employer has a legal
apart and the internal faces sanded emergency in the workplace, and the responsibility to protect you from all
(also referred to as papered-up) control measures to be used, such as potential hazards in the workplace.
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Head: the top component in a frame. Kinetic lifting: the action of using the a mortice and tenon joint that is
Horizontal: flat and level, such as human body to move, lift, lower, pull separate from (loose) both pieces of
water would lay. and carry objects. timber that are to be jointed. This
Labour: a term used to describe contrasts with the traditional tenon
Horns: portions of waste material left
physical work. that is a part of one of the pieces being
on a frame to strengthen the joints
jointed together.
before they are later removed after Lead time: the time between the start
final assembly and finishing. of a process until its conclusion. Masking up: protecting areas of a
Legislation: a law or legal regulation. wall, floor or ceiling from paint with
Housekeeping: keeping a space clean,
For example, the Health and Safety masking tape and paper.
tidy and organised.
at Work Act 1974 is a piece of Matchboard: a term given to tongue
Housings: joints consisting of a groove
legislation. and grooved timber boarding, often
usually cut across the grain, into which
Leptospirosis or Weil’s disease: a used on doors and gates.
the end of another member is housed
or fitted to form a joint. rare infection that can be passed Method statement: a document used
from infected animals, such as rats, to to detail how to carry out a job safely
Improvement notice: a formal
humans through contaminated water to control the hazards identified in the
document issued by the HSE to
or urine. risk assessment.
employers when they have fallen short
of their health and safety responsibilities, Lifting aid: an item or piece of Misfire: a nail gun failing to operate
usually in non-life-threatening ways that equipment used to reduce the risks properly, causing the nail or fixing
can be easily corrected. involved in manual handling, such as a to get jammed in the chamber
wheelbarrow or a sack truck. of the tool. Always follow the
Infinite: used to describe something
that will last indefinitely (forever), such Listed building: an old structure that manufacturer’s instructions to avoid
as water. Natural materials like oil, has special architectural or historical this happening.
coal and gas are finite resources, which interest. When a building or structure Mortar: a building material produced
means that they cannot be replaced becomes listed it is registered on the when building sand, cement and water
once they have been used. British Listed Buildings database, whose are mixed together. Mortar is the glue
purpose is to protect and maintain that sticks or bonds bricks and concrete
Interlocking grain: the grain or fibres
buildings for future generations. It is a blocks together to build walls.
of the timber grow at a slight incline
criminal offence to carry out any work Mortice: a rectangular hole, often
and change direction in different
on the inside or outside of a listed created with mortice chisels or a
years of growth. This change in
building without the consent of the mortice machine.
grain direction can create a striped
local planning office.
effect on the surface of the timber. Mortice and tenon joint: a traditional
Interlocked grain can be difficult to Live loads: the additional weights that
woodworking joint used to build
plane and may result in the timber a foundation has to support after it has
frames.
surface tearing out. been constructed and in use. People,
furniture, wind and snow are just some Musculoskeletal system: the parts
Ironmongery: hardware, such as locks, of the human body that provides its
of the live loads that a building has to
handles and hinges. shape, movement and stability. This
be designed to support.
Ironmongery schedule: a document includes the skeleton (bones), muscles
Load-bearing: supporting a weight.
used to list repeated ironmongery that and joints.
Elements of a building that are load-
is used throughout a project, such as Near miss: an incident that occurred
bearing could include a floor, wall, roof
new build housing. that could have caused harm to
or chimney. Internal or external load-
Jambs: the long lengths of timber used bearing walls should never be removed someone but did not. It is important to
to form the vertical sides of a door without consulting a structural report near-miss incidents to prevent
lining or frame. engineer first. them from happening again.
Joist hangers: metal brackets shaped to Loose fill: insulation used in a cavity; Negligent: a term often referred to in
support the ends of timber floor joists. commonly made from water-resistant health and safety law when someone
Kerf: the total width of the saw cut. polystyrene beads. does not fulfil their responsibilities.
Loose tenon: a length of timber or Networking: professional people
plywood used to form the joint of interacting with each other to
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Glossary
exchange information and create new splitting when the fixing screws are ‘risk assessments and method
contacts. inserted. statements’.
Non-porous: when water cannot Pitch: something that is angled (for Rafters: the main structural timbers
soak through a material or building example, a pitched roof has sloping in a roof; they are used to support the
component. rafters so that the rainwater can run roof covering.
Notch: a shallow recess cut into a off). Raze: to destroy or demolish to the
piece of timber. Pitch marks: the marks left on the ground.
Nylon: a type of plastic. timber surface from rotary power Resin: a thick, sticky fluid contained
Obtuse angle: an angle of more than tools, such as power planes and surface within timber.
90˚. planers.
Ridge board: a structural beam, usually
Oriented strand board (OSB): board Plant: a piece of heavy machinery or found at the top of a traditional roof.
comprising wood fibres that lie in equipment, or a construction vehicle,
Ring shank: a nail with small ridges
opposing directions to each other, in a such as a dumper truck, crane or
around the shank, which increase the
similar way to plywood. generator.
nail’s resistance against pulling loose.
Oscillating: move back and forth in a Porous: a porous surface or material
Saddle: a type of jig used to support the
consistent repeated movement. absorbs moisture because it contains
timber during the cutting process.
lots of small holes.
Passivated: a protective coating, Scribed: a shape that has been
usually zinc. Profile: the shape of a section of
replicated, marked out and cut on a piece
timber, for example a rebate, pencil
PAT certificate: portable appliance of timber to fit over another surface.
round and ovolo are profiles that can
testing (PAT) is an examination of Seasoning: a process of drying timber
be found on timber.
electrical appliances and equipment to reduce its moisture content.
to ensure they are safe to use; a label Profiled: material which has had a
decorative edge added to one or more Second fixing: carpentry work
is fixed to the power tool stating date
sides. completed after the walls and ceilings
of test.
have been plastered, such as installing
Peripheral speed: the distance the Profiles: decorative shapes formed
skirting, architraves and doors.
rotating cutting edge travels, expressed along the edge of materials, such as
rebates, ovolo, ogee, bullnose, lamb’s Segregate: to divide, isolate or keep
as metres per second (m/s).
tongue, and scotia. apart.
Personal protective equipment (PPE):
Pulley wheel: a type of wheel that a Set: a saw’s side clearance.
safety equipment worn by an individual
to protect themselves from workplace drive belt fits around; they come in Shakes: natural splits that occur in timber.
hazards. There are many different types different diameters to give different Shank: the end of the drill bit that fits
of PPE including protective gloves, drive speeds for the drill bit. into the chuck of the drill; the non-
safety goggles and ear defenders. Pulleys: a type of wheel that a drive cutting part of the router cutter that is
PPE designed to protect against belt fits around and used in different fitted into the collet of the router; the
respiratory hazards is referred to as RPE diameters to give different drive speeds part of the nail between the nail point
(respiratory protective equipment). This for the drill bit. and the nail head.
protects the user’s lungs and airways. Purlins: large timber beams used to Shelf life: the expiry date of a material.
Pier: a brick, block or concrete pillar support the rafters in a traditional roof. Shoulders: a part of some
that is not connected to a wall. Push stick: a length of timber used to woodworking joints (such as a tenon)
Piling sticks: lengths of thin batten help feed and control the material being could have shoulders on both sides of
used to create a space between stored cut. the joint to provide extra support.
timber layers to allow air to flow PVCu: polyvinyl chloride unplasticised. Silica: a mineral found in common
between the boards. Stacking timber This is often referred to as uPVC, building materials like concrete, rock
for a long period without the use of but the abbreviation was changed and sand. Silica dust can cause serious
piling sticks may result in an increase in the 1980s to PVCu, so that British damage to your lungs if it is breathed
in the moisture content in the centre manufacturers now use the same term in when cutting or drilling materials
of a pack. as their European counterparts. that contain it, unless the proper
Pilot hole: a small hole drilled (or RAMS: an abbreviation often used precautions are taken.
bored) into timber to prevent it from in the construction industry for
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Softwood: a category of timber that in the concrete and causes them to rise Tungsten carbide tip (TCT): a tip
comes from coniferous trees, such as to the surface, therefore strengthening made of hard-wearing metal used to
pine. the concrete. form the cutting edges of tooling such
Solvent: a substance that can dissolve Tangential: timber boards that have as saw blade teeth.
other substances. been converted so that the end grain is Verge: the edge of a pitched roof on a
Specification: a written document at an angle of less than 45°. gable end.
that an architect produces. It contains Thermal insulation: a product used Vertical: hanging straight down, such
additional information about a project to retain the heat in a building, as a weighted plumb line would hang.
that cannot be fitted onto the working therefore making it more energy Vertical spindle moulder: industrial
drawings. efficient. Other types of insulation fixed bed machine used to produce
Spelching: the uncontrolled breakout include sound insulation and fireproof decorative finishes on the edges of
of material, resulting in damaged and/ insulation. timber.
or weakened edges. Tile lath: length of treated timber used Vibrating concrete poker: a power
Squaring rod: a thin piece of batten with to help hold roof tiles in place. tool used to remove pockets of air
either a point or a nail on the end of it. It Tinnitus: a permanent ringing in from freshly poured concrete. When
is used to measure the diagonal distances the ears. This is often caused to the vibrating poker head is submerged
in a frame to check that it is square. carpenters and joiners by long into the wet concrete the vibrations
Steamed: a process timber goes through exposure to noise produced by routers cause any bubbles present to rise to
after it has been converted but before it and woodcutting machinery when the surface.
is seasoned that changes its colour. adequate protective measures have Wall plate: a length of timber
Stiles: the vertical sections on the not been taken. positioned on top of a structural wall
outer edges of a door. Toolbox talk: small bite-size training so that rafters and joists used for a
sessions covering a specific area such roof (or floor) can be nailed to it. Wall
Stock: the handle of a square or the
as PPE use, safe operation of a power plates provide a good fixing point and
sliding heads on a mortice gauge,
tool or hygiene requirements. help to spread the weight of the roof
marking gauge and cutting gauge.
evenly along the length of the wall
Stock rotation: using the oldest Torque: the rotating force produced to
down to the foundations below. Wall
products first to maximise shelf life turn an object.
plates used for roofs are secured to
and avoid wasting materials. Touch dry: a surface that has not the wall below with metal restraint
Stroboscopic effect: the flickering fully hardened, such as paint, but has straps, also referred to as wall plate
or flashing of a light source, which formed a thin dry layer, referred to straps.
can cause headaches and nausea. as a ‘skin’. Timber that is touch dry
Waste area: the part of the timber
Stroboscopic effects can also lead can usually be handled with care; soft
removed to create the joint.
to dangerous situations when using paint can easily get damaged if it is not
stored and moved correctly. Watertight: used to describe a stage
rotating tooling such as saws and
of building, usually when the walls
routers. The flashing or flickering of the Tracking: adjusting the front roller so
and roof have been constructed and
light source makes the tooling appear the abrasive paper will run central to
waterproofed, at least with breathable
to be stationary or moving very slowly the pulley rollers.
felt. All the doors and windows should
or even backwards. Transformer: an electrical appliance also be installed at this stage, or the
Subsidence: when the weight of a that is used to convert 230–240 V openings in the walls need to be
building or structure sinks into the supply to 110 V. covered to protect the building from
ground. Trench: a groove cut across the grain the weather.
Surface planing machine: an industrial of a piece of timber. Whiskers: the small pieces of wood fibre
fixed bed machine that uses rotating Trunking: a hollow plastic tube or box remaining after cutting the joint. Leaving
cutter blocks to produce a flat, smooth section, commonly used by electricians these timber fibres in place can cause an
and straight length of timber. and plumbers to hide pipes and cables. obstruction when assembling the joint.
Tamping: the process of gently tapping Some trunking has a removable cover Workability: how easy or difficult the
the surface of wet concrete with a for easy access and maintenance to the timber is to plane, saw, machine and
batten or plank after it has been laid. services. finish.
Tamping releases trapped pockets of air
326
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Index
Index
A block plans 8 circular saws 128–33, 136–7
abrasive paper 47, 108, 162–6 blocks 28 civil engineer 49
access equipment 301–7 blue jean insulation 15 clamping equipment 107–8
accidents 278–84 blue staining 183, 189 claw hammer 106
acute angles 61 board see manufactured board clay tiles 42
additives 21 bolts 251–3 clerk of works 49
adhesives 109–10, 215–16, 241–2 bonds 30 climate change 11
aggregate 21 bowing 137, 191 coach screws and bolts 238–9
air bags 108 boxed heart sawn timber 180 coal 11
air source heating 13 box square 60 collated nails 161, 230
alcohol 287–8 brass 236 combination gauge 64
angle grinders 169–70 breaker drill 125 combination square 59–60
angle of hook or rake 128 breathable felt 25 communication 48, 50
angles 61–3 bricklayer 49 methods 51–2
bisecting 63, 223 bricks 25, 28 taking a message 52
architect 49 brickwork, bonds 30 compass 61
architect’s instruction 5 bridle joints 208 compasses 61–3
architraves 210, 220–3 British Standards Institute (BSI) 8 compass plane 81
area, calculating 32–3 brown water 16 component range drawings 7
asbestos 287, 289 building control inspector 49 compound cuts 134
ash 185 building control officer 18, 203 compressed air 117–18
assembly drawings 6 Building Regulations 203, 255 computer-aided design (CAD) 51
auger bit 102, 105–6 bulk insulation 15 concrete 21
B bullnose plane 80 calculating volume 22–3
backed saws 66, 68–9 butt hinges 242–3, 257–9 cure rate 35
backing plaster 34 butt joints 207–8 mixing ratios 21
barge board 42 buyer 49 oversite 37
batteries 116–17 C concrete screw 235
beading 210 Canadian lumber stock (CLS) 28, concrete slab 36
bearers 183 31, 187 conduit 27
beech 185 carbon dioxide (CO2) 11 Construction, Design and
belt sander 162 carpenter 49 Management Regulations 2015
bench grinder 96 case hardening 182, 191 270
bench planes 76 cavity fixings 240 construction manager 49
bevel edge chisel 89–90, 92 cavity tray 24 Construction Skills Certification
bill of quantities 5 cavity walls 24–6 Scheme (CSCS) 277
binding 221 cedar 184 contact adhesive 110, 241
biomass heating 12 ceiling 37 Control of Asbestos at Work
biscuit joints 155, 155–9, 158, cement 21, 26 Regulations 2012 270
206 chasing 27 Control of Noise at Work Regulations
bitumen felt 39 chipboard 203 2005 272
black japanned screw 235 chisels 89–91 Control of Substances Hazardous to
bleaching 183 common faults 194 Health 2002 271, 289, 294
block and beam system 35–6 sharpening 95–101 Control of Vibration at Work
block plane 78–9 techniques 91–5 Regulations 2005 272, 290
327
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coping saw 69 step by step 214–15 sources 11–13

countersink bit 102 dovetail saw 69 engineered timber joists 36
countersinking 105 dowel joint 206 engineering bricks 18
countersunk screws 235 draught excluder 14 environmental impact 11
course aggregate 21 drawer runners 255 EPDM rubber 39
courses 30 drawings see working drawings Equality Act 2010 51
crosscut saws 66–7, 68 dressing 223 equilibrium moisture content 179
crosscutting technique 213 drill and counter bore 103 equipment
cupboard hinge 245 drills health and safety 55
cupping 137, 179, 191 breaker 125 see also hand tools
cup shakes 188 chuck types 123 ergonomics 121
curing 216 common faults 195 escutcheon 253
customer role 49 common problems 126 espagnolette bolts 251
cut clasp nails 229 drill bits 102, 105–6 estimator 49
cut roof 41 drilling 105 Euro pattern lock 249
cutting gauge 64 hammer drills 122, 124 European redwood 185
cutting in 35 hand-operated 101 expanding foam adhesive 110
cutting list 197 impact drivers 122, 124 expansion gaps 221
cylinder night latch 248, 263–4 pillar drill 125 extension leads 116
D power drills 122–3 external walls 24–6, 28–9
damp-proof course (DPC) 18, 29, swing brace 101 F
38 wheel brace 101 fascia 42
damp-proof membrane (DPM) 37 drugs 287–8 F clamp 107
datums 10 dry lining 26 ferrous metal 228–9
dead load 16 dry mix screed 37 fibreglass roofs 39
debarking 178 dry rot 181 fillet 223
delamination 203 drywall 32 fine aggregate 21
delivery note 5 dusting brush 47 firefighting signs 293
detached piers 20 E fire safety 315–17
detail sander 165 eccentric circles 163–4 firmer chisel 90
detectors 170–1 eco joists 36 first fixing stage 2
diamonding 179 eggshell paint 34 fixings
diamond stone 97 electrician 49 cavity fixings 240
discrimination 51 electricity 11–13 coach screws and bolts 238–9
displacement piles 20 extension leads 116 nails 161, 229–31
dividers 61 health and safety 115, 307–10 screws 231–4
documents 5–6 power supply 115, 307 timber pellets 238
domino joints 156–9, 206 voltages 115–16, 309 walls 239
door closers 255 wiring 171 see also adhesives
door furniture 250–6 Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 flat roofs 39
doors, hanging 256 272, 308 flat/spade bit 103
dormer roof 40 elevation drawings 7 flexi ply 204
double glazing 14 emulsion 34 floor plans 7
double roof 40 end grain 78, 87–8 floors
douglas fir 184 energy block and beam system 35–6
dovetail jig 152 efficiency 13–16 covering 38
dovetail joints 208 renewable 11–13 ground 35–7
328
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Index
insulation 37, 38 ground heave 17 foundation trenches 18

materials 37 ground source heating 13 hand tools 55
solid concrete 35, 37 growth rings 179 hazards 272, 284–91
sub-base 37 gypsum plaster 32 legislation 268–72, 278–9
suspended ground 35–6 H method statements 285
suspended upper 36 halving joints 209 nail guns 161
timber 36–8 hammer drills 122, 124 near miss 275
upper 36–7 hammers 106–7, 194 personal protective equipment
flush hinge 244 hand/arm vibration syndrome (HAVS) (PPE) 34, 120
flushing shoulders 88–9 290 power saws 139
forstner bit 103 handsaws power tools 118–21
fossil fuels 11 backed 66, 68–9, 73–4 risk assessment 272–3, 284
foundations common faults 194 site inductions 277–8
loads 16–17 coping 69 sources of information 276–7
materials 21–3 crosscut 66–7, 68 Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
types 18–20 hardpoint 66–7 269, 275, 287
frame mitre 69 Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
marking out 199–201 panel 67–8, 72–3 276
producing and assembling 211 ripsaws 66, 68 hearing loss 286–7
framing joints 207–8 sharpening 70–1 heart shake 189
frogged bricks 25, 28 technique 71–4 heating engineer 49
fungal attack 192 tooth profiles 66 height, working at 301–7
G hand tools 55–9, 59–64, 106–9 hex screw head 237
gable-ended roof 40 common faults 193–5 hinges 242–6
galvanised nails 161, 230 health and safety 55 recess cutting 91–3
Gantt chart 4 legislation 205 recess jig 152
gas-powered tools 117 marking out 59–64, 196, hip and valley roof 40
gauges 64, 195, 201 201–2 hole saw 103
G clamp 107 storing and transporting 110–11 honing 97
gents saw 69 see also chisels; drills; planes; see also sharpening
Global Positioning System (GPS) saws; screwdrivers hook and band hinge 245
10 hand washing 288–9 horns 216
global warming 11 hardboard 204 housing joints 145, 209–10
gluing-up 216 hardcore 37 step by step 95, 214
gouges 90–1 hardpoint saws 66–7 hydration 21
grab adhesive see synthetic resin hardwoods 184, 185–6 hydroelectric energy 12
grab adhesive hatchings 8–9, 212 I
grain 179 hatch linings 217–20 impact drivers 122, 124
end grain 78, 87–8 hazards 272, 284–91 improvement notice 276
interlocking 78 heading joints 207 inclinometers 58
sloping 190 head plate 26, 31 insect infestation 190
green flat roof 40 health and safety insulation 14, 24–5
greenhouse gases 11 accidents 278–84 floors 37, 38
green oak 181 electricity 115, 307–10 materials 14–15, 24, 28
grinding 96–7 employee responsibilities 275 sound 38
grooves 145 employer responsibilities 272–5 interlocking grain 78
ground floors 35–7 first aid 283 internal walls 26–7, 31–2
329
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invoice 5 laths 42 matt paint 34

ironmongery 196 lead 287 measuring tape 55–6, 195
door furniture 250–6 lead time 5 medium density fibreboard (MDF)
hinges 242–6 lean-to roof 40 67, 204
installing 256–64 lengthening joints 207 memos 51
locks and latches 246–50 leptospirosis 288 metals
J letter plate 254 ferrous 228–9
jack plane 77 levels 57–9 non-ferrous 229
jambs 221 lifting 288–301 metal stud walls 26–7, 31
Japanese handsaw 67, 70 Lifting Operations and Lifting method statements 285
jigs 152 Equipment Regulations 1998 272, microporous paint 34
jigsaws 133–4, 140–1 289 mill file 71
job roles 48–50 lime 30 mineral wool 15
job sheet 5 linear measurement 43–5 mist coat 34
joiner 49 lintels 29 mitre adhesive 242
jointer 77 lip and spur bit 102 mitre joints 210
jointers 155–9 liquid screed 37 mitre saw 69
jointing techniques 157–9, 211–16 listed buildings 39 mitre square 59
joints live loads 16 mobile extraction units 127
classification 205–6 load-bearing walls 23, 26 mobile phones 48
framing 207–8 local exhaust ventilation (LEV) 127, moisture meter 181
gluing-up 216 286 mono-pitch roof 40
lengthening 207 locks 246 mortar 21, 26, 30
regulations 217 loft hatches see hatch linings mortice and tenon joints 25, 65,
shoulders 212 loose fill insulation 24 210–11
waste area 211 loose tenon 156 mortice chisel 90
widening 206 lost head nails 230 mortice dead locks 247
joist hangers 36 M mortice gauge 64–5
joists 36–7, 38, 41 mallets 107, 194 mortice joints 207
just in time ordering 5 mandatory signs 293 step by step 94, 214
K Manual Handling Operations mortice latch 248, 259–62
kerf 66, 71 Regulations 1992 271, 288 multifoil insulation 15
keyhole 253 manufactured board 203–5 musculoskeletal disorders 288
kiln seasoning 183 maple 186 N
kinetic lifting 289 margins 221 nail guns 160–1, 289
knives 91 marking gauge 64, 201 nails 161, 229–31
knots 188 marking knife 91 National Grid 11
knotting 47 marking out 59–64, 196, 201–2 near miss 275
L step by step 199–201 networking 52
labour 5 masking up 35 noggins 26, 31
labourer 50 masonry bit 102 noise 286–7, 296
ladders 302–3 masonry nails 231 non-ferrous metal 229
lamb’s wool insulation 15 materials notches 36
laminated panels 204 abbreviations 203 O
laser distance measure 56 just in time ordering 5 oak 181, 186
laser levels 10, 58 sheet materials 203 obtuse angles 61
latches 248–50 storing 291 oil 11
330
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Index
oil stone 97 maintaining 82–5 mobile extraction units 127

orbital sander 164 power planers 142–5 nail guns 160–1
ordnance benchmarks (OBM) 10 rebate plane 79–80 oscillating multi-tools 166–9
Ordnance Survey maps 10 sharpening 95–101 planers 142–5
oriented strand board (OSB) 157, smoothing plane 77 portable 121
178, 205 specialist 79–81 portable appliance testing (PAT)
oscillating multi-tools 166–9 try plane 77 308
oversite concrete 37 planing routers 145–59
P end grain 87–8 sanders 162–6
pad foundations 20 flushing shoulders 88–9 scanners and detectors 170–1
pad saw 70 techniques 85–7 storing and transporting 172,
paint plant 50 310–11
cutting in 35 plant operator 49 voltages 115–16
emulsion 34–5 plant technician 49 see also drills; power saws
mist coat 34 plaster 32, 34 Pozidriv screw head 104, 236
timber 46–7 plasterboard 32, 34, 37 privacy locks 247
painter and decorator 49 plasterer 49 profiles 145, 148, 197
panic bolt 251 plasticiser 21 programme of work 4–5
Parliament hinge 244 plate compactor 37 prohibition signs 293
partition walls 26–7 platforms 304–5 proprietary threshold 254
passivated nails 161 plinth feet 255 protractor 61
pattern rafter 41 plug cutter 103 Provision and Use of Work
pein hammer 106 plumber 49 Equipment Regulations 1998 96,
pencils 61 plunge saws 129–33 202, 271
percentages 45–6 plywood 67, 203 PU (polyurethane) glue 109, 216,
peripheral speed 149 pollution 11 241
personal protective equipment (PPE) polyurethane fixing foam 110, 242 purlins 40, 207
34, 120, 291, 311–14 porosity 34 PVA (polyvinyl acetate) glue 109,
Personal Protective Equipment portable appliance testing (PAT) 215, 241
Regulations 2018 271, 311–12 308 PVCu (polyvinyl chloride
Phillips screw head 104, 236 power saws 128 unplasticised) 231
photovoltaic (PV) panels 12 blades 128 Q
piers 20 circular saws 128–33, 136–7 quantity surveyor 49
pile foundations 20 health and safety 139 quarter sawn timber 179
piling sticks 182 jigsaws 133–4, 140–1 quick-release clamp 108
pillar drill 125 plunge saws 129–33 quicksilver wood screw 234
pilot holes 105 reciprocating saws 134, 141 quirk 223
pitch 39 sliding mitre saws 134–6 R
pitched roofs 40, 207–8 table ripsaws 136–7, 139–40 rack bolt 264
pitch marks 77, 144 power tools radial cut timber 179
pith 190 angle grinders 169–70 rafters 40
planes battery-powered 116–17, 310 raft foundations 19
bench plane 76 compressed air 117–18 random orbital sander 163–4
block plane 78–9 gas-powered 117 rebate cutting, step by step 154
common faults 194–5 health and safety 118–21, rebate plane 79–80
jack plane 77 308–10 recess cutting, step by step 91–3
jointer 77 jointers 155–9 reciprocating saws 134, 141
331
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recycling, water 16 Scandinavian softwoods 178 solar energy 12

reflective insulation board 15 scanners 170–1 sole plate 26, 31
render 29, 31, 34 scarf joints 207 solid concrete floors 35, 37
renewable energy 11–13 schedules 2, 4 solvents 289
Reporting Injuries, Diseases and scratch coat 31 Soss hinge 246
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations screed 37 specifications 2–3, 203
2013 271 screw cups 235 spelching 87, 126
requisition order 5 screwdriver bits 236–7 spill kits 289
residual current device (RCD) 115, screwdrivers 104, 195, 237 spirit levels 57–8
308 screw heads 104, 236–7 splits 191
retarders 32 screws 231–4 spokeshave 81
ridge boards 207 seasoning timber 181–3 spring hinge 245
rim lock 248 second fixing stage 2 springing 137, 191
ring shank nails 161, 230 section drawings 7 square recess screw 237
ripsawing technique 213 security viewer 253 squares 195
ripsaws 66, 68 set square 59 squaring rod 216
rising damp 29 setting out rods 6, 51, 196–8 stainless steel wood screw 234
risk assessment 272–3, 284 shakes 181, 189 star shake 189
riving knife 132 sharpening statement 5
roofer 49 chisels 95–101 steel rules 57
roofing square 60 drill bits 105–6 stepladders 303–4
roofs handsaws 70–1 stock rotation 291
components 41–2 plane irons 95–101 stone 28
flat 39 sheet materials 203 stretcher bond 30
joints 207–8 shingles 42 strip foundations 18
materials 39–40 shoulder plane 80 structural engineer 49
pitched 40–1 shrinking 137 structural grade softwood 28
round head nails 230 shrinking and twisting 179 studs 26–7, 31
router plane 81 side rebate plane 80 subsidence 19
routers 145–59 signage 51, 292–4 substructure 18
rules (measuring) 57 site diary 5 sun protection 289
Russian softwoods 178 site inductions 277–8 supervisors 49, 50
S site plans 8 surface planing machine 77
safe condition signs 293 skeleton gun 241 surveyor 49
safety signs 51, 292–4 skew nailing 208 suspended ground floors 35–6
sand binding 37 skirtings 220, 223–5 suspended upper floors 36
sanders 162–6 slates 42 sustainable materials 13
sap ducts 188 sleeper walls 35, 38 swing brace drill 101
sapele 186 sliding bevel 60 symbols 8–9
sapwood 189 sliding mitre saws 134–6 synthetic resin grab adhesive 110,
sash clamp 107 sloping grain 190 223, 241
satin paint 35 slotted screw head 104, 236 T
sawing techniques 213 smoothing plane 77 table ripsaws 136–7, 139–40
saws see handsaws; power saws social media 52 tamping 21
saw set 71 soffits 42 tanalised timber 28, 67
scaffolding 305–7 calculating quantities 44–5 T bar clamp 107
scale rules 57 softwoods 178, 184–5 technical drawings 51
scales 6 soil sampling 17 see also working drawings
332
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Index
tee hinge 245 tool bags 110 walls

tee square 59 toolboxes 110 calculating area 32–3
temperature 285 toolbox talks 278 cavity 24–6
temporary benchmark (TBM) 10 torque 104 external 24–6, 28–9
tenon saw 68 Torx screw head 237 internal 26–7, 31–2
text messages 52 tower scaffold 305–7 load-bearing 23, 26
thatch 42 tracking 162 materials 28–9, 31–2
thermal insulation 24 trammel heads and beam 61 partition 26–7
see also insulation transformer 307–8 sleeper 35, 38
three dimensional drawings 2 tree roots 20 solid 24
through and through sawn timber trench blocks 18 timber frame 25–6
179 trench fill foundation 19 wall ties 24–5, 29
thumb latch 249 trench safety 18 waney edge 188
thunder shake 192 trestles 109, 304–5 warning signs 293
tile lath 231 trickle vents 254 warrington hammer 106
timber 42, 78 triple glazing 14 wash boarding 192
Canadian lumber stock (CLS) trunking 27 waste management 16, 292
28, 31, 187 trussed roof 41 water
conversion 178–9 try plane 77 hydroelectric energy 12
cutting 137–8 try square 59–60 recycling 16
damage 192 tungsten carbide tips (TCT) 128 water levels 58–9
defects 188–92 twisting 137, 191 water stone 97
distortions 179 two dimensional drawings 2 wattle and daub 25
floors 36–8 two-way radios 51 weather seals 255
grades 178, 187–8 U weep holes 24
growth rings 179 UF (urea-formaldehyde) glue 109, welfare facilities 295–6
hardwoods 184, 185–6 216, 241 wheel brace drill 101
knotting 47 undercloaking 42 whiskers 94
moisture content 181 underlay 41–2 whitewood 185
painting 46–7 upper floors 36–7 widening joints 206
rough sawn 31 utility knife 91 wide strip foundations 18
sawn types 179–80 V wind energy 12
seasoning 181–3 veneer 203 wired plug 310
shrinking and twisting 137, 191 ventilation 13 woodworm 190
softwoods 178, 184–5 floors 35 Work at Height Regulations 2005
standard sizes 86, 187 roofs 42 271, 302
storing and protecting 183 verbal communication 52 working drawings 2–4, 6–8, 203
stress grading 187–8 vertical spindle moulder 79 abbreviations 9, 203
structural grade softwood 28 vibrating concrete poker 21 scales 6
studs 31 vibration white finger 290 symbols 8–9
tanalised 28, 67 vice 108 worktop jig 152
tree trunk 187 vinyl silk paint 35 written communication 52
timber frame walls 25–6 voltage indicator pens 171 Y
timber pellets 238 voltages 115–16, 309 yellow passivated wood screw 234
timesheet 5 volume, calculating 22–3 yellow pine 185
tinnitus 272 W Z
tolerance 217 wall plates 38, 41 zinc 39
tongue and groove 206 wall plugs 239
333
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Hodder Carpentry IFC ad 216x282.indd 1

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1 Principles of building construction, information and communication 1

2 Carpentry and joinery hand tools 54

3 Power tools 114

4 Produce woodworking joints 177

5 Types of fixings and ironmongery 228

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Test your knowledge answers 319

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From the authors

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About the authors

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How to use this book

HEALTH AND SAFETY

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Sources of information used in

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Specifications and schedules

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p Figure 1.1 Example specification

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Master Internal Door Schedule

D1 838 × 1981 900 2040 BOX Yes Yes GROUND FLOOR

D2 838 × 1981 900 2040 BOX Yes Yes GROUND FLOOR

D3 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX No No GROUND FLOOR

D4 838 × 1981 900 2040 N/A Yes No GROUND FLOOR

D5 838 × 1981 900 2040 BOX Yes Yes GROUND FLOOR

D6 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX Yes Yes FIRST FLOOR

D7 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX Yes Yes FIRST FLOOR

D8 762 × 1981 824 2040 N/A Yes No FIRST FLOOR

D9 762 × 1981 824 2040 BOX Yes Yes FIRST FLOOR

D10 762 × 1981 824 2040 N/A No No FIRST FLOOR

D11 686 × 1981 748 2040 N/A Yes No SECOND FLOOR

D14 686 × 1981 748 2040 N/A No No SECOND FLOOR

p Figure 1.2 Example door schedule

Prepare the ground

Lay cables for services

Build walls up to DPC

p Figure 1.3 Example programme of work (Gantt chart)

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Scale used with drawings

Technical drawings used in construction Scale(s) Uses

Assembly drawings 1:5, 1:10, 1:20 Assembly drawings provide

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Technical drawings used in construction Scale(s) Uses

Elevation drawings 1:10, 1:20, 1:50 Typical elevation drawings show

Floor plans 1:50, 1:100, 1:200 Floor plans show the

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Technical drawings used in construction Scale(s) Uses

Drawing symbols and hatchings