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The processes in so far as lead enters can best be divided into—
(1) Glaze; (2) decorative.
1. Glaze Processes.—The charge of glaze is made by weighing
out and mixing carbonate of lead with the necessary silicates and
silico-borates in the lead house or mixing-room, where wet grinding
prepares the mixture for the dipping-tub. “Putters-up” hand the ware
to the dipper, from whom “takers-off” place it on boards for removal
to the drying still, or place it (in large works) directly on to the shelf of
an appliance known as a “mangle,” in which an endless chain carries
the ware through a heated chamber. Subsequently superfluous glaze
has to be removed from the base, rims, and not infrequently also
other parts of the articles. This ware cleaning is performed with a wet
sponge or flannel, either while the ware is still moist or by scraping,
the particles removed dropping into a vessel of water; or, if the glaze
is dry, over a grating provided with exhaust draught. The ware is next
removed by the glost-placer on boards, and each piece is separately
placed by him in the sagger (fireclay receptacle) and carried into an
oven to be fired.
2. Decorative Processes.—Majolica painting is the application of a
coloured glaze rich in lead by means of a brush. Ground-laying
consists in dusting powdered enamel colour on to a pattern first
printed on glazed ware with an oily medium. Colour dusting differs
from the same only in detail.
Aerographing (colour blowing) is the blowing on to the ware, by
means of a jet of compressed air, coloured glaze, or enamel colour
held in suspension in oil or other liquid in a glaze kettle or aerograph
instrument.
Dangers.—Apart from risk inseparable from, and increased by,
defective lighting, uneven floors of wood or brick, collection of dust
on benches and floors, and the risk entailed in the sweeping of these
even when watering is practised, and lack of care and attention to
detail on the part of the worker, the following special dangers are
incidental to the various processes: In dipping the glaze (except in
tiles, where the surface only is allowed to touch the liquid), splashes
on to the face and overalls of the dipper, “hander-up,” and “taker-off”
(dipper’s assistants), and “threader-up” (in the case of china
furniture), especially when, as with plates, there is much shaking of
the ware. These splashes dry, and the overalls may become so
coated with glaze that every movement, such as carrying boards or
leaning against the mangle, crumbles it off as dust into the air. As the
dipper shakes the ware, some of the drops are disseminated into the
atmosphere as a fine spray. In ware cleaning the work may have to
be done so rapidly that it is difficult always to observe proper care,
and the worker is tempted to withdraw the article from the range of
the exhaust. Sometimes a ware cleaner is seen blowing away with
her mouth dust lying on the ware.
Dipping-boards, unless freed from adherent glaze by washing after
use, create dust whenever ware is placed on, or removed from,
them, when they are handled and placed on or taken off the stillage
bars, and when they are stacked. Persons gathering at the mangle
are exposed to dust if there is any outward current of air from it. The
glost-placer raises a slight amount of dust as he takes the ware from
the board and places it in the sagger. The dangerous practice
formerly almost universal of rubbing the bottoms and rims of cups,
etc., either together (without use of an exhaust) or rubbing them on a
piece of leather fixed round the chest, is generally replaced by
removal of the glaze on a moist piece of flannel, but it is still possible
to find men doing it in outlying potteries. In majolica dipping and
painting (apart from the obvious risk of splashing and contamination
of the hands), danger arises mostly from scraping the edges and
under surfaces of the tiles on to which glaze, when applying the
background, has overflowed. The amount of glaze so removed is
considerable, and if it is not all caught in the trough of water, the floor
becomes an added source of danger.
In all the decorative processes—ground-laying, aerographing,
colour-dusting, and grinding of colours for aerographing, etc., the
danger is one solely arising from dust.
Prevention.—Meticulous attention to detail, not only in the
provision, but also in the maintenance, of the locally-applied exhaust
ventilation, alone can allay the danger in the processes to which dust
is incidental, such as ware cleaning, gathering at the mangle, glost-
placing, and the decorative processes. The Lead Committee
considered that, as there was no rapid method of testing the actual
degree of moisture, exhaust ventilation might be required in the case
of ware that was not cleaned within fifteen minutes of the application
of the glaze. Such a requirement would prevent the practice now
prevalent of painting as many as three dozen tiles, piling them one
on top of another, and then proceeding to the operation of scraping.
No danger attaches to removal of glaze with a damp sponge or
flannel, but means must always be at hand for washing and damping
them. In the dipping-house, (a) impervious floors should be provided,
which could be washed down so as to prevent the risks from
sweeping, and from glaze drying, and being raised as dust; (b)
partial covering of the dipping-tub to prevent splashing and spray;
and (c) substitution for the overalls at present worn by persons in the
dipping-house, glost-placers, millers and mixers of glaze, majolica
paintresses, and others, of overalls of some light waterproof material
which could be sponged, or of aprons of waterproof material worn in
front of the overalls. Dipping-tubs and walls and floors in close
proximity to them can with advantage be painted red. Dipping-boards
should be washed with clean water after every time of use.
Automatic machines for washing and scrubbing boards are in use in
some factories.
To reduce risk or remove the danger of lead poisoning in this
industry, use of low solubility glazes or of leadless glazes are
advocated. On this point the Lead Committee say: “The effect of
melting the lead with silicious matter amounts to imprisoning it in
such a manner as to render it less liable to the action of the acids
which it meets in passing through the human body, and in
consequence largely reduces the likelihood of its absorption into the
blood. If the frit is properly compounded, all but a small fraction of
the lead is rendered insoluble, and glazes so made are spoken of as
‘low solubility glazes.’ The finished glaze generally contains from 12
to 22 per cent., or more, of lead oxide, but after the process of fritting
with sufficient silicious material only from 2 to 5 per cent. remains
soluble.”[A]
[A] Raw lead comprises red lead, white lead, and litharge. If introduced in
this form as a constituent of glaze it is soluble in dilute acids. If, however,
the raw lead is fluxed by heating with a part or the whole of the silica, it is
converted into “fritted lead.” The solubility of the frit depends upon the
relative proportions of material taken. Thorpe[23], as a result of numerous
analyses of lead silicates (after determining their solubility as regards lead),
both simple and complex, in use in the potteries and on the Continent,
found that the quantity of lead dissolved had no necessary relation to the
quantity of lead in the silicate. “Primarily and in the main the insolubility of
the lead depends not upon any one oxide or group of oxides, but upon the
maintenance of a certain proportion between the whole of the basic oxides
on the one hand and the whole of the acidic oxides on the other. If the value
of ratio bases/acids is higher than, or approximately equal to, two, the
amount of the lead extracted is small, but if it fall much below two, the
quantity of lead dissolved begins rapidly to increase.”
PLATE IV
White enamel powders free from lead are used entirely by some
firms, but the black and coloured enamels on stove grates contain
lead. A frit analyzed in the Government Laboratory was found to
contain 26·66 per cent. of lead oxide. The fact that all the lead used
is in the form of a silicate, even although the silicate is readily soluble
in dilute acid, tends, we believe, to cause incidence of poisoning to
be less than might have been expected from the amount of dust
often present in the air, and attacks, when they occur, to be less
severe, as a rule, than they would be were raw carbonate of lead
alone used. For the arduous work entailed the men are specially
selected. Despite their exposure to lead dust, the majority continue
to work for many years without marked signs of lead absorption. The
management should provide a suitable room for the men to cool
themselves in the intervals of dusting.
Fig. 14.—The cabinet is shown when dry dusting is being done. The casting is
worked by tongs through a slot in the side of the cabinet (not seen), while the
worker dusts the casting with his arms through the two front holes. He can see
his work through the square pane of glass. (Photographs kindly made by Mr. F.
W. Hunt, Leeds.)
In this small industry in the past the poisoning must have been
considerable. In 1898 nineteen cases were reported. Reference to
the table on p. 47 shows that the number now is greatly reduced.
Those reported are generally cases which have ended fatally from
the sequelæ of lead poisoning contracted many years previously.
Stained-glass painting—a form of vitreous enamelling—very rarely
gives rise to poisoning, as no dust is generated (see vitreous
enamelling for use of aerograph in glass-painting).
Paints and Colours.[33]—Most of the cases have occurred in
the manufacture of white-lead paint, although manufacture of
chromate of lead and of Brunswick greens (barytes with which
Prussian blue and chrome yellows are mixed) account for several.
The following table shows the precise occupation of persons
affected, the number of cases distributed according to precise
occupation, and the proportion of these to the total in 225 cases
which were closely examined:
[A] Fig. 15 shows the arrangement for preventing dust at every point where
it is produced in a factory where dry colours are ground, sifted, and packed
on a large scale. On the upper floor, the chamber is shown in which the
contents of a cask are tipped down a shoot leading in the one case to the
burr stone mill on the left, and in the other into the Blackstone sifters.
Exhaust is arranged at two levels to catch the dust arising from the
displacement of air. After grinding in the closed-in burr stone mill, a hood
and duct is arranged over the point where the material is discharged into
the barrel. Similarly, the casing of the two Blackstone sifters is connected
with the exhaust fan, and also the cover of the barrel into which the ground
material falls. Inside the edge-runner (the door of which is shown open) a
negative pressure is maintained, and one branch duct controls the dust in
the scooping out of the material from the barrel, while another is connected
to the cover of the receptacle into which the ground material is discharged.
Tapering of the ducts, tangential entry of branches, fan-box, and collecting
filters, are all shown. In the factory in question there are four edge-runners,
three burr stone mills, and two Blackstone sifters. Altogether exhaust
ventilation is applied at twenty-five points. (Drawing kindly supplied by the
Sturtevant Engineering Company, Limited, London.)