Basic Electrical Instrument INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Engineering Technology Department
Instructional Material
for
BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT

(EETE 10023)
Prepared by:
Prof. Raymond L. Alfonso
i | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lesson 1
Orientation/VGMO ………………………………………………………………………..2
Self-Assessment ………………………………………………………………….……….3-4
Lesson 2
2.a. Electrical Instrument………………………………………………….………….5-7
2.b. Units, Dimensions, & Standards …………………………………….……..8-10
2.c. Measurement Standards ……………………………………………….………10-13
Lesson 3
3.a. Insulation Tester …………………………………………………………..……..14-19
3.b. Kilowatt-Hour Meter ……………………………………………………………20-24
3.c. Watt Meter …………………………………………………………………..………25-30
3.d. Instrument Transformer ……………………………………………..……….31-36
Lesson 4
4.a. AC/DC Volt Meter …………………………………………………….………….37-43
4.b. Ammeter & Clam Meter ………………………………………..…………….44-47
4.c. Clamp-on Meter …………………………………………………………………..48-50
4.d. Tachometer ………………………………………………………..……………….51-55
Lesson 5
5.a. Galvanometer ……………………………………………….…………………….56-58
5.b. AC/DC Ammeter ………………………………………………………………...59-62
5.c. Power Factor Meter …………………………………………………………….63-71
5.d. Switches …………………………………………………….………………………..72-87
EXAMINATIONS
Quiz 1 ……………………………………………………………………………..………….88-89
Quiz 2…………………………………………………………………………..……….…….90-91
Quiz 3…………………………………………………………………………..……….…….92-93
Quiz 4…………………………………………………………………………..……….…….94-95
FINAL EXAMINATION…………………………………………………………………..96-97
ii | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

The Overview:
Electrical instruments are the metering/measuring devices usually are in the practice of
electrical engineering. Electrical parameters such as voltage, current, and resistance are the usual units
being taken into considerations when in the field of the said course.
The different metering devices to be discuss will able them to acquire the knowledge in what
instruments is to be used and has also interpolate errors during the proceedings of the test.
The Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
 Know the different types of operating principles of metering instruments.

 Know the different errors
 Know the different uses of different instruments
 Identify which devices is to be used
 Familiar with the connections when testing.
OUTLINE
WEEK TOPIC ACTIVITIES
1  Orientation/VMGO Meeting via Messenger / Zoom
 Electrical Instruments Meeting via Messenger / Zoom

 Gross Systematic Errors Activity and Assessment
2-4
 Units, Dimensions, and Standards
 Measurement Standards
 Permanent Moving Coil Instrument Meeting via Messenger / Zoom
 Deflection Instrument Fundamental Activity and Assessment
5-7  Forces in PMMC
 Digital Read Out Meter
 Comparison of Analog and Digital Meter
 Insulation Tester Meeting via Messenger / Zoom
 Kilowatt Hour Meter Activity and Assessment
8-11
 Watt Meter
 Instrument Transformer
 AC/DC Voltmeter Meeting via Messenger / Zoom
 Ammeter/Clamp-Ammeter Activity and Assessment
12-15
 Tachometer
 Phase Sequence Indicator
 Galvanometer Meeting via Messenger / Zoom
 AC/DC Ammeter Activity and
16-18
 Power Factor Meter Assessment
 Swithces
1 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

Lesson 1: Orientation/VGMO
The Overview:
The Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) is a government educational institution

governed by Republic Act Number 8292 known as the Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997,
and its Implementing Rules and Regulations contained in the Commission on Higher Education
Memorandum Circular No. 4, series 1997. PUP is one of the country's highly competent educational
institutions. The PUP Community is composed of the Board of Regents, University Officials,
Administrative and Academic Personnel, Students, various Organizations, and the Alumni.
Governance of PUP is vested upon the Board of Regents, which exercises policy-making
functions to carry out the mission and programs of the University by virtue of RA 8292 granted by the
Commission on Higher Education. The University is administered by an appointed President by virtue of
RA 8292 and is assisted by an Executive Vice President and the Vice Presidents for Academic Affairs,
Student Services, Administration, Research, Extension and Development, and Finance.
The Learning Objectives:
After successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:
 Recite the vision, mission, goals and objectives of the University.

 Identify the content of the syllabus, references, classroom rules and regulations, and
grading system.
Orientation:
Please read page 1 to 3 of this course material.
VMGO
University Vision
Clearing the paths while laying new foundations to transform the Polytechnic University of the
Philippines into an epistemic community.

University Mission
Reflective of the great emphasis being given by the country's leadership aimed at providing
appropriate attention to the alleviation of the plight of the poor, the development of the citizens, and
of the national economy to become globally competitive, the University shall commit its academic
resources and manpower to achieve its goals through:
1. Provision of undergraduate and graduate education which meet international standards of

quality and excellence;
2. Generation and transmission of knowledge in the broad range of disciplines relevant and
responsive to the dynamically changing domestic and international environment;
3. Provision of more equitable access to higher education opportunities to deserving and qualified
Filipinos; and
4. Optimization, through efficiency and effectiveness, of social, institutional, and individual returns
and benefits derived from the utilization of higher education resources.
Self- Assessment 1:
1. What is the vision of Polytechnic University of the Philippines?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. During this Covid19 pandemic, the University implements online or modular learning
platforms. Which among the missions of the University is being achieved by this?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Self-Assessment Answer 2:
1. Clearing the paths while laying new foundations to transform the Polytechnic University of
the Philippines into an epistemic community.
2. Generation and transmission of knowledge in the broad range of disciplines relevant and
responsive to the dynamically changing domestic and international environment;

Lesson 2:
2.a. Electrical Instruments

2.b. Units, Dimensions, & Standards
2.c. Measurement Standards
2.a. Electrical Instrument

The instrument by w/c quantity of anything is measured is known as measuring instrument.
When such an instruments remains connected in the electrical circuit to measure electrical quantity and
is operated by electrical current, it is called electrical measuring instruments. There are various types of
electrical instrument. These instruments are widely used for the measurement of different electrical
quantities such as current, voltage, power, etc.
TWO TYPES OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENT - Gives the value of the electrical quantity in terms of instrument
constant. Such instruments do not require any comparison with standard instruments. The use of these
instruments is limited to laboratory work only.
SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS- Indicates electrical quantities directly through the deflection of the
pointer on the scale of the instrument. Before putting into use these instruments are calibrated with
standard instruments, such instruments have the biggest application in the field of electrical
measurement.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
INDICATING INSTRUMENTS - Indicates directly the instantaneous value of the electrical

quantities at a particular time of observation in such an instrument, a pointer moving over a calibrated
scale indicates the value of the quantity. Ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter are the example of this type
of instruments.
INTEGRATING INSTRUMENTS - When the instrument measures the total quantity of electricity
or electrical energy consumption over a certain period of time. Ampere – hour meters, kilowatt Hour
meter come under this class of instruments.
RECORDING INSTRUMENTS- Gives a continuous record of the variations of the electrical

quantity being measured over a considerable period of time. In such an instruments the moving system

curries an inked pen. This pen rests on a chart wrapped over a drum which moves slowly at a uniform
speed. The drum moves in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the pen. The path traced out by
the pen on the chart indicates the variations in magnitude of the electrical quantity under observation
over a given period.
GROSS ERRORS AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
No electronic components or instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inaccuracy.
It is important to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even
greater errors in measurement systems. Although it is possible that in some cases errors might almost
completely cancel each other out, the worst case combination of errors must always be a assumed. A
part from equipment errors, some operator or observer error is inevitable. Also even when equipment
errors are very small, the system of using the instruments can introduce a systematic error. Errors of
unexplainable origin are classified as random errors. Where accuracy is extremely important, some
errors can be minimized by taking many readings of each instruments and determining mean values.
Gross error are essentially human errors are the result of carelessness. One of the most common errors
is the simple misreading of an instrument. Sometimes ammeter is read correctly but the reading is
recorded incorrectly, or perhaps it is recorded in the wrong column in a table of measurements.
Everyone makes these kind of mistakes occasionally, they can be avoided only by taking care in using
and reading all instruments and by thinking about whether or not each measurement make sense.
Measurement errors will occur if the accuracy of an instrument has not been calibrated. Errors will also
occur with analog instruments, if the pointer has not been mechanically zeroed before use. Analog
ohmmeter must also be electrically zeroed for correct use; these kinds of errors can be termed gross
errors, because they can be avoided with care. However they might also be classified as systematic
errors, because they are the result of the measurement system. Other systematic error occurs because
the measurement system affects the measurement quantity. Errors that are result of instrument
inaccuracy are also systematic errors, where more than one instrument is involved; the errors due to
instrument inaccuracy tend to accumulate. The overall measurement error is then usually larger than
the error in any one instrument.
DIGITAL READ OUT METER/DIGITAL MULTIMETER

This type of instrument has become very popular because the digital automatically with decimal
point, polarity and the unit for V.A. or Ω. Digital meters are generally easier to use because they
eliminate the human error that often occurs in reading different scale on an analog meter with a
pointer.
The basis of the DMM operation is the use of a digital converter circuit. It converts analog
voltage values in the input to an equivalent binary form. These values are processed by digital circuits to
be shown on the visual display with decimal values. The liquid-crystal display (LCD) is generally used.
The main advantage of a digital meter is the fact that it’s easy for everybody to read and there is
no chance for interpolation errors. This is ideal for utility meter, clocks and some kinds of ammeters,
voltmeters and watt meters. It works well when the value of the quantity does not change often or fast.

There are some situations in which a digital meter is a disadvantage. One good example is the
signal strength indicator in a radio receiver. This meter bounces up and down as signal fade or as you
tuned the radio or sometimes even as the signal modulates. A digital meter will show nothing but a
constantly changing, meaningless set of numerals. Digital meters require a certain length of time to lock
in the current, voltage, power, or other quantity being measured. If this quantity never settles at any
value for a long enough time, the meter can never be locking in.
The main advantages of analog meters are that they allow interpolation. They give the operator
a sense of the quantity relative to other possible values, and they follow along when the quantity
changes. Some engineers and technicians prefer analog metering, even in situations where digital meter
would work just as well.
One potential hang-up with digital meters is being certain of where the decimal point goes. If
you’re off by one (digital) decimal place, the error will be a factor of 10. Also, you need to be sure you
know what the units are comparisons of digital and analog multi meters.
Digital multi meters are superior to analog instruments in at least two important categories,
accuracy and durability. The accuracy of good quality analog instruments is typically plus minus 2% of
full scale, which means plus minus 4% on a half scales reading and worse farther down the scale. The
least expensive digital meters can have an accuracy of better than plus minus 0.6% of the measured
quantity. Many analog instruments that used taut-band suspension can survive drops to floor bench top
levels, but they are likely to be damaged by greater drops. The mechanism of jeweled-bearing
instruments will most certainly damage when the instrument is dropped. Digital multi meters can
handle much tougher treatment and still give good service and many are designed to be water proof.
Analog instruments may also suffer damaged if connected with the wrong polarity of if the measured
voltage or current exceed the selected range. A digital instrument will simply indicate a negative
quantity when connected in reverse and will switch automatically to an appropriate range or indicate
overload when the measured quantity is excessive. Monitoring a changing condition of a measured
quantity is one application for which many people prefer analog instruments. The pointer of the analog
instrument seems to respond more quickly than the digital display. However, digital instrument have
greater solution than analog meter, so a very small change in a measured quantity will be most clearly
indicated by a digital meter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucGgo-CMYRM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5BfMdI3cwk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gkeJzRrwe5k
Basic Electrical Instrument links

2.b. UNITS, DIMENSIONS & STANDARDS
Before standard system of measurement was invented, many approximate units were used. A
long distance was often measured by the number of days, it would take to ride a horse over the
distance, a horse height was measured in hands, and liquid was measured by the bucket or barrel. With
the development of science and engineering more accurate units had to be device. The English speaking
people adopted the foot and mile for measuring distances, the pound for mass & gallon for liquid. Other
nations followed the lead of the French in adopting a metric system, in which large and small units are
very conveniently related by a factor of 10. With the increase of world trade and the exchange of
scientific information between nations, it became necessary to establish a single system of units of
measurement that would be acceptable internationally. After several world conferences on the matter,
a metric system which uses the meter, kilogram, and second as fundamental unit has now been
generally adopted around the world. This is known as the SI or International System.
SI MECHANICAL UNITS
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
UNIT OF LENGTH- meter (m)
UNIT OF MASS - kilogram (kg)
UNIT OF TIME - second (s)
UNIT OF FORCE (MASS X ACCELERATION) FORCE- NEWTON (N)(M/S)
UNIT OF WORK - (force x distance)
WORK- joule ( j ) (newton -meter)
UNIT OF ENERGY
ENERGY - joule (J)
UNIT OF POWER - waH (w)
SI ELECTRICAL UNITS
UNIT OF CHARGE - coulomb ( c)

UNIT OF CURRENT - ampere (A)
UNIT OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE- volts ( v )
UNIT OF RESISTANCE - ohm
UNIT OF CONDUCTANCE - siemens
UNIT OF MAGNETIC FLUX - weber (wb)
UNIT OF MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY - tesla
UNIT OF INDUCTANCE - henry
UNIT OF CAPACITANCE- farad ( f )

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Very large or very small numbers are conveniently written as a number, multiplied by 10 raised
to a power. Note that SI systems of units, spaces are used instead of commas when writing large
numbers. Four numeral numbers are an exception. One thousand is written as
1000, while ten thousand is 10,000
SCIENTIFIC
VALUE PREFIX SYMBOL
NOTATION
1 000 000 000 000 10-12 Tera T
1 000 000 000 10-9 Giga G
1 000 000 10-6 Mega M
1 000 10-3 Kilo K
100 10-2 Hecto h
10 10 Deka da
0.1 10-1 Deci d
0.01 10-2 Centi c
0.001 10-3 Milli m
0.000 001 10-6 Micro
0.000 000 001 10-9 Nano n
0.000 000 000 001 10-12 Pico p
SI UNITS AND SYMBOLS

UNIT
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT
SYMBOL
Length l Meter m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time t Second s
Area A Square meter m2
Volume V Cubic meter m3
Velocity v Meter per second M/s
Acceleration a Meter per second per second M/s2
Force f Newton N
Pressure p Newton per squre meter N/m2
Work W Joule J
Power P Watt W
Electric Current I Ampere A
Electric Charge Q Coulomb C
EMF V Volt V
Electric Field Strength E Volt per meter V/m
Resistance R Ohm Ω

Capacitance C Farad F
Inductance L Henry H
Magnetic Field Strength H Ampere per meter A/m
Magnetic Flux Φ Weber Wb
Magnetic Flux Density B Tesla T
2.c. MEASUREMENT STANDARDS

WORKING STANDARD
Electrical measurement standards are preciss resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources,
which can be used for comparison purposes when measuring electrical quantities. The standard
resistors, capacitors and inductors usually found in an electronics laboratory are classified as working
standard. Working standard resistors are normally constructed of managing or a similar material which
has a very low temperature coefficient.
STANDARD CLASSIFICATION
Measurement standard are classified in four levels international standard, primary standard,
secondary standards and working standard. Thus, the working standards already discussed are the lower
level of standards. International standards are defined by international agreements and are maintained
at the bureau of weight and measures in France. These are as accurate as it is scientifically possible to
achieve. They may be used for comparison, w/ primary standards, but are otherwise unavailable for any
application. Primary standards are maintained at institutions in various countries around the world such
as National Bureau of Standard. They are also constructed for the greatest possible accuracy and their
main functions are checking the accuracy of secondary standards. Secondary standards are employed in
industry as references for calibrating high accuracy equipment and components and for verifying the
accuracy of working standard. Secondary standards are periodically checked at the institutions that
maintain primary standards. In summary, working standards are used as measurement references on a
day to day basis in virtually all electronic laboratories Secondary standards are more accurate than
working standard and are used through industry for checking working standards and for calibrating high
accuracy equipment Primary standards are more accurate than secondary. Then are maintained to the
highest possible accuracy by National Institutions as references for calibrating secondary standards
International standards are maintained by international agreement and may be used for checking
primary standards.
MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Consist basically of a light weight coil of wire suspended in a field of permanent magnet. Current
in the wire causes the coil to produce a magnetic field that interacts with the field from the magnet;
resulting in partial rotation of coil a pointer connected to the coil deflects over a calibrated scale,
indicating in the level of current flowing in the wire. The PMMC instruments is essentially a low level DC
ammeter, however, with the use of parallel connected resistors, it can be employed to measure a wide
range of direct current levels, the instrument may also be made to function as a DC voltmeter by
connecting appropriate value of resistors in series with the coil. AC ammeters and voltmeters can be

constructed by using rectifier circuits with PMMC instruments. Ohmmeters can be made from precision
resistors, PMMC instruments and batteries. Multirange meters are available that combine ammeter volt
meter and ohmmeter functions one instrument. The electrodynamics instruments are similar to the
PMMC instrument except that it uses stationary coils instead of a permanent magnet. The most
important application of the electro dynamic instrument is as a Wattmeter.
DEFLECTION INSTRUMENT FUNDAMENTALS
A deflection instrument uses a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale to indicate a measured
quantity for this to occur three forces are operating electromechanical mechanism or movement)
Inside a deflecting force, a controlling force and a damping force. The deflecting force causes the pointer
to move position when a current flows. In the permanent magnet moving coil instrument the deflecting
force is magnetic. When current flows in a light weight moving coil pivoted between the poles of a
permanent magnet the current sets up a magnetic field that instructs with the field of the permanent
magnet a force is exerted on a current carrying conductor situated in a magnetic field. Consequently, a
force is exerted on the coil turns as illustrated causing the coil to rotate on its pivot. The pointer is fixed
to the coil, so it moves over the scale as the coil rotates.
The controlling force in the PMMC instrument is provided by spiral springs (Fig. 1b). The springs
retain the coil and pointer at their zero position when no current is flowing. When current flows, the
springs “wind up” as the coil rotates, and the force they exert on the coil increases. The coil and pointer
stop rotating when the controlling force becomes equal to the deflecting force. The spring material must
be non-magnetic to avoid any magnetic field influence on the controlling force. Since the springs are
also used to make electrical connection to the coil, they must have a low resistance phosphor bronze is
the material usually employed.

As illustrated in figure 2 (a), the pointer and cell tend to oscillate for some time before selling
down in their final position A damping force is required to minimize (or damp out) the oscillation. The
damping force must be present only when the coil is in motion thus it must be generated by the rotation
of the Coil. In PMMC instruments, the creeping force is normally provided by eddy currents. The coil
former (or frames) is constructed of aluminum, a non-magnetic conductor. Eddy currents induced in the
coil former set up a magnetic flux that opposes the cell motion thus damping the oscillations of the coil.
See figure 2 (b).

Two methods of supporting the moving system of a deflection instrument are illustrated in
Figures to the jeweled - bearing suspension to Figure 3(a), the painted ends of shafts or pivots fastened
to the coil ore inserted into cone - shaped cuts in jewel (sapphire or glass) bearings. This allows the coil
to rotate freely with the least possible friction. Although the coil is normally very light weight the
pointed end of the pivots have extremely small areas, so the surface load per unit are can be
considerable, In some cases the bearings maybe broken the shock of an instrument being slammed
down heavily upon a bench. Some jewel bearings are spring supported (as illustrated) to absorb such
shocks more easily.
The taut band method in Figure 3(b) is much tougher than jeweled - bearing suspension. As
illustrated, two flat metal ribbons (phospor bronze or platinum alloy) are held under tension by springs
to support the coil. Because of the springs, the metal ribbon behave like rubber under tension, The
ribbon also exert controlling force as they twist, and they can be used to electrical connections to the
moving coil. Because there is less friction, taut - band instrument can be much more sensitive than the
jeweled -bearing type, the most sensitive jeweled - bearing instrument give full - scale deflection (FSD)
with a coil current of 25 microampere. With taut band suspension (FSD) may be achieved with as little as
2 microampere of coil current. The fact that the spring-mounted ribbon behaves as a rubber band
makes the instrument extremely rugged compared to a jeweled-bearing instrument. If a jeweled –
bearing is drop to a concrete floor from the bench height, the bearings will almost certainly be
shattered. A taut-band instrument is unlikely to be affected by a similar fall.

LESSON 3:
3.a. Insulation Tester
3.b. KiloWatt-Hour Meter
3.c. Watt Meter
3.d. Instrument Transformer
3.a. INSULATION TESTER
What is Insulation Tester?
Insulation tester used for the measurement of insulation resistance of an electrical system. An
electrical system degrades its quality of insulation resistance with time and various environmental
conditions including temperature, moisture, dust particles & humidity.
History
The Megger is just a brand, known also as the mega-ohm tester, has a long history. The device
has been in regular use since 1903, but the history dates a bit further back to 1889. The device was quite
popular by the 1920s. The term Megger is actually something of a nickname, since the device measures
mega-ohms and it was a meter. It is a combination of the two words.
Through the years, the design and purpose of the test remains the same. The only thing that has
really changed is the design and the level of quality for the testers themselves. Today, it’s possible to
find high quality options that are easy to use and safer than the testers from yesteryear were.

Uses
The device enable us to measure electrical leakage in wire, results are very reliable as we shall
be passing electric current through device while we are testing. The equipment basically uses for
verifying the electrical insulation level of any device such as motors, cables, generators, windings, etc.
This is a very popular test being carried out since very long back. Not necessary it shows us exact area of
electrical puncture but shows the amount of leakage current and level of moisture within electrical
equipment/winding/system.
How to use?
Step 1.
Switch off power to the circuits you are testing. If you are not sure which breakers or fuses
control the circuits, switch off the main breaker. Place a note on the breaker panel advising others not
to switch on the power because you are working on the circuits. Lock the switch closed if possible.
Step 2.
Prepare a table in which you can record the insulation values that result from your tests. For a
110 volt circuit, leave spaces for the test results of the insulation between the black wire and the white
wire and the insulation between each wire and ground. For a 220 volt circuit, leave spaces for the test
results of the insulation between each of the three wires and the other two and between each of the
three wires and ground. For a piece of equipment such as a circuit breaker or an appliance, leave space
for insulation values between each terminal and the other terminals and each terminal and ground.
Step 3.
Select 500 volts DC or 1000 volts DC as the test voltage on your Megger, depending on the
model you are using. Check whether your model has an integrated voltage tester for live circuits. If it
doesn't, check the circuits to be tested with a voltage tester to make sure they are not live.
Place the positive and negative probes of the Megger on the two conductors or terminals
between which you are testing the insulation resistance. If you are testing insulation resistance to
ground, place the positive probe on the ground wire or the grounded metal junction box and the
negative probe on the conductor or terminal. Energize the Megger for 1 minute. Read the value of the
resistance at the end of the minute test and note it in your table. Continue with this testing procedure
until you have values for all the spaces of your table.
Step 4.
Examine the resistance values you have entered in your table. According to the National
Electrical Code, all values should be over 25 MegaOhms. If one of the values differs substantially from all
the others, check your connections and repeat the tests. If a value is below 25 MegaOhms, check the
circuit for the cause of the poor insulation resistance value.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE
• Voltage for testing produced by hand operated megger by rotation of crank in case of hand
operated type; a battery is used for electronic tester.
• 500 Volt DC is sufficient for performing test on equipment range up to 440 Volts.
• 1000 V to 5000 V is used for testing for high voltage electrical systems.
• Deflecting coil or current coil connected in series and allows flowing the electric current taken
by the circuit being tested.
• The control coil also known as pressure coil is connected across the circuit.
• Current limiting resistor (CCR and PCR) connected in series with control and deflecting coil to
protect damage in case of very low resistance in external circuit.
• In hand operated megger electromagnetic induction effect is used to produce the test voltage
i.e. armature arranges to move in permanent magnetic field or vice versa.
• Where as in electronic type megger battery are used to produce the testing voltage.
• As the voltage increases in external circuit the deflection of pointer increases and deflection of
pointer decreases with a increases of current.
• Hence, resultant torque is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to current.
• When electrical circuit being tested is open, torque due to voltage coil will be maximum and
pointer shows ‘infinity’ means no shorting throughout the circuit and has maximum resistance
within the circuit under test.
• If there is short circuit pointer shows ‘zero’, which means ‘NO’ resistance within circuit being
tested.
Work philosophy based on ohm-meter or ratio-meter. The deflection torque is produced with
megger tester due to the magnetic field produced by voltage and current, similarly like ‘Ohm’s
Law’.
The torque of the megger varies in a ration with V/I, (Ohm’s Law:- V = IR or R = V/I). Electrical
resistance to be measured is connected across the generator and in series with deflecting coil.

Produced torque shall be in opposite direction if current supplied to the coil.
1. High Resistance = No Current: No current shall flow through deflecting coil, if resistance is very
high i.e. infinity position of pointer.
2. Small Resistance = High Current :- If circuit measures small resistance allows a high electric
current to pass through deflecting coil, i.e. produced torque make the pointer to set at ‘ZERO’.
3. Intermediate Resistance = Varied Current: If measured resistance is intermediate, produced
torque align or set the pointer between the range of ‘ZERO to INIFINITY’.
TYPES OF INSULATION TESTER
ELECTRONIC TYPE (Battery Operated)
Important parts:
a. Digital Display :- A digital display to show IR value in digital form.
b. Wire Leads :- Two nos of wire leads for connecting megger with electrical external system to be
tested.
c. Selection Switches :- Switches use to select electrical parameters ranges.
d. Indicators :- To indicates various parameters status i.e. On-Off. For Example Power, hold,
warning,etc.
Note: – Above construction is not similar for every megger, it difference appears manufacture to
manufacture but basic construction and operation are same for all.

MANUAL TYPE (Hand Operated)
Important parts:
a. Analog display: Analog display provided on front face of tester for IR value recording.
b. Hand Crank: Hand crank used to rotate helps to achieve desired RPM required generate voltage
which runs through electrical system.
c. Wire Leads: Used same as in electronic tester i.e. for connecting tester with electrical system.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Electronic Type Megger
Advantages:
• Level of accuracy is very high.
• IR value is digital type, easy to read.
• One person can operate very easily.
• Works perfectly even at very congested space.
• Very handy and safe to use.
Disadvantages:
• Require an external source of energy to energies i.e. Dry cell.
• Costlier in market.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Manual Type Megger
Advantages:
• Still keeps important in such high-tech world as it’s an oldest method for IR value determination.
• No external source required to operate.
• Cheaper available in market.
Disadvantages:
• At least 2 person required to operate i.e. one for rotation of crank other to connect megger with
electrical system to be tested.
• Accuracy is not up to the level as it’s varies with rotation of crank.
• Require very stable placement for operation which is a little hard to find at working sites.
• Unstable placement of tester may impact the result of tester.
• Provides an analog display result.
• Require very high care and safety during use of the same.
https: //www.youtube.com/watch?v=gU_9-f0l3-Q
Insulation Tester Link

3.b. Kilowatt-Hour Meter
What is Kilowatt-Hour Meter?
kWh meter is the electric meter that measures the amount of electrical energy in kWh that was
consumed in the house. The kWh meter has a counter display that counts units of kilowatt-hour (kWh).
The energy consumption is calculated by calculating the difference of the counter's reading in the
specified period.
History
Oliver B. Shallenberger Invents the A.C. Watt-Hour Meter
On 14 August 1888 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Oliver B. Shallenberger received a patent for the
watt-hour meter, a device that measured the amount of A.C. current and made possible the business
model of the electric utility. Working on applications for A.C. power, Shallenberger stumbled onto a
solution for the problem of metering. As he was tinkering with an electric arc lamp in 1888, a spring fell
out and fell on a ledge inside the lamp. Shallenberger saw that the spring had rotated. Testing a hunch,
he discovered that the lamp’s spinning electromagnetic fields had caused the spring to turn. Within a

few weeks, Shallenberger designed a wheel that turned in relation to this rotational force, offering a
means of measuring amperes per hour on an alternating current circuit.
Hundreds of thousands of these meters were built in the coming decades, allowing A.C. power
to take off as an everyday consumer technology. Shallenberger’s basic design remains in use today.
Because these meters operated on electrical current’s induced magnetic field, they consumed virtually
no power. Consumers could feel more confident that they were only being charged for the power they
used, and could more accurately monitor their consumption.
AC Energy Meter Working Principle
Energy is the product of power and time and is measured in watt-seconds or Joule. Since the
voltage and current in a DC circuit are constant values, the energy is easily computed from a
measurement of power and time,
• W=Pt JouleW=Pt Joule
• Where W is in watt-seconds or Joules, P in watts and t in seconds. The watt second is a too small
unit and hence the larger unit kilowatt-hour (KWH) is preferred.
• If the current and voltage are not constant, one measures energy directly by the use of a
watthour meter. Both AC and DC watt-hour meters are available, both types are summing or
integrating types. The basic assembly of an AC induction watthour meter is shown in Fig.
The AC induction watthour meter has voltage and current coils, but unlike the wattmeter, all the
coils are stationary. The voltage coil is connected to the source lines, whereas the current coil is
connected in series with the load. The combination of stationary coils is called the stator.
A disk or rotor mounted on a shaft receives a torque through an electromagnetic induction

whenever the two sets of coils are energized. The rotor is mechanically connected to a meter register via
a gear train. A register provides a record of a number of rotor shaft revolutions and is calibrated in
kilowatt-hours. A constant of proportionality, the watthour constant, Kh, is the number of watthours
corresponding to one disk revolution.

Thus the energy in watt-hours is
W=Kh∗disk revolutionsW=Kh∗disk revolutions
And in kilowatt-hours;
W=Kh∗disk revolutions1000
Types of Kilowatt-Hour Meter
Analog meters: also called electromechanical meters. They have an analog display. They do not offer
any connectivity.
Digital meters: also called electric meters. They have a digital display (LCD or LED display), they offer
connectivity and some instant functionalities.

The types of electricity meters are:
• Accumulation meter
• Interval meter
• Smart meter
Accumulation meters, also known as single rate or flat meters, measure how much electricity
has been consumed by the property.
How to read an accumulation meter

There are three types of accumulation meter display (pictured above left to right) – Cyclometer
display, dial display and digital display. The digital and cyclometer displays are easy to read – the display
simply shows how much electricity has been used (kWh).
Dial accumulation meters are slightly more confusing. They have five small dials with numbers 0 to 9.
From left to right, read the numbers the dial hands fall on. If the hand falls between two numbers, then
take the lowest number (unless it falls between 0 and 9, write down 9). The meter dials in the
illustration on the right show a be ignored consumption of 46,925 kWh. The red dial can be ignored.
Accumulation meters require a meter reader to come to the property every three months to
check how much electricity has been used. This is done by calculating the difference between your
current and your previous meter reads. Some energy retailers choose to offer monthly billing, in which
case your bills will be estimated between meter reads.
Interval meters record electricity usage every 30 minutes. This means power retailers can
charge you different rates depending on the time of the day you use electricity.

Interval meters are digital, so they’re pretty straightforward to read. If you want to estimate
your next bill, then you’ll need to make a habit of jotting down the kWh figures displayed. Meter readers
record interval meter data by attaching an optical probe which extracts the interval meter data and then
sends it to the distributor’s systems. The distributor then processes the data up to ten times to ensure
its accuracy before sending it to your retailer for billing.
Smart meters, also commonly known as ‘digital meters’, are the latest in energy metering
technology. Smart meters display your usage in kWh on a small digital screen.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRYESRObKqA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wp7dZH2fgUw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtModjpxfxM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtModjpxfxM
Kilo-Watt hour meter links

3.c. Watt Meter
What is Watt Meter?
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical
energy) in watts of any given circuit.
Other uses are used for measurement of utility frequency and audio frequency power; other
types are required for radio frequency measurements.
History
The Wattmeter was discovered in 1872 by Samuel Gardiner. This was a DC lamp-hour meter that
was a clock with an electromagnet that started and stopped the mechanism.

Construction of a Wattmeter
The internal construction of a wattmeter is such that it consists of two cols. One of the coil is in
series and the other is connected in parallel. The coil that is connected in series with the circuit is known
as the current coil and the one that is connected in parallel with the circuit is known as the voltage coil.
These coils are named according to the convention because the current of the circuit passes
through the current coil and the voltage is dropped across the potential coil, also named as the voltage
coil.
The needle that is supposed to move on the marked scale to indicate the amount of power is
also attached to the potential coil. The reason for this is that the potential coil is allowed to move
whereas the current coil is kept fixed.
• The mechanical construction of a wattmeter is shown in the figure below.
Working of a Wattmeter
• When the current passes through the current coil, it creates an electromagnetic field
around the coil. The strength of this electromagnetic field is directly proportional to the
amount of current passing through it.
• In case of DC current, the current is also in phase with its generated electromagnetic
field. The voltage is dropped across the potential coil and as a result of this complete
process, the needle moves across the scale. The needle deflection is such that it is
according to the product of the current passing and the voltage dropped.

The measurement principle of wattmeter is shown in the figure below:
Applications of Wattmeter
• As other measuring instruments, watt meters are also used extensively in electrical circuit
measurement and debugging.
• They are also used in industries to check the power rating and consumption of electrical
appliances.
• Electromagnetic watt meters are used to measure utility frequencies.
• They are used with refrigerators, electric heaters and other equipment to measure their power
ratings. This was all about watt meters. What they are used for, what is their mechanical
construction and how do they work. As evident, they are of extreme importance and extensive
use in electrical related industries and like other measuring devices, are quite easy to use and
accurate.
How to use a Watt Meter?
You can use a watt meter to determine how much power appliances and other electronic
devices are using around your home. This article will show you how, but with the caveat that some
appliances, like refrigerators and Window Air Conditioners cycle through phases. The watt meter only
provides a snapshot of electricity use at the exact moment it’s plugged in. However, these devices are
exceptionally effective at measuring electricity used when a device is on, and when it’s powered off but
still plugged in (referred to as vampire power).
Things you’ll need:

• A Watt Meter
• Any electronic device or appliance on a standard 120 volt line (with a standard plug)
• 3 prong to 2 prong adapter (if the outlets in the home are 2 prong)

Before proceeding, check out this quick video to see just how easy it is to use a watt meter to
test vampire energy losses, plug loads, etc.:
1. Unplug your electronic device from your wall or power strip.

You’ll need to have the watt meter plugged into your wall or power strip in order for it to work,
so either find an empty plug or unplug the device you’d like to test.
2. Plug your watt meter into your wall outlet or power strip.
Now that you’ve found or made an empty spot for your watt meter go ahead and plug it into
either the wall outlet or power strip. Once you’ve done that you should start to see your watt meter
turn on.
3. Plug your electronic device into your watt meter.

Now that your watt meter is plugged in you’re ready to start testing your electronics. Go ahead
and plug in your first electronic and watch your watt meter. Is it registering anything? If so (and your
electronic device is turned off) than you’ve discovered what is known as vampire power. Now, go ahead
and turn your device on. What does your watt meter read?
Depending on the type of watt meter you have there are several different ways you can view
your findings. One is by simply seeing the actual wattage being consumed by your electronics. However,
some watt meters will allow you to view your findings by both monthly and yearly cost (assuming the
electronic device is running 24/7). At this point we’d recommend that you go from room to room in your
home and check all your electronics to discover where you can be saving money.
0.0 to 0.5
Many times, a watt meter will read something odd, like one very common model that simply
reads 0.0 to 0.5 watts when measuring some devices. This does not mean energy is being used at that
moment–it simply means that the level of energy flowing through the device is small enough not to be
measured accurately by the device. It may well be 0.5, or it may well be 0.
Types of Watt Meter
Electrodynamic
The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair
of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.The current coils are
connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel. Also, on analog
wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A
current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil.

Electronic Watt Meter
Electronic wattmeters are used for direct, small power measurements or for power
measurements at frequencies beyond the range of electrodynamometer-type instruments Prodigit
Model 2000MU (UK version), shown in use and displaying a reading of 10 watts being consumed by the
appliance.
Digital
A modern digital wattmeter samples the voltage and current thousands of times a second. For
each sample, the voltage is multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one
cycle is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent volt-amperes (VA) is the power factor.

Advantages of Digital Multimeters
• They are more accurate than analog multimeters.

• They reduce reading and interpolation errors.
• The 'auto-polarity' function can prevent problems from connecting the meter to a test circuit
with the wrong polarity.
• Parallax errors are eliminated. If the pointer of an analog multimeter is viewed from a different
angle, you will see a different value. This is parallax error. A digital multimeter's numerical
display solves this problem
• Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts. This makes them free from wear and shock
failures.
• The reading speed is increased as it is easier to read.
• Unlike analog multimeters, zero adjustment is not required.
• Accuracy is increased due to digital readout. You can make mistake in reading the scale in analog
multimeter, but digital multimeters have a LCD display to show accurate reading.
• DMMs can be used in testing continuity, capacitors, diodes and transistors. More advanced
digital multimeters can also measure frequency.
• The 'auto-ranging' feature of a digital multimeter helps in selecting different measurement
ranges, which can prevent damage to the meter if the wrong range is selected.
• Portable size makes it easy to carry anywhere.
• Some advanced digital multimeters have microprocessors and can store the readings for further
processing.
Disadvantages of Digital Multimeters
• The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When the battery is low, the
display will be dim, making it difficult to read.
• In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
• Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in measured
value.
• The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which can cause quantization noise giving rise
to error in measured value.
• There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be damaged.
• The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking tunable responses.
• They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nyn2S7eLdB4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Q4l1lQeKPs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVMsBMTVqp0
Wattmeter Links

3.d. Instrument Transformer
History
1830 - Michael Faraday work with electromagnets and discover the property of induction.
1836 - Rev. Nicholas Callan invents the induction coil.
1876 - Pavel Yablochkov uses induction coils in his lighting system.
1878 – 1883 - The Ganz Company uses induction coils in their lighting systems with AC incandescent
systems.
1881 - Charles F. Brush develops his own design of transformer.
1880 – 1882 - Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti creates an early transformer.
1882 - Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first built a “secondary generator” which they designed with
open iron core. The invention was not very efficient to produce. It was first used in a public exhibition in
Italy in 1884.
Later, they designed a step up transformer. They sold to Westinghouse. Later, they lost rights to the
patent when Ferranti took them to court.
Uses
 Used to bring voltage or current up or down in an AC electrical circuit.

 Used in AC system for measurement of electrical quantities. [i.e. voltage, current, power,
energy, power factor, frequency]
 Used to transfer electrical power while isolating powered device from power source for safety
reasons; assures the safety of operators as well.
 Used in power transmission.
How to use?
Current Transformer
 Connect the primary winding to the source

 Use a fuse(s) for safety purposes
 Connect the Secondary Winding to a Ammeter.
 Configure the ammeter.
 Wait for the reading, the supposed accuracy is high.

Voltage Transformer
 Connect the primary winding to the source.

 Use a fuse(s) for safety purposes
 Connect the Secondary Winding to a Voltmeter.
 Configure the Voltmeter.
 Wait for the reading, the supposed accuracy is high.
AMMETER
DIGITAL ANALOG
VOLTMETER
DIGITAL ANALOG
Using Current and Potential Transformer

Operating Principle
Current Transformer
 is designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to

the current being measured in its primary
 reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a convenient way of safely
monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard
ammeter
 Consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding.
 are a series connected type of instrument transformer
 Uses Step-up Transformer to reduce current to secondary coil.
 Primary winding is the coil that draws power from the source. The secondary winding is the coil
that delivers the energy at the transformed or changed voltage to the load. Usually, these two
coils are subdivided into several coils in order to reduce the creation of flux.
Ratios
Most current transformers have a the standard secondary rating of 5 amps with the primary and
secondary currents being expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. This means that the primary current is 20
times greater than the secondary current so when 100 amps is flowing in the primary conductor it will
result in 5 amps flowing in the secondary winding. A current transformer of say 500/5, will produce 5
amps in the secondary for 500 amps in the primary conductor, 100 times greater.
Phases of CT’s
CT’s Representation

Voltage Transformer
 The primary winding consists of a large number of turns which is connected across the high
voltage side while the secondary winding has lesser number of turns which is connected to the
voltmeters.
 A voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a high voltage circuit to a lower
level for the purpose of measurement.
 These are connected across or parallel to the line which is to be monitored.
 These can be single phase or three phase potential transformers.
 Irrespective of the primary voltage rating, these are designed to have the secondary output
voltage of 110 V.
Ratio
The PT is typically described by its voltage ratio from primary to secondary. A 600:120 PT will
provide an output voltage of 120 volts when 600 volts are impressed across its primary winding.
Standard secondary voltage ratings are 120 volts and 70 volts, compatible with standard measuring
instruments.
4 PT’s Representation
Current Transformer Potential Transformer

Types of instrument transformer
1. Current transformer
2. Potential transformer
Current transformer
• a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to produce an alternating current in

its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its
primary.
• Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a
convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC
transmission line using a standard ammeter.
Three basic types of current transformers
Wound Current Transformer
• Have a primary winding that is directly connected to the conductor in a series. The
conductor is the device that measures the actual input current. The resulting “stepped
down” current is completely dependent on the turns ratio available between the
primary and secondary windings in the transformer chosen.
Toroidal Current Transformer
• Slightly different in that they don’t have a primary winding at all. Rather the conductor
is threaded directly into the transformer via a hole or window. This is a configuration
that is commonly seen in split core transformers because it allows them to be opened
and closed without disrupting the circuit they are attached to.
Bar type current transformers
• Doesn’t have a primary winding of its own. It uses the actual cable or bus bar of the
existing circuit as its primary winding, giving it a single turn type configuration. These
are often used in high voltage circuit situations because of their ability to be 100%
insulated from high operating voltage environments and ability to handle larger
currents.

Potential Transformers
• A voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a high voltage circuit to a lower
level for the purpose of measurement.
• The primary winding consists of a large number of turns which is connected across the high
voltage side or the line in which measurements have to be taken or to be protected. The
secondary winding has lesser number of turns which is connected to the voltmeters.
Types of Voltage or Potential Transformers
Conventional Wound Type Transformer
• Very expensive because of the requirement of the insulations.

• A wire-round type of transformer.
Capacitor Potential Transformer
• A combination of capacitor potential divider and a magnetic potential transformer of relatively

small ratio.
• Utilized for higher voltages
Optical Potential Tranformers
• Used in optical equipment applications to measure resistance and reactances.
http://youtube.com/watch?v=YSMGYf4hozo – Instrument Transformer

LESSON 4
4.a. AC/DC Volt Meter
4.b. Ammeter and Clamp Meter
4.c. Clamp-On Meter
4.d. Tachometer
History of Voltmeter
Hans Christian Oersted (1820)
The original principals behind voltmeters were established by a Danish physicist named Hans Christian
Oersted (1777-1851) in 1820, when he discovered that an electric current in a wire produced a magnetic
field around it.
André-Marie Ampère (1820)

The first ammeter, which is actually just an extremely sensitive and nonresistant voltmeter, was used by
physicist Andre Ampere as early as 1820 to measure current.
Pliotron as he called it). The triode became a key component of vacuum tube voltmeters as well as
amplifiers used in radio and television. Schenectady, New York

VOLTMETER
Voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit.
Analog Voltmeter
Note: voltmeter is constructed

in such a way that it has a very
high value of resistance.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF VOLTMETER
The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we want to
measure the voltage. Parallel connection is used because a voltmeter is constructed in such a way that it
has a very high value of resistance. So if that high resistance is connected in series than the current flow
will be almost zero which means the circuit has become open.
Actual picture of voltmeter used in series. Diagram of voltmeter in series.

If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high resistance of the
voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the impedance that the load had. Also
in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same so the voltage between the voltmeter and the load is
almost same and hence voltmeter measures the voltage.
Actual picture of voltmeter used in parallel. Diagram of voltmeter used in parallel.
DC VOLTMETER
DC voltmeter is a measuring instrument,

which is used to measure the DC voltage
across any two points of electric circuit.
Circuit diagram of DC voltmeter
AC VOLTMETER
The instrument, which is used to measure

the AC voltage across any two points of
electric circuit
Circuit diagram of AC voltmeter

The main difference of AC voltmeter to DC voltmeter is that AC voltmeter use rectifier while DC
voltmeter does not.
Circuit diagram of AC voltmeter Circuit diagram of DC voltmeter
NOTE: Rectifier is an electrical device which converts an AC into DC by allowing a current to flow through it in one
direction only.
TYPES OF VOLTMETER
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Voltmeter
It is an instrument that allows you to measure the current through a coil

by observing the coil’s angular deflection in a uniform magnetic field:
and is only used for measuring DC currents.
2. Moving Iron Voltmeter
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be

attracted by the magnet. The force of this attraction depends upon the
strength of the said magnetic field. If the magnet is electro magnet then
the magnetic field can be easily calibrated by the current through the
coil.

3. Electrodynamometer
There are two types of coil present in the electrodynamometer. They
are the moving coil that moves the pointer with the help of spring
control, and the fixed coil that is divided into two equal parts and are
connected in series with the load, therefore the load current will flow
through these coils.
4. Rectifier Voltmeter
They are used for AC or DC measurements. For DC measurement
we have to connect a PMMC meter which measures pulsating DC
voltage which measures rectified voltage which is connected
across the bridge rectifier.
5. Induction Type Voltmeter

The operation of induction type instruments depends on the
production of torque due to reaction between two magnetic fluxes
having some phase difference OR reaction between flux of an AC
magnet and the eddy current induced by this flux. These types of
instruments are used only foe AC measurements.
6. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter

Electrostatic Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the
mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached
to a spring. These types of instruments are used for high voltage AC
measurements as well as DC. These are of electrostatic disc type capacitor
connected across the circuit which is to be measured. The electrostatic
voltmeters can be categorized into three types based on the mechanical
configuration. Those are repulsion, attraction, and symmetrical. Deflecting
system consists of deflector which is suspended from a torsion filament or it
can be pivoted by the bearings.

7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
The Digital Voltmeter is an instrument which can give the output
voltage not by deflection but directly indicating the value. It is a
very good instrument to measure the voltage as it eliminates
completely the error due to parallax, approximation in
measurement, high-speed reading can be done and it can also
be stored in memory for further analysis. The main principle is
that the value is measured by the same circuit arrangement but
that value is not used to deflect the pointer, but it is fed to the
analog to digital converter and displayed as the digital value.
Advantages of Analog Voltmeters
 Analogneedle movement gives a better idea of

order of magnitude and trend than a digital
readout.
 Does not require a power supply beyond the test
current source.
Disadvantages of Analog Voltmeters
 Multiple scales can cause confusion

 Lacks auto-polarity technology, incorrectly
connected test leads can result in needle
deflection and damage to the device.
 Parallax error, which occurs to improper reading of analog measurements.

Advantages of Digital Voltmeter
 It can be programmed, so controlling by computer can be

achieved.
 It has automatic range selection.
 Gives good stability.
 It provides better resolution, for example it can be read
on 1 volt input range.
 The internal calibration does not depend on the
measuring circuit.
 It has high speed reading.
Disadvantages of Digital Voltmeter
 It gives some extra feature and it’s much more expensive.

 Speed of operation is limited due to the digitizing circuit.
 It is usually very hard to spot transient voltage spikes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbxxlvw2HZc – AC/DC Volt Meter

4.b. Ammeter and Clamp Meter
What is Ammeter?
 It is an instrument for measuring electric current in amperes (A).
 Instrument used to measure smaller currents such as milliampere and microampere.
History:
 The moving-iron meter was invented by Austrian engineer Friedrich Dexler in 1884.
Types of Ammeter:
1. Permanent moving coil ammeter
 Instrument that allows you to measure the current through a coil by observing the coil’s angular
deflection in an uniform magnetic field.

2. Moving iron ammeter
 This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving-
coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron element consists of a moving vane
attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil.
3. Electro-dynamometer ammeter
 An electro-dynamometer is an instrument used for measuring the electric power. The basic
principle was laid out in an 1848 paper by Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891): when the same current
passes through two concentric coils placed at right angles to each other, the resulting torque
depends on the square of the current.

4. Rectifier type ammeter
 The rectifier ammeter uses the moving coil along with the rectifier for measuring the
current. The main use of the rectifier is to convert the alternating current into the direct
current
Uses of Ammeter:
 It is used to measure electrical current in units of amperes.

 The use of ammeter is vast, ranging from school laboratories to construction industries.
 It is also used to measure the flow of current through the wiring of newly constructed buildings
to ensure that the current is not too high or too low and has the ability to power electrical
devices within a safe range.
How to use an Ammeter:
1. Set the ammeter current type and range.

2. Test the infernal fuse of your ammeter.
3. Break the circuit.
4. Connect the ammeter leads to the circuit.
5. Restore power to the circuit and take the reading.
6. Cut power and return the circuit to normal.

Advantages:
 It able to provide accurate reading that can be easily be noted.

 They can be battery powered.
 They are portable and can be taken outdoors to circuit that do not have any power source near
them.
Disadvantages:
 The disadvantage of using ammeter is that you can easily burn them out. It doesn’t take much.
 It has low resistance and any mistake will let a current surge through. It will happen so fast you
wouldn’t have a chance to do anything.

4.c. Clamp Meter
What is Clamp Meter?
 It is an electrical test tool that combines a basic digital multimeter with a current sensor.
History:
 Amprobe invented the first clamp meter in 1948 and has continued to innovate and evolve.
Types of Clamp Meter:
1. Current transformer clamp ammeter
 It is equipped with rigid jaws made of ferrite iron. The jaws are individually wrapped by coil of
copper wire. Also, it only measures alternating current.

2. Hall effect clamp ammeter
 It can measure both AC and DC current up to the kilohertz (1000 Hz) range. Like current
transformer clamp, it uses iron jaws to concentrate the magnetic field but unlike current
transformer clamp meter, the jaws are not wrapped by copper wire. Instead, the magnetic field
generated by the conductor is focused across one or more gaps in the core after the jaws are
clamped around the conductor.
3. Flexible clamp ammeter
 Also known as Rogowski coils. Unlike current transformer and Hall Effect clamp meters, they
have no iron core. Instead, they use wound, helix-shaped coil which responds to the rate of
change of a conductor’s magnetic field around which they are place. It only measure AC current
and it is more efficient to use in tight places.
Uses:
 Used to measure the current flowing through a conductor.

 An AC Clamp meter basically consists of a current transformer in its jaws, bar CT usually.
 A DC Clamp meter is quite different. It uses a Hall Effect sensor for measuring the current.
 A clamp meter measures the vector sum of the currents flowing in all the conductors passing
through the probe.

How to use a Clamp meter:
1. Switch ON the meter and remove the probes (if attached).

2. Select the AC current or DC current function using the dial.
3. Open the jaw-like structure using the side lever and insert the conductor through which the
current is to be measured.
4. Then close the jaw-like structure and level the conductor between the alignments marks
inscribed on the jaws.
5. The display will show the appropriate reading. Users can change the resolution as per
requirements, but most meter models do this automatically.
Note: It is recommended that all measurements should be taken for conductors that are insulated
properly. DO NOT measure around live wires.
Advantages:
 They are used for a wide range of measurements and are best suited for use in noisy electrical
environments.
 It provides hassle free measurement and increases efficiency and productivity as it is not
necessary to shut down the circuit supply.
Disadvantages:
 The only disadvantage of this test equipment (Clamp meter or Tong tester) is that the accuracy
of the tong-tester is considerably low.
Importance:
Today’s clamp meters include most of the basic functions of a digital multimeter (DMM), such as the
ability to measure coltage, continuity and resistance.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-KfZvbjyBY – Clamp-on Meter

4.d. Tachometer
History of Tachometer
The first Tachometer is widely considered to have been developed by the German engineer,
Dietrich Uhlhorn in 1817. Uhlhorn needed a gauge to measure the speed of machines. Little did he
know that within 200 years this simple device was going to be a standard feature on vehicles driving in
every continent on the Earth.
The Tachometer was first used to measure speed on a vehicle (a locomotive) in 1840. Even though the
first petrol or gasoline powered automobile was developed in 1886 (by Karl Benz), it is unclear when the
first car featured a Tachometer.
Types of Tachometer
 Analog tachometers - Comprise a needle and dial-type of

interface. They do not have provision for storage of readings and
cannot compute details such as average and deviation. Here, speed is
converted to voltage via use of an external frequency to voltage
converter. This voltage is then displayed by an analog voltmeter.

 Digital tachometers - Comprise LCD or LED readout and a
memory for storage. These can perform statistical operations, and are
very suitable for precision measurement and monitoring of any kind of
time based quantities. Digital tachometers are more common these
days and they provide numerical readings instead of using dials and
needles.
 Contact and non-contact tachometers – The contact type is in

contact with the rotating shaft. The non-contact type is ideal for
applications that are mobile, and uses a laser or optical disk. In the
contact type, an optical encoder or magnetic sensor is used. Both these
types are data acquisition methods.
 Time and frequency measuring tachometers – Both these

are based on measurement methods. The time measurement
device calculates speed by measuring the time interval between
the incoming pulses; whereas, the frequency measurement
device calculates speed by measuring the frequency of the
incoming pulses. Time measuring tachometers are ideal for low
speed measurements and frequency measuring tachometers are
ideal for high speed measurements.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 Pulses are fed to the tachometer at the frequency to be measured. A scale factor is applied
to produce readings of desired types (linear speed, flow rates, etc.)
Two Basic Principles:
1. Principle of fixed time based tachometer

2. Principle of reciprocal tachometer

 The ignition system triggers a voltage pulse at the output of tachometer electrochemical
part whenever the spark plug fires.
 The electrochemical part responds to the average voltage of the series of pulses.
 It shows that the average voltage of the pulse train is proportional to the engine speed.
 The signal from the perception head is transmitted by standard twin screened cable to the
indicator.
 The tachometers are temperature compensated to be able to handle operations over a
range of -20 to +70 degress.
Advantages and disadvantages
 Tachometers have brushes, which wear, and need to be maintained.


 Tachometers have magnets, which can weaken over time, or if overheated, and cause
erroneous measurements.

 Tachometers output an analog voltage, which is proportional only to speed, so rotor angle
cannot be determined like with an encoder.

 Due to the analog voltage, they are also suceptible to loading effect, depending on the
input impedance of the measurement device or other factors in the circuit, especially at
low speed.

 Not as accurate as an encoder, especially at low speed.

 Analog tachometers generally cost more than encoders because they are more material-
intensive, and also due to being phased out in favor of encoders; hard to find and
expensive when you find them.

Phase Sequence Indicator
The sequence in which three phase voltages attain their positive maximum values is defined as
the phase sequence. It refers to the relation between the voltages or currents in three phase
system. Consider the three phases as red-R, yellow-Y and blue-B phases.
Types of Phase Sequence Indicator
 Rotating Type
 Static Type
Rotating Type Phase Sequence Indicators
 The rotating type phase sequence indicators show the direction of the phase sequence by rotating
the disc placed at the centre of the instrument. It has three terminals which are connected to the
terminals of the measured devices.
 The eddy EMF causes the eddy current in the disc. The interaction of the eddy current and the
rotating magnetic field produces the torque because of which the disc starts rotating.
 The direction of the disc shows the phase sequence of the supply system. If the disc rotates in the
clockwise direction, the phase sequence is RYB. The anticlockwise direction of the aluminium disc
is because of the reverse phase sequence.

Static Type Phase Sequence Indicators
 The static phase sequence indicators consist two lamps and an inductor. The device whose phase
sequence is used to be known is connected to the static phase sequence indicators. If the lamp 1 is
dim and the lamp 2 glows brightly, then the phase sequence of supply is RYB.
 If the lamp 1 glows brightly and the lamp 2 is dim, the device has reverse phase sequence. The
brightness of the lamp depends on the voltage drops occurs across it. The working of the static
phase sequence supply can more easily be understood with the help of the following analysis.
 Let the phase sequence of the supply is RYB, and the relationship of the phase concerning the
voltage is VRY, VBY and VRB as shown in the figure below.
Working Principle
 It works on the principle of induction motors. The principle of rotating type phase sequence
indicator is similar to that of a three phase motor. Consider the working of a motor for a better
understanding of these indicators. For three phase motors, we require three phase power supply,
whereas this three phase power must be supplied in a particular sequence. Let us assume that the
three phase supply given to the motor has a phase sequence of RYB, then the motor will rotate in
clockwise direction – and, if the phase sequence of supply is reversed, then the motor will rotate in
counter clockwise direction. This may cause severe problems to the load and entire system.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVSQLfnKytk – Tachometer

Lesson 5:
5.a. Galvanometer
5.b. AC/DC Ammeter
5.c. Power Factor Meter
5.d. Switches
4.a. GALVANOMETER
What is Galvanometer?
The device used for detecting the presence of small current and voltage or for measuring their
magnitude
History:
1820 - The earliest galvanometer was reported by Johann Schweigger at the University of Halle on 16
September 1820.
1826 - William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) from the early design invented in 1826
1882 - Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval and Marcel Deprez
By 1888, Edward Weston
Working Principle
It works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current flows
in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic torque. If it is free to rotate under a controlling torque, it
rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through it

Types of Galvanometer
1. Tangent Galvanometer
2. Astatic Galvanometer
3. Mirror Galvanometer
4. Ballistic Galvanometer
TANGENT GALVANOMETER
It works by using a compass needle to compare the magnetic field generated by an unknown
current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It contains an insulated copper wire coil on a non-magnetic
circular frame
ASTATIC GALVANOMETER
It contains two magnetized needles that run parallel to each other, suspended by a silk thread,
with their magnetic poles reversed. The lower needle gets deflected by the passing current’s magnetic
field. The second needle cancels out the diapole movement of the first one to cancel out the effects of
Earth’s magnetic field.

MIRROR GALVANOMETER
It is used to achieve higher sensitivity for detecting extremely small currents. It contains
horizontal magnets which are suspended from a fine fiber inside of the vertical coil, with an attached
mirror to its magnets. A beam of light reflects from the mirror acts as a long mass-less pointer by falling
on a graduated scale across the room.
BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER
It is sensitive in mature and used to measure the quantity of charge that is discharged through
it. The moving part of the galvanometer has a large moment of inertia, giving it a long oscillation period.
It may be of the moving coil type or of the moving magnet type.
ADVANTAGES
- A moving coil galvanometer can be made highly sensitive increasing number of turns in
coils, magnetic field, area of the coil, and decreasing torsion constant of the spring.
- As the coil is wound over a metallic frame, the eddy currents produced in the frame
bring coil to rest quickly.
DISADVANTAGES
- Its sensitiveness cannot be changed at will.

- All types of galvanometer are easily damaged by overloading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZmkgs97tCo – Galvanometer

4.b. AC/DC Ammeter
History of Ammeter
1870-1890 Philip Lange his Westinghouse engineer developed galvanometers including circuit
controllers, voltmeters and ammeters.
1870 - Edward Weston he was an early innovator in the electrical industry developing DC systems in the
1870s
1880 - Elihu Thomson developed many types of magnetic coil driven ammeters for use with his
complete DC electrical systems in the 1880s.
1888-1910 - William Stanley this great inventor of western Massachusetts was not only a pioneer of
early AC power but developer of both magnetic coil driven ammeters and static plate volt/ammeters.
Use/s of Ammeter
Used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Ammeters were used in order to be able to
take readings of the current flowing through a circuit.
Working Principle
The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive
reactance. It has very low impedance because it must have very low amount of voltage drop across it
and must be connected in series connection because current is same in the series circuit.
TYPES OF AMMETER
1. Moving-coil Ammeter
2. Electrodynamics Ammeter
3. Moving-Iron Ammeter
4. Hot Wire Ammeter
5. Integrating Ammeter
6. Pico Ammeter

MOVING COIL AMMETER
It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a
magnetic field. The modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston.
ELECTRODYNAMIC AMMETER
An electrodynamics movement uses an electromagnet instead of the permanent magnet of the

d’Arsonval movement. This instrument can respond to both alternating and direct current.
MOVING-IRON AMMETER
Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the
electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating
currents.

HOT WIRE AMMETER
In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it heats. Although
these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy they were sometimes used in measuring
radiofrequency current.
INTEGRATING AMMETER
There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters. In these ammeters the
current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to
the energy transferred with that current. These can be used for energy meters or for estimating the
charge pf battery or capacitor.
PICO AMMETER
It measures very low electrical current usually form the Pico ampere range at the lower end to
the mill ampere range at the upper end. Pico ammeters are used for sensitive measurements where the
current being measured is below the theoretical limits of sensitivity of other devices, such as Multi-
meters.

ADVANTAGES
- As there is direct or alternating current in electricity, ammeters can be configured to

take readings of either of both of these types of currents.
- Ammeters usually have very low resistance against current in order to be able to
provide accurate readings.
DISADVANTAGES
- As ammeters are unable to resist current, if they are connected to an incompatible

device, it could damage the ammeters and even cause a short circuit, along with
permanent damage to the ammeter. Not only that, the improper use of ammeters may
even pose as a danger to the user
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsjrES1Ow-Q – DC Ammeter DC Voltmeter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rn2LnxCs6zw - AC DC Ammeter and Voltmeters

4.c. POWER FACTOR METER
What is Power Factor Meter?
• The power factor meter measures the power factor of a transmission system. The power factor
is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current. The power factor meter determines
the types of load using on the line, and it also calculates the losses occur on it.
• The power factor meter is used for measuring the power factor of the balanced load.
2 TYPES of Power Factor Meter
• Single Phase Electrodynamometer
• Three Phases Electrodynamometer
Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
The meter has fixed coil which acts as a current coil. This coil is split into two parts and carries
the current under test. The magnetic field of the coil is directly proportional to the current flow through
the coil.
Three Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter

The electrodynamometer is only useful for the balanced load. The moving coil is placed at an
angle of 120º. They are connected across different phases of the supply circuit. Both the coil has a series
resistance.
ANALOG DIGITAL

Power factor is a measure of the ratio of the 'total power' kVA (also known as apparent power)
that is demanded by your site and the 'real power' kW that is used on your site.
The total power demand on the network is usually greater than the real power. The ratio of the
real power to the total power is your power factor, a number between 0 and 1. The higher the power
factor the more efficient your site is at utilizing the supplied power.
A business with a low power factor may result in higher capital expenditures and operating costs
for the electricity network, compared to a similar business with a high power factor. These higher costs
usually have to be passed on to all customers in the form of higher tariff rates.
A simple analogy to explain power factor is that of a cappuccino. Here the mug must have
sufficient capacity to contain both the coffee and the froth, corresponding to the total power. The froth
represents the reactive power and the liquid represents the real power. We only gain real value from
the liquid.

;

How to measure your power factor
There are a variety of ways to measure your power factor:
 Logging devices on equipment

 More complicated measurement and logging equipment installed on individual circuits
 Electricity metering may also have the ability to record power factor (typically ½ hour interval
data) for the entire site and this information may be available from your electricity retailer.
If you don't have the skills in-house, you may engage an external specialist to help you to assess your
power factor and identify any causes and solutions to improving your power factor.
There are a variety of reasons that a site may have poor power factor but the main causes are:
 Inductive loads such as transformers

 AC motors
 Welding equipment
 Arc furnaces and fluorescent lighting.
Benefits of improving your power factor

There are a number of benefits to increasing your power factor:
1. Reduced demand charges To reduce your demand on the electricity network which may lower
your electricity costs if you are one of the small number of customers currently being charged
under a kVA demand tariff
2. Contractual compliance To help you meet your connection requirements outlined under your
connection agreement
3. Increased capacity Reducing demand on the network may allow you to connect additional
machinery or equipment without the need to upgrade the network
4. Equipment life To lower voltage being supplied to equipment which can damage or otherwise
shorten the life of some equipment
5. Reduced carbon footprint To reduce the supply of electricity to your site and so reducing your
carbon footprint
Ways to improve power factor

A poor power factor can be addressed in a number of ways. The most common approach is to
install power factor correction equipment (PFC). PFC equipment is essentially a capacitor bank – which
stores and provides reactive power when required. PFC equipment can be applied to separate pieces of
equipment or installed in bulk to the sites main switchboard.

A poor power factor can also be corrected by fixing the problem at its source. For example, by
ensuring that motors are not oversized, selecting pumping equipment with electronic variable speed
drives (VSDs), retrofitting VSD's where possible, and choosing equipment that has good power factor to
begin with.
Steps to identify and implement power factor correction

Identify if your site has opportunity to improve power factor
There are a variety of ways to measure power factor, including:
 Logging devices on individual equipment

 More complicated measurement and logging equipment installed on individual circuits
 Electricity metering may also have the ability to record power factor for the entire site and this
information may be available from your electricity retailer – either on your bill on request.
Identify cause and solutions of poor power factor
Large sites will usually have in-house or contracted engineering or energy management expertise
available who have knowledge of your plant and equipment and are often best placed to identify cause
of poor power factors. Alternatively, either independent energy management consultants or
suppliers/installers of power factor equipment will be required to identify the cause(s). Sites with the
loads outlined above tend to have poor power factor.
Designing solutions to power factor
There are a variety of ways to improve your power factor but the most common solution is to
install capacitor banks which provide the needed reactive power to either the load or the entire site.
Implementing power factor improvement measures is a specialist skill and using qualified and
experienced providers to design a tailored solution should ensure the best result for organizations
wishing to improve their power factor.
Maintenance
Once your power factor correction measures are implemented, like any electricity equipment,
some maintenance is required to ensure the equipment continues to provide the expected benefits.
Your supplier should provide advice on the necessary maintenance that is required to be undertaken.

Power factor case studies
We have previously implemented programs where we worked with large customers to implement
power factor correction – benefiting both the customer and our network. Below is a selection of
examples of case studies from those initiatives:
 Willows Shopping Centre Case Study (PDF 524.3 kb)

 Townsville Airport Case Study (PDF 272.9 kb)
 USQ Case Study (PDF 444.8 kb)
Did you know...

We require a customer to ensure that the power factor of any electrical installation measured at the
consumer's terminals is not less than 0.8 lagging for installations supplied at low voltage?
This is provided for in the Electricity Regulation 2006 (Qld). For all other high voltage connections, the
power factor ranges are set out in the National Electricity Rules.
Permissible range of power factor

Supply voltage (nominal) Power factor range
50 kV and 250 kV (high voltage) 0.95 lagging to unity (1.0)
1 kV < 50 kV (medium voltage) 0.90 lagging to 0.90 leading
<1 kV (low voltage) 0.8 lagging to unity (1.0)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tv_7XWf96gg&t=150s – Power Factor Meter

4.d. SWITCHES
History
Who invented switch: John Henry Holmes (1857-1935) was an English electrical engineer,
inventor, Quaker and pioneer of electric lighting who invented the quick break light switch, the
technology behind which remains the basis for modern wall mounted light switches
In 1880, Holmes attended a public demonstration of Joseph Swan's incandescent light bulb. This
seemed to spark his interest in electric lighting, and he approached Swan on multiple occasions in hopes
of becoming his apprentice.
John Henry Holmes and his brother Theodore, also a Quaker, founded J. H. Holmes &
Co. in Shield field, Newcastle upon Tyne in 1883, their manufacturing company specializing in
early motors, dynamos, switches, and lighting. The company was very active in the early proliferation of
electric lighting, having installed Newcastle's first domestic electrical lighting into their father's house,
and supplied installations throughout Europe and the British colonies, making deals in the United States
as well.
John Henry Holmes invented the quick break light switch in 1884. which was patented in Great
Britain and the United States that year. The technology radically improved the prior switch technology
by ensuring the internal contacts moved apart quickly enough to deter the electric arcing that would
create a fire hazard and otherwise invariably shorten the switch's lifespan. The quick break technology
invented by Holmes remains in use in billions of domestic and industrial electrical switches across the
globe to this day.
Mechanical Switches
- Mechanical switches can be divided into two basic types. The first, commercial and
appliance switches, are used in fairly clean environments such as offices or homes.
They are not sealed and are generally used for light, low-current applications.
- The second types, industrial switches, actuate magnetic contactors and remote-
operated controllers. These switches must be ruggedly constructed because they
are frequently exposed to oil, solvents, chemicals, and dust. And their contacts must
handle the high inrush current drawn by electromagnets in the controllers.
Industrial switches are available in five basic types: standard duty, heavy duty,
heavy-duty oil tight and miniature oil tight and multilight-control oil tight. The
terms standard duty and heavy duty are derived from the Standards for Industrial
Control Equipment of Underwriters' Laboratories Inc. for normal current and inrush
current.
Mechanical switch consists of two metal plates. When these plates touches each other flow of
current takes places while on the other hand when these plates get separated from each other, current
get interrupted. This in turn causes on and off states in electrical circuit

Types of Mechanical Switches:
Mechanical switches further classify into different types of switches based on number of poles and
troughs. A pole means the number of input circuit (power circuit) available to the switch. Throws means
the number of output circuit (number of path in which current can flow) available to the switch.
1. Single pole single throw (SPST)

2. Single pole double throw (SPDT)
3. Double pole single throw (DPST)
4. Double pole double throw (DPDT)
5. Momentary Operation Switch
1. Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Switch

A Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) switch is a switch that only has a single input and can connect
only to one output. This means it only has one input terminal and only one output terminal.
A Single Pole Single Throw switch serves in circuits as on-off switches. When the switch is closed,
the circuit is on. When the switch is open, the circuit is off.
SPST switches are, thus, very simple in nature.

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Switch Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a single pole single throw switch.
When the SPST is closed, the circuit is open and light from the lamp switches on. When the SPST is then
opened, the light from the lamp goes out and the circuit is off.
This shows the basic nature and function of a SPST.

2. Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch
- A Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) switch is a switch that only has a single input and can
connect to and switch between 2 outputs. This means it has one input terminal and two output
terminals.
- A Single Pole Double Throw switch can serve a variety of functions in a circuit. It can serve as an
on-off switch, depending on how the circuit is wired. Or it can serve to connect circuits to any 2
various paths that a circuit may need to function in. For example, a SPDT switch can connect to
create a Ready Mode and a Standby Mode in a printer.

Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a single pole double throw switch.
You can see above how a SPDT can be wired up to put a circuit in either one of two modes. When the
switch is connected one way, the lamp will turn on, while the LED is off. When connected the other way,
the LED then turns on, and the lamp shuts off.
This shows the dynamic 2-mode capacity that SPDT switches allow.
3. What is a Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) Switch?

- Each of the terminals of a double pole single switch can either be in the on position (closed) or
in the off position (open).
- A Double Pole Single Switch has a lot of versatility being that it accepts 2 inputs, which makes it
then be able to drive 2 different outputs in a circuit. What it drives depends on the circuit design
and what the circuit is intended to do. But DPST have enormous applications in circuits.
- A Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) switch is a switch that has 2 inputs and 2 outputs; each input
has 1 corresponding output.

Double Pole Single Throw Switch (DPST) Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a double pole single throw switch.
You can see above how a double pole single throw switch can be used to put a circuit in any of 1 of 2
modes. When the switch is connected one way for circuit A and circuit B, the lamp and LED will both be
ON. When connected the other way, the lamp and the LED are both OFF.
So a DPST switch allows for control of 2 outputs, turning either both on or both off together.

4. Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) Switch
- A Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch is a switch that has 2 inputs and 4 outputs; each
input has 2 corresponding outputs that it can connect to.
- Each of the terminals of a double pole double switch can either be in 1 of 2 positions. This makes
the double pole double throw switch a very versatile switch. With 2 inputs, it can connect to 4
different outputs. It can reroute a circuit into 2 different modes of operation.
A Double Pole Double Throw Switch is actually two single pole double throw (SPDT) switches.

Double Pole Double Throw Switch (DPDT) Circuit
Below is an example of a circuit which utilizes a double pole double throw switch.
You can see above how a double pole double throw switch can allow a circuit to be in 1 of 2 modes.
When the DPDT switch is switched one way (flipped upward in the diagram), the lamp and buzzer are
both on, while the LED and speaker are off. When the DPDT switch is switched the other way (flipped
downward), the LED and the speaker are both on, while the lamp and buzzer are off.
This shows the dynamic 2-mode capacity that DPDT switches allow, allowing control of 4 different
devices (with 2 operational modes).
5. MOMENTARY OPERATION SWITCH

TOGGLE SWITCH
This switch is mainly used to turn something on or off. Toggle switches also were used to program
computers in the 70’s.

PUSH-BUTTON
A simple switch used commonly in arcade games.
PCB MOUNTED TACTILE SWITCH
These are the switches you would normally mount on a PCB.
Button Matrices
Large arrays of momentary buttons, like your keyboard or even smaller groupings like a keypad, usually
arrange all of their switches into a big matrix. Every button on the pad is assigned a row and column.
This requires some extra button-press-processing on the microcontroller end but frees up a big chunk of
I/O pins.

DIP Switch
DIP switches are through-hole switches designed in the same mold as a through-hole DIP IC. They
can be placed in a breadboard, in the same manner a through-hole IC might, by straddling the
center area.

Electrical Switches
- An electric switch is a device that interrupts the electron flow in a circuit. Switches are primarily
binary devices: either fully on or off and light switches have a simple design. When the switch is turned
off, the circuit breaks and the power flow is interrupted. Circuits consist of a source of power and load.
Types of Electrical Switches
1. Relay
2. Bipolar transistor
3. Power diode
4. One-Way Switch
5. Two-Gang Switch
6. Three-Gang Switch
7. 3-Way Switch
8. 4-Way Switch
Relay
- It is an electrical device, typically incorporating an electromagnet, which is activated by a
current or signal in one circuit to open or close another circuit.

Bipolar junction transistor
- It’s a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers. Unipolar transistors, such
as field-effect transistors, use only one kind of charge carrier. BJTs use two junctions between two
semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.
Power diode
- a crystalline semiconductor device used mainly to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC), a process known as rectification. This makes power diodes better suited for applications where
larger currents and higher voltages are involved.

1 Way Switches
If a light switch is ‘1 way’ this means it is just an on/off switch. This is the simplest type of switch
that you can get. The single switch controls a single light (or lighting circuit).
Two Gang Switches
A ‘2 way’ switch means there is another switch controlling the same light. These are often used
on a staircase, large room with switches by each door.

Three Gang Switches
This format of light switch has three discreet switches on a single face plate. Basically this is
three Single gang 1 way switches on a single face plate. If you had three lights (or sets of lights)
in a single room each controlled by one of the single switches.
3-Way Switches

"3-way" switch is a single pole, double throw (SPDT) switch. By correctly connecting two of
these switches together, toggling either switch changes the state of the load from off to on, or
vice versa. The switches may be arranged so that they are in the same orientation for off, and
contrasting orientations for on.
4-Way Switches
"4-way" (intermediate) switch is a purpose built double pole, double throw (DPDT) switch,
internally wired in manufacture to reverse the connections between the input and output and
having only four external terminals. This switch has two pairs of "traveler" terminals that it
connects either straight through, or crossed over (transposed, or swapped). An intermediate
switch can, however, be implemented by adding appropriate external wiring to an ordinary (six
terminal) DPDT switch, or by using a separate DPDT relay.

Proximity Switches
Is an instrument that detects the closeness of some object. This switch are non-contact sensors,
it uses magnet, electric, or optical to sense the closeness of an object. Proximity switches are
most commonly used in manufacturing equipment, robotics, and security systems.
Importance:
A switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in
an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to
another. The most common type of switch is an electromechanical device consisting of one or
more sets of movable electrical contacts connected to external circuits. When a pair of contacts
is touching current can pass between them, while when the contacts are separated no current
can flow.
Importance of electric switches is as follows: Electric switches are very important because all the
equipment we are using is useless without a switch. Electric switches use to connect and break
the flow of connectivity. Electronic switches are used to perform all logical functions.
You need to have electrical power switches that are designed to protect you from accidents.
These switches change the safety protocols in the house, and they make it easy for you to
protect your family because these switches control the electricity in the house during
emergencies.

To conclude, we must know the different switches and their differences. Each switch has their
own uses and purposes, there are two types of switches generally; first is the electrical and the
second type is mechanical switches. Switches are known for controlling the object or appliances.
The importance of switches is to regulate the current flowing to an appliance, without switches
it will damage the appliance because it's the one that helps the appliance to be controlled or to
be regulated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbqGWNIItTo – Switches

QUIZ NO. 1
1. What is an electrical instrument? Differentiate its two types?
2. Explain the classifications of secondary instruments?
3. Differentiate the two types of errors?
4. What are the measurement standards?
5. What is a permanent magnet moving coil instrument?
6. Differentiate the different forces acting in a coil?
7. Explain the differences suspensions use in permanent moving magnet coil?
8. Discuss the operating principle of a digital read-out meter
9. Differentiate digital meter and analog meter
10. What meter is better to use?

QUIZ NO. 2
1. What is purpose of insulation tester?
2. Differentiate the two types of insulation tester?
3. Differentiate the types of energy meter?
4. Discuss briefly the operating principle of a wattmeter.
5. Explain the operating principle of a wattmeter.
6. How the types of wattmeter differ from each other?
7. What is the difference between a current transformer and voltage transformer?
8. Differentiate the type of current transformer?

QUIZ NO. 3
1. What is the difference between on ammeter and voltmeter? Discuss briefly.
2. Differentiate the types of voltmeter.
3. What is the advantage of clamp-ammeter over an ammeter?
4. How a clamp-ammeter works?
5. What is the purpose of tachometer?
6. Discuss the different types of tachometer.
7. What is the purpose of PSI?
8. Discuss the working principle of PSI.

QUIZ NO. 4
1. What is galvanometer and its purpose?
2. Discuss the types of galvanometer.
3. Discuss the types of ammeter.
4. What is the difference between an AC & DC ammeter?
5. What is a power factor meter?
6. What is power factor correction?
7. Discuss briefly the history of a switch.
8. Differentiate the types of mechanical switches.

FINALS
1. How important having different instruments in the practice of Electrical Engineering?
2. Give at least 8 names of people behind the inventions/develop the different measuring devices?
3. What is the benefit of having unity/good power factor rating?
4. Between an analog and digital, which do you prefer? And why?
5. Differentiate the two types of suspension in an analog meter which is better between the two?


Basic Electrical Instrument INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

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Basic Electrical Instrument INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT

Prof. Raymond L. Alfonso

i | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

ii | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

The Learning Objectives:

 Know the different types of operating principles of metering instruments.

 Electrical Instruments Meeting via Messenger / Zoom

1 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

The Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) is a government educational institution

The Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Recite the vision, mission, goals and objectives of the University.

Please read page 1 to 3 of this course material.

2 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

1. Provision of undergraduate and graduate education which meet international standards of

1. What is the vision of Polytechnic University of the Philippines?

3 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

4 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

2.a. Electrical Instruments

2.a. Electrical Instrument

TWO TYPES OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

INDICATING INSTRUMENTS - Indicates directly the instantaneous value of the electrical

RECORDING INSTRUMENTS- Gives a continuous record of the variations of the electrical

5 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

GROSS ERRORS AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

DIGITAL READ OUT METER/DIGITAL MULTIMETER

6 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

7 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

UNIT OF CHARGE - coulomb ( c)

8 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

SI UNITS AND SYMBOLS

9 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

2.c. MEASUREMENT STANDARDS

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

10 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

DEFLECTION INSTRUMENT FUNDAMENTALS

11 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

12 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

13 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

3.a. INSULATION TESTER

What is Insulation Tester?

14 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

15 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

16 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

TYPES OF INSULATION TESTER

ELECTRONIC TYPE (Battery Operated)

17 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

18 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Manual Type Megger

Insulation Tester Link

19 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

What is Kilowatt-Hour Meter?

Oliver B. Shallenberger Invents the A.C. Watt-Hour Meter

20 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

AC Energy Meter Working Principle

A disk or rotor mounted on a shaft receives a torque through an electromagnetic induction

21 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

Types of Kilowatt-Hour Meter

22 | EETE 10023 (Basic Electrical Instrument)

How to read an accumulation meter