Hvac & Refrigeration: PE PE

Buyer: Caleb R Kreeger (calebkreegz@hotmail.
com)
Transaction ID: 3VC44285YT901623Y
PE
Mechanical
HVAC &
Refrigeration
Exam Textbook
Spring 2023 Exam Edition
Updated for Latest CBT Exam
Learn the key concepts and skills necessary to pass the PE Exam
by Justin Kauwale, P.E.

Buyer: Caleb R Kreeger (calebkreegz@hotmail.com)
Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook
by Justin Kauwale, PE
Published by Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

Honolulu, HI 96815
www.engproguides.com
Copyright © 2012-2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form on by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, including information storage and
retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except as permitted by U.S.
copyright law.
Spring 2023 Edition
ISBN 978-0-9887372-4-2 (ebook)
HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook

How to pass the PE exam
Table of Contents
Section 1.0 ..................................................................................................... Introduction
Section 2.0 ........................................................... Principles - Basic Engineering Practice
Section 3.0 .......................................................................... Principles - Thermodynamics
Section 4.0 ............................................................................. Principles - Psychrometrics
Section 5.0 ................................................................................Principles - Heat Transfer
Section 6.0 ............................................................................ Principles - Fluid Mechanics
Section 7.0 ................................................................. Principles - Energy/Mass Balances
Section 8.0 ..............................................................Applications - Heating/Cooling Loads
Section 9.0 ........................................................ Applications - Equipment & Components
Section 10.0 ......................................................... Applications - Systems & Components
Section 11.0 ............................................................ Applications - Supportive Knowledge
Section 12.0 .................................................................................................... Conclusion
Section 13.0 ...................................................................................................... Checklists
Section 14.0 ............................................................................................................. Index
Main Table of Contents -1 www.engproguides.com

1 - Introduction
How to Study for and Pass the PE Exam
HVAC Textbook
Section 1.0 - Introduction

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Key Concepts and Skills ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Units .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Computer Based Test (CBT) ............................................................................................... 4
1.4 NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook .................................................................... 6
2.0 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... 6
3.0 How to use this Book .............................................................................................................. 7
4.0 Sample exam tips ................................................................................................................... 8
5.0 Recommended References .................................................................................................. 10
5.1 ASHRAE Handbooks ........................................................................................................ 14
5.2 ASHRAE Codes & Standards ........................................................................................... 15
5.3 NFPA Codes ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.4 Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook .............................................................. 16
5.5 Common Property Tables and Charts ............................................................................... 16
6.0 Quick Equation Constants .................................................................................................... 17
6.1 Power as a Function of Enthalpy for Equation .................................................................. 17
6.2 Power as a Function of Temperature for Air Equation ...................................................... 18
6.3 Power as a Function of Humidity Ratio for Air Equation ................................................... 19
Copyright © 2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
6.4 Density Factors (Air) .......................................................................................................... 21
6.5 Power as a Function of Temperature for Water Equation ................................................. 22
7.0 Past Exam Surveys .......................................................................................................... 28
Introduction - 1 www.engproguides.com
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important steps in an engineer's career is obtaining the professional
engineering (P.E.) license. It allows an individual to legally practice engineering in the state of
licensure. This credential can also help to obtain higher compensation and develop a credible
reputation. In order to obtain a P.E. license, the engineer must first meet the qualifications as
required by the state of licensure, including minimum experience, references and the passing of
the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) exam. Engineering
Pro Guides focuses on helping engineers pass the NCEES exam through the use of free
content on the website, http://www.engproguides.com and through the creation of books like
sample exams and guides that outline how to pass the PE exam.
The key to passing the PE exam is to learn the key concepts and skills that are tested on the
exam. There are several issues that make this key very difficult. First, the key concepts and
skills are unknown to most engineers studying for the exam. Second, the key concepts and
skills are not contained in a single document. This technical guide teaches you the key
concepts and skills required to pass the Mechanical - HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical P.E.
Exam in a single document.
1.1 KEY CONCEPTS AND SKILLS

How are the key concepts and skills determined?
The key concepts and skills tested in the sample exams and taught in this technical study guide
were first developed through an analysis of the topics and information presented by NCEES.
NCEES indicates on their website that the P.E. Exam will cover an AM exam (4 hours) followed
by a PM exam (4 hours) and that the exam will be 80 questions long, 40 questions in the
morning and 40 questions in the afternoon. The HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam will
focus on the following topics as indicated by NCEES. (http://ncees.org/engineering/pe/):
A) Principles
1 Basic Engineering Practice - (4-6 questions)

i) Units and conversions
ii) Economic analysis
iii) Electrical concepts (e.g., power consumption, motor ratings, heat output, amperage)
2 Thermodynamics - (4-6 questions)
i) Cycles
ii) Properties
iii) Compression Processes
3 Psychrometrics - (7-11 questions)
i) Heating/cooling cycles, humidification/dehumidification, heating/cooling loads, sea
level and other elevations
4 Heat Transfer - (6-9 questions)
5 Fluid Mechanics - (3-5 questions)
6 Energy/Mass Balances (4-6 questions)
B) Applications
1 Heating/Cooling Loads - (7-11 questions)

2 Equipment and Components - (16-24 questions)
i) Cooling towers and fluid coolers
ii) Boilers and furnaces
iii) Heat exchangers
iv) Condensers/evaporators
v) Pumps/compressors/fans
vi) Cooling/heating coils
vii) Control systems components
viii) Refrigerants
ix) Refrigeration components
3 Systems - (16-24 questions)
i) Air distribution
ii) fluid distribution
iii) refrigeration
iv) energy recovery
v) control concepts
4 Supportive Knowledge - (3-5 questions)
i) Codes and standards
ii) Air quality and ventilation
iii) Vibration control
iv) Acoustics, economic analysis, electrical concepts
Each of these broad topics were investigated and filtered for concepts and skills that met the
following criteria:
(1) First, the concept and skill must be commonly used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
For example, the Fluid Mechanics topic includes skills (e.g., determining the force on a surface
due to a jet and the siphon concept), that are not used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. In
comparison, pump and fan sizing, determining friction losses and calculating net positive suction
head are regular occurrences in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
(2) Second, the skill and concept must be testable in roughly 6 minutes per problem.
There are (40) questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration afternoon exam and you will be provided
with 4 hours to complete the exam. This results in an average of 6 minutes per problem. This
criterion limits the complexity of the exam problems and the resulting solutions. For example,
pressure drop calculations are common in the HVAC & Refrigeration field, but the calculation is
often very lengthy because of the number of steps involved, especially if a unique fluid and flow
condition is used. Thus, common fluids like water/air and common pipe/duct materials are
used.
(3) Third, the key concept and skill must be used by practicing HVAC & Refrigeration
engineers. This criterion is similar to the first criterion. However, this criterion filters the
concepts and skills further by limiting the field to material encountered and used by practicing
engineers. The HVAC & Refrigeration field is vast and there are many different avenues an
engineer can take. Two diverging paths are those engineers involved in research and those
who practice. Research engineers are pushing the boundaries of the field and are highly
focused in their specific area of the field. The Professional Engineering exam does not cover
innovative material or highly focused material.
(4) The P.E. Exam must test the application of the skill and concept and not the
background knowledge of the topic or concept. The exam also does not cover background
information on the NCEES topics. The P.E. Exam is meant to prove that the test taker is
minimally competent to practice in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. The exam is less concerned
with theory and more with the application of the theory, skill or concept. For example, the P.E.
exam is less concerned with the theory of evaporation in a cooling tower and more with the
performance and selection of a cooling tower.
In summary, this book is intended to teach the necessary skills and concepts to develop a
minimally competent, practicing professional engineer in the HVAC & Refrigeration field,
capable of passing the P.E. exam. This book and the sample exams do this through the
following means:
(1) Teaching commonly used skills and concepts in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
(2) Providing sample problems that can be completed in roughly 6 minutes per problem.
(3) Teaching skills and concepts used by practicing HVAC & Refrigeration engineers.
(4) Teaching the application of the skill and concept.
1.2 UNITS
The primary units that are used in the P.E. Exam are United States Customary System Units
(USCS). As such, this guide focuses exclusively on the USCS. However, it is recommended
that the test taker have a conversion book, because certain areas of the P.E. Exam may use the
International System of Units (SI).
1.3 COMPUTER BASED TEST (CBT)

As of April 2020, the exam was converted from the paper-pencil/scantron testing method to a
computer based platform. This allowed the test to be offered year round instead of twice per
year. This also means you will not have the same set of the questions as the next person. The
style of the testing interface will be very similar to the fundamentals of engineering (FE) exam
that is also administered by NCEES. If you have gone through the computer based version of
the FE exam, you should be familiar with the format. The main difference is the number and
difficulty of questions and the length of the exam. It is important to review the NCEES
Examinee Guide to understand the testing rules and format. Below is a summary of the major
content.
(1) Year Round: The exam may be taken any time throughout the year, as long as the testing
facility is open. However, you are only allowed to take the exam once per quarter (Jan – March,
April – June, July – Sept, Oct – Dec) and at most 3 times per 12 months. The turnaround time
from your exam application to test date will be much faster and the results should be received
within 7-10 days. The only thing holding you up may be your state approval.
(2) Day of Timeline: The overall time at the testing facility will be 9 hours, with 1 hour allotted
for prep time and breaks and 8 hours of actual exam time. You will have a maximum of 4 hours
to complete the first half of the exam. Once you submit the first section you cannot return to
those questions. You will then have a maximum of 50 minutes of break time, where you are
allowed to leave the facility. Finally, you will have a maximum of 4 hours to complete the
second half of the exam.
(3) Question Types: One of the main changes in the actual content of the computer-based test
is the ability to incorporate different question types. Majority of the questions will be multiple
choice with one answer out of four options, but additional question types include (1) multiple
answers, (2) selecting a point, (3) drag and drop for matching, sorting, labeling, etc, and (4) fill in
the blank. The exam questions are written in a way that can be confusing or meant to trick the
examinee, so you can imagine how this can really add to the difficulty of the problem.
(4) NCEES Reference Handbook: Perhaps the greatest consequence of shifting to the
computer based conversion is that examinees are no longer able to bring in outside resources.
Your only aid during the test is the NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook, see the
following section for a write-up on the handbook. There are pros and cons to this, aside from no
longer needing to lug a suitcase full of books to the test site.
The benefit is that everything is contained and focused towards one resource and that resource
is now searchable, see the computer interface section below. The search function is probably
one of the biggest benefits of the computer based format, reducing the time spent flipping
through resources and giving you the opportunity to search for various topics that may provide
hints into solving problems that you may otherwise not know how to begin. You also will not
have to worry about having the right table or graphs in your possession, as this will all be
provided to you.
The cons are you are no longer able to bring in cheat sheets and unit conversion books to help
you with speed or notes that help you to understand concepts that you may struggle with.
Instead, you will have to be completely reliant on the handbook and fully understand how to use
the variables in the provided equations. Another major concern is that not all topics may be
covered in the handbook, especially the experience type questions that you could normally find
in ASHRAE.
(5) Computer Interface: All exam content and references will be on the computer with a 24”
monitor. You’ll have a split screen with one section for the questions and the other for the
NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook. The handbook is bookmarked by chapter and
has a searchable function to easily find content and equations. There is a calculator on the
screen, but it is recommended that you bring your own NCEES approved calculator that you are
familiar with. A countdown timer will be located on the upper right corner of the screen. You’ll
also have the ability to flag and return to problems, as long as you have not exited the section
(i.e. morning or afternoon session). The interface only allows you to input answers; your work
will be done separately on reusable dry erase sheets. This makes it a little more cumbersome
to check your answers, instead of being able to work the problem out right under the question,
so you’ll just have to be neat about it. For a demo of the computer interface, see the following
link http://pearsonvue.com/demo/.
1.4 NCEES PE MECHANICAL REFERENCE HANDBOOK

The NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook is the only resource allowed during the exam.
As mentioned in the previous section, it will be provided electronically on the same computer
screen as the actual test. You may download a free copy of this pdf on your MyNCEES
account. It is recommended that you practice doing problems with the electronic version of this
resource, so that you may become familiar with its contents and how to navigate through the
search and bookmark functions. You should understand the variables and the default units
used in the equations and be quick with locating of all major charts and tables.
The same handbook is used for all mechanical exam disciplines: HVAC, Machine Design, and
Thermal & Fluids. There will be sections that are not applicable to the HVAC exam, so don’t
waste your time trying to understand sections that are obviously irrelevant. Review the NCEES
HVAC exam specification alongside the handbook to realize what may be pertinent to the test.
For example, most of the Machine Design & Materials chapter does not apply to the HVAC test,
except perhaps the basic spring deflection equation and thermal deformation equation, which
could be used for equipment vibration isolation and thermal expansion of pipes. The more basic
fluids equations would be used for the HVAC exam, while the more involved sections, such as
impulse momentum and Mach numbers would be used for the Thermal & Fluids exam. The
engine and turbine cycles, Brayton and Rankine are also not applicable to the HVAC exam, only
the refrigeration cycle.
Even though your studying will be focused around this handbook for references and equations,
you should spend a good amount of time reading other resources to become familiar with
background concepts and applications that can be tested, but would not be covered in the
handbook. The handbook is more of one large cheat sheet resource and is not intended to
provide any explanations.
2.0 DISCLAIMER
In no event will Engineering Pro Guides be liable for any incidental, indirect, consequential,
punitive or special damages of any kind, or any other damages whatsoever, including, without
limitation, those resulting from loss of profit, loss of contracts, loss of reputation, goodwill, data,
information, income, anticipated savings or business relationships, whether or not Engineering
Pro Guides has been advised of the possibility of such damage, arising out of or in connection
with the use of this document or any referenced documents and/or websites.
This book was created on the basis of determining an independent interpretation of the
minimum required knowledge and skills of a professional engineer. In no way does this
document represent the National Council of Examiners for Engineers and Surveying views or
the views of any other professional engineering society.
3.0 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book is organized into the topics as designated by the NCEES. These topics include:
 Section 1.0: Introduction

 Section 2.0: Principles - Basic Engineering Practice
 Section 3.0: Principles - Thermodynamics
 Section 4.0: Principles - Psychrometrics
 Section 5.0: Principles - Heat Transfer
 Section 6.0: Principles - Fluid Mechanics
 Section 7.0: Principles - Energy/Mass Balances
 Section 8.0: Applications - Heating/Cooling Loads
 Section 9.0: Applications - Equipment and Components
 Section 10.0: Applications - Systems and Components
 Section 11.0: Applications - Supportive Knowledge
 Section 12.0: Conclusion
First, it is recommended that the engineer in training gather the recommended references
presented in the following section.
Second, proceed through the book in the order designated. Go through and first read the
material of the section, then complete the practice problems designated for that section.
Compare how the concepts explained in this book are represented in the NCEES PE
Mechanical Reference Handbook. Perform all practice problems with the NCEES handbook as
your resource. If you have trouble with the practice problems, review the material and then read
the solutions. The problems at the end of each section are slightly easier and more
straightforward than the typical problems you would find in an actual P.E. Exam. These
problems are meant only to practice the application of the skill or concept presented in the
section. The problems are not exam difficulty level, for exam level problems, please purchase
the sample exam.
Following the completion of each of the sections, it is recommended that you go through the
checklists presented on the Engineering Pro Guides website. These checklists pose vital
questions to the engineer in training about their understanding of all the skills and concepts
presented in this book. If you are not confident with any of the items, please go back and revisit
the section.
Finally, set aside an eight-hour block of uninterrupted time to complete a sample exam. Gather
a pdf version of the NCEES handbook and your calculator to create a test-like environment. Set
a timer and proceed to take the sample exam, which can be purchased separately. Remember
that the exam is only 40 problems for the morning and afternoon sessions and does not
encompass all the possible items that can appear on an exam, but it should give you an idea of
your level of readiness for the exam.
4.0 SAMPLE EXAM TIPS

Sample exams are not provided in this book, please visit the engineering pro guides
website for sample exams.
Engineering Pro Guides sample exams can be used in multiple ways, depending on where you
are in your study process. If you are at the beginning or middle, it can be used to test your
competency, gain an understanding and feel for the test format, and help to highlight target
areas to study. If you are at the end, it can be used to determine your preparedness for the real
exam. Remember that the questions are a sample of the many topics that may be tested and
are limited to fit a full exam length and therefore is not comprehensive of all concepts.
Because the exam is written to be similar to the difficulty and format of the NCEES exam, it is
recommended that the test be completed in one sitting and timed for four hours per session to
simulate the real exam. This will give you a better indication of your status of preparation for the
exam.
Review the exam day rules and replicate the environment for the real test as much as possible,
including the type of calculator you may use. Keep a watch or clock next to you to gauge your
pace for 40 questions in 4 hours.
Based on the NCEES website, the following are general rules for exam day.
Allowed in Testing Room:
1. Religious head coverings

2. Approved calculator
3. Eyeglasses without case
4. Magnifying glass without case
5. Light jacket without hood
6. Pearson VUE provided items (earplugs, tissues).
7. Pearson VUE approved comfort items (medical items, unwrapped cough
drops, unpackaged pills, etc). See the complete list linked in the NCEES
Examinee Guide.
Prohibited:
1. Cell phones
2. Watches
3. Food/Beverages – You may access food and beverages during unscheduled
breaks during the exam.
4. Hats and hoods

5. Slide charts, wheel charts, drafting compasses
6. Weapons
7. Tobacco
8. Personal Chairs
9. Eyeglass/Magnifying glass cases
10. Scratch Paper (all writing items will be provided by the test center)
For additional references on exam day policies, exam day processes, and items to bring
on your exam day, review the NCEES Examinee Guide:
http://ncees.org/exams/examinee-guide/
For best use of your time, answer the questions that you know first and return to the questions
that you are unfamiliar with later. Once all the known questions are answered, go through the
test again and attempt to answer the remaining questions by level of difficulty. If time allots,
review your answers.
If you are stuck on a question, seek the following avenues.
1. Reference Handbook: Use the search function or go through pertinent sections of the
NCEES Reference Handbook. During times of uncertainty, this will likely lead you to
your answers. Determine the key words/concept that is being asked in the question and
do a search. The answer can hopefully be extracted from the handbook.
2. Process of Elimination: There are only four possible choices for each question. Ask
yourself if there is an answer that does not make sense and eliminate it. Further narrow
down the answer that are derived from equations or concepts that you know are not right
and are instead meant to deceive the test taker. See if there are answers that are
similar or separated by something like a conversion error. This may be an indication that
the correct equation was used.
3. Educated Guess: Remember that there is no penalty for wrong answers. Hopefully with
the process of elimination you are able to narrow down as many answers as possible
and are able to create an educated guess.
4. Rules of Thumb: Rules of thumb can be used to not only speed up time, but to help lead
you in the right direction.
5. If the time is almost up and there are still unanswered questions remaining, determine
whether it makes sense to check for mistakes on the problems you do know how to
solve, or to tackle the unanswered problems.
Typical Exam Verbiage/Design:
1. Most Nearly: Due to rounding differences, the exam answers will not match yours
exactly and in fact may not closely resemble your answer. NCEES uses the term “most
nearly” to test your confidence in your solution. When the question prompts you with
“most nearly”, choose the answer that most closely matches yours, whether it be greater
than or lesser to your value.
2. Irrelevant Information: The exam is intended to test your overall understanding of

concepts. At times the question will include unnecessary information that is meant to
misdirect you.
3. Deceiving Answers: NCEES wants to know that you are able to determine the
appropriate methods for the solutions. There are answers that were intentionally
produced from wrong equations to mislead the test taker. For example, you may forget
a 1/2 in the formula, KE = (1/2)MV2 and there would be two answers each off by a factor
of 1/2.
4. Do Not Overanalyze: The exam questions are meant to be completed in 6 minutes.

Therefore, they are intended to be written as straight forward as possible. Do not be
tempted to overanalyze the meaning of a question. This will only lead you down the
wrong path.
Review the Solutions:
Once the sample test is completed, grade your results. Measure your aptitude in speed,
concept comprehension, and overall score. If you score is above the 75% range then you are in
good shape. This 75% score is only applicable if you have prepared completely for the exam. If
you are just starting out, then please do not be worried about a low score. This is number is
also just a range; there is no finite score to determine passing the test. Instead, NCEES
calibrates the results against practicing professional engineers. See this page
http://ncees.org/exams/scoring-process/ for a better understanding of how NCEES grades the
scores.
Review the answers that you got wrong and use the solutions as a learning tool on how to
address these types of problems. Compare the types of questions you are missing with the
NCEES outline of topics and determine where you should focus your studying. Finally repeat as
many practice problems as you can to get a better grasp of the test and to continually improve
your score.
5.0 RECOMMENDED REFERENCES

The following references are recommended to be reviewed prior to the exam. You will not be
able to use these references during the exam, but with review, you will gain background
knowledge and experience with the listed topics. This will help you to answer any experience
type or qualitative type question that may appear on the exam, but are not covered in the
NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook.
When reviewing these references, make sure you understand the content and follow through
the example problems when they exist. These references do not go into depth on explaining
the equations or derivations but are simply references. If you require additional background
information, then you may need to research the information on the internet. Secondly, you
should try to relate the information you gather from these references to the NCEES PE
Mechanical Reference Handbook. This will allow you to have associate the concepts learned
with the resource you will use in the exam.
Complete List of References for the HVAC & Refrigeration PE Exam
By Engineering Pro Guides www.engproguides.com
Engineering Pro Guides provides a power technical study guide that teaches the key concepts
and skills necessary to pass the HVAC & Refrigeration PE Exam. If you have any suggestions to
this list, please email me Justin at contact@engproguides.com
Topic 2.0 Basic Engineering Practice 4 of 80 problems

Electrical Concepts (power
consumption, motor ratings, Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
heat output, amperage)
Topic 3.0 Thermodynamics 4 of 80 problems
Cycles Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Properties Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Compression Process Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Topic 4.0 Psychrometrics 10 of 80 problems
Heating/Cooling Processes Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Humidification/Dehumidificat
Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
ion Processes
Topic 5.0 Heat Transfer 4 of 80 problems
Conduction Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Convection Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Radiation Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Topic 6.0 Fluid Mechanics 4 of 80 problems
Incompressible Flow Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Flow Analysis Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Topic 7.0 Energy/Mass Balances 5 of 80 problems
Energy & Mass Balance ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 Ch 28 Combustion and Fuels
Topic 8.0 Heating/Cooling Loads 8 of 80 problems

Climate Design Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Fenestration Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Ventilation/Infiltration Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
People Loads Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Equipment Loads Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Envelope Loads Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Topic 9.0 Equipment and Components 18 of 80 problems
http://pdf.directindustry.com/pdf/spx‐cooling‐
Cooling Towers and Fluid technologies/cooling‐tower‐fundamentals/34010‐40110.html
Coolers
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 40 Cooling Towers
Boilers (efficiencies, fuels, ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 32 Boilers

combustion) ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 Ch 28 Combustion and Fuels
Furnaces ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 33 Furnaces
Heat Exchangers (shell and
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 48 Heat Exchangers
tube, plate and frame)
Condensers ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 39 Condensers
Ch 41 Evaporative Air Cooling
Evaporators ASHRAE Systems 2016
Equipment
Chillers ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 42 Liquid Coolers
Ch 18 Variable Refrigerant
Variable Refrigerant Flow DX ASHRAE Systems 2016
Flow
Ch 49 Unitary Air
ASHRAE Systems 2016
Conditioners and Heat Pumps
Heat Pumps
Ch 9 Applied Heat Pump and
ASHRAE Systems 2016
Heat Recovery Systems
Pumps (laws, efficiency,
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 44 Centrifugal Pumps
selection)
Compressors (laws, efficiency,
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 38 Compressors
selection)
Fans (laws, efficiency,
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 21 Fans
selection)
Ch 23 Air‐Cooling and
ASHRAE Systems 2016
Cooling/Heating Coils Dehumidifying Coils
ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 27 Air‐Heating Coils
Control Systems Valves ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 47 Valves
Control Systems Dampers http://www.metropac.com/pneu/pdfs/77‐1142.pdf
Refrigerants (properties, ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 Ch 29 Refrigerants
types) Ch 30 Thermophysical
ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017
Properties of Refrigerants
Expansion Valves Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Accumulators Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Topic 10.0 Systems and Components 18 of 80 problems
Ch 4 Air Handling and
Air Handlers ASHRAE Systems 2016
Distribution
Duct Design ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 Ch 21 Duct Design
https://www.titus‐
hvac.com/file/7561/diffusers%20eng_guidelines2013.pdf
Terminal Devices
Ch 20 Room Air Distribution
ASHRAE Systems 2016
Equipment
Ch 13 Hydronic Heating and
Hydronic ASHRAE Systems 2016
Cooling
http://www.eclipsenet.com/uploadedFiles/Pages/Product_Inf
Oil ormation/Eclipse_Engineering_Guide/Engineering_Guide_EFE
825.pdf
http://www.eclipsenet.com/uploadedFiles/Pages/Product_Inf
Fuel Gas ormation/Eclipse_Engineering_Guide/Engineering_Guide_EFE
825.pdf
https://www.atlascopco.com/en-uk/compressors/compressed-
Compressed Air
air-tips/compressed-air-manual
Steam ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 11 Steam Systems
ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 Ch 22 Pipe Sizing
Pipe Design Ch 46 Pipes, Tubes and
ASHRAE Systems 2016
Fittings
Ch 46 Pipes, Tubes and
Expansion Loops ASHRAE Systems 2016
Fittings
Ch 1 Halocarbon refrigeration
Refrigerant Pipe Sizing ASHRAE Refrigeration 2018
systems
Food Storage ASHRAE Refrigeration 2018 Ch 19 Food Storage
Refrigeration Cooling &
Freezing
http://www.johnsoncontrols.com/~/media/jci/be/united‐
states/airside‐systems/air‐handling‐
Enthalpy Wheels units/files/be_appguide_energyrecoverywheel_ahu.pdf?la=en
Heat Pipes Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Run‐Around Systems Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Basic Control Concepts
https://customer.honeywell.com/resources/techlit/TechLitDo
cuments/77‐0000s/77‐1200.pdf
Topic 11.0 Supportive Knowledge 4 of 80 problems
Codes and Standards Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide
Air Quality and Ventilation ASHRAE Standard 62.1
Ch 29 Air Cleaners for
Filtration ASHRAE Systems 2016
Particulate Contaminants
Chapter 8 ‐ Sound and
Vibration
Vibration Control
https://www.novibes.com/images/Technical%20Section.pdf
Chapter 8 ‐ Sound and
Acoustics Vibration
Please see the below link to the online version of this spreadsheet for any updates. You can
also read below about a majority of the different references. If you have any suggestions or
questions on the list, please email Justin at contact@engproguides.com or you can comment on
the online version of the spreadsheet.
Link: http://www.engproguides.com/hvacreferences.html
5.1 ASHRAE HANDBOOKS
By ASHRAE
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) is

the guiding source for the HVAC engineer. The society publishes four handbooks that contain
the essential topics and knowledge for practicing engineer: HVAC Systems and Equipment,
HVAC Applications, Refrigeration, Fundamentals. Each of these handbooks is updated in a four
year rotation. The handbooks are comprehensive and detailed. It is not necessary to know the
extensive details of these books, but it is essential to gain additional background knowledge and
experience on the topics, especially if you have less than 4 years of experience. The exam will
have qualitative type questions that you may not be able to answer with an equation. In
addition, based on our surveys, engineers with more experience tend to do better on the HVAC
exam. This seems to indicate that practical experience plays a role on this exam. The best way
to gain experience fast is to read through the applicable chapters in ASHRAE. It is
recommended that you read and understand the major topics, concepts, equipment, systems,
sizing methods, etc that are covered in the exam specifications. Remember that each problem
will average about 6 minutes, so judge whether what you’re reading can be tested or not, move
on if it can’t. You don’t need the latest version of these books, but be sure you procure the I-P
version and not the SI.
Amazon Linki: 2016 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment
Amazon Linki: 2017 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals
Amazon Linki: 2018 ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration Not needed anymore, the Engineering
Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide is more than enough.
Amazon Linki: 2019 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Applications Not needed anymore, the
Engineering Pro Guides, Technical Study Guide is more than enough.
5.2 ASHRAE CODES & STANDARDS

By ASHRAE
ASHRAE standards are another common tool used by practicing professional HVAC engineers.
The exam does not appear to be based on the latest version of the codes, since it is not
referenced as a resource by NCEES. However, it is recommended at a minimum that the
engineer in training be familiar with the basic intent and information in each of the following
codes. You don’t need to purchase these codes. The Engineering Pro Guides Technical Guide
is more than enough for the exam.
Amazon Link: ASHRAE 15, Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems
Amazon Linki: ASHRAE 55, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
Amazon Linki: ASHRAE 62.1, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
Amazon Linki: ASHRAE 90.1, Energy Standard for Building, except Low-Rise Residential
Buildings
5.3 NFPA CODES

By NFPA
The National Fire Protection Agency provides codes and standards related to fire protection.
The only recommended NFPA codes are those relating to HVAC systems. These codes are
NFPA 90A and NFPA 90B. You don’t need to purchase these codes. The Engineering Pro
Guides Technical Guide is more than enough for the exam.
Amazon Linki: NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air Conditioning and Ventilating
Systems
Amazon Linki: 90B, Standard for the Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning
Systems.
List of NFPA Codes and Standards
5.4 MECHANICAL PE: HVAC & REFRIGERATION TEXTBOOK

By Justin Kauwale
This book is specifically written for the Mechanical PE – HVAC and Refrigeration exam. It is the
comprehensive study guide and that teaches ALL the key concepts and skills needed for the
test. If you read through and understand everything in this book, then the HVAC PE exam will
be easy.
Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook
Additional free material is available at www.engproguides.com
5.5 COMMON PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS

N/A
It is a good idea to be familiar with the following tables and figures. Some charts are provided
within the question of the exam, the majority will be found in the NCEES PE Mechanical
Reference Handbook. Review the handbook for additional HVAC related tables and charts that
are not included in this list. Make sure you are comfortable with using the following:
 Basic Conversions
 Economic Interest Rates Table
 Pipe Tables: Equivalent Lengths, Friction Loss
 Density: Air, Water, Glycol/Water
 Steam Pipe Sizing
 Saturated/Superheated Water Table
 Temperature/Altitude Correction for Air
 Saturated/Superheated Refrigerant Table, R134a, R410a
 Psychrometric Chart, Air (Multiple elevations)
 Refrigerant Pipe Sizing
 Mollier Chart, Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram: Water, Refrigerant R134a, R410a
 Refrigeration of Foods
 Heating and Cooling Loads
 Building Resistances/U-Factors
 Combustion Reactions
6.0 QUICK EQUATION CONSTANTS

Throughout the book there are quick equations that are used to enhance your speed on the PE
exam. The following four heat equations [total air, sensible air, latent air, water] are some of the
most important equations for the exam and in the HVAC field. A full explanation of the
equations are given in the book, but it is highlighted here due to their importance. You should
have these equations memorized by the end of the Psychrometrics Chapter of this book. Be
sure to also locate the quick equations in the NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook, so
you can be prepared for any variation on exam day.
The quick equations are accompanied by tables that vary the standard constants with density.
You won’t have access to these tables during the exam, but it is provided to show you how the
constants can be affected. The quick equations use assumptions that the fluid is at standard air
or water conditions. Thus, the constants in these quick equations change as temperature or
pressure changes.
To best understand these tables, start by reviewing the generic equations and how the
constants are derived. Then, review the tables to get an idea of when there is significant
change in the constant, which forces you to use the long equations instead. For example, there
is not much change in density from 55F to 75F on the sea level psychrometrics chart, so unless
the answer options are very close together, you can assume the default constants, highlighted
in red below. The water constant does not change very much until temperatures start climbing
above 100F. If you do have to use the long equations, be sure to use dimensional analysis to
ensure you don’t miss a factor.
6.1 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF ENTHALPY FOR AIR EQUATION

The total heat equation shows power as a function of temperature and air flow rate. The
constant at the beginning of the equation is typically 4.5 and this constant encompasses the
multiplication of air density and the conversion from minutes to hours.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝜌 ∗ ∗ 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ ∆𝐻
𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝐻 ;
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑸 𝑩𝒕𝒖𝒉 𝟒. 𝟓 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑯 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟
𝒍𝒃𝒎
Total Heat Equation for Air

Air Density Minutes
Constant
(lbm/ft3) to Hours
0.086 60.000 5.160
0.085 60.000 5.100
0.084 60.000 5.040

0.083 60.000 4.980
0.082 60.000 4.920
0.081 60.000 4.860
0.080 60.000 4.800
0.079 60.000 4.740
0.078 60.000 4.680
0.077 60.000 4.620
0.076 60.000 4.560
0.075 60.000 4.500
0.074 60.000 4.440
0.073 60.000 4.380
0.072 60.000 4.320
0.071 60.000 4.260
0.070 60.000 4.200
0.069 60.000 4.140
0.068 60.000 4.080
0.067 60.000 4.020
0.066 60.000 3.960
0.065 60.000 3.900
0.064 60.000 3.840
0.063 60.000 3.780
0.062 60.000 3.720
0.061 60.000 3.660
0.060 60.000 3.600
0.059 60.000 3.540
6.2 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR AIR EQUATION
The sensible heat equation shows power as a function of temperature and air flow rate. The
constant at the beginning of the equation is typically 1.08 and this constant encompasses the
multiplication of air density, heat capacity (𝑐 , 0.24 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ 𝐹) and the conversion from
minutes to hours.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 0.24 𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝜌 ∗𝑐 , ∗ ∗ 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝐹 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹 ;
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑸 𝑩𝒕𝒖𝒉 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑻 °𝑭 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟
Sensible Heat Equation for Air

Heat
Air Density Minutes
Capacity Constant
(lbm/ft3) to Hours
(Btu/lbm-F)
0.086 0.240 60.000 1.238
0.085 0.240 60.000 1.224
0.084 0.240 60.000 1.210
0.083 0.240 60.000 1.195
0.082 0.240 60.000 1.181
0.081 0.240 60.000 1.166
0.080 0.240 60.000 1.152
0.079 0.240 60.000 1.138
0.078 0.240 60.000 1.123
0.077 0.240 60.000 1.109
0.076 0.240 60.000 1.094
0.075 0.240 60.000 1.080
0.074 0.240 60.000 1.066
0.073 0.240 60.000 1.051
0.072 0.240 60.000 1.037
0.071 0.241 60.000 1.027
0.070 0.241 60.000 1.012
0.069 0.241 60.000 0.998
0.068 0.241 60.000 0.983
0.067 0.241 60.000 0.969
0.066 0.241 60.000 0.954
0.065 0.241 60.000 0.940
0.064 0.241 60.000 0.925
0.063 0.241 60.000 0.911
0.062 0.241 60.000 0.897
0.061 0.241 60.000 0.882
0.060 0.241 60.000 0.868
0.059 0.242 60.000 0.857
6.3 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF HUMIDITY RATIO FOR AIR EQUATION

The latent heat equation shows power as a function of humidity ratio and air flow rate. The
constant at the beginning of the equation is typically in the range of 4,730 to 4,840 and this
constant encompasses the multiplication of air density, heat of vaporization (ℎ ) and the
conversion from minutes to hours. The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook uses a
constant of 4840, which comes from using an hfg from 75F, 50% RH to 50F. For the purposes
of the PE exam, you should use the NCEES coefficient of 4840. However, the percent
difference between 4,730 and 4,840 is only roughly 2%, so unless the answers are very close
together, you should be okay with using values within this range.
𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝜌 ∗ℎ ∗ ∗ 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ ∆𝑊
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐻 𝑂
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊 ;
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑸 𝑩𝒕𝒖𝒉 𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟎 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑾𝒍𝒃 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟
𝒍𝒃𝒎 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒊𝒓
Latent Heat Equation for Air (Humidity Ratio lbm H2O/lbm dry air)
Air Heat of Minutes Air Heat of Minutes

Density Vaporization to Constant Density Vaporization to Constant
(lbm/ft3) (Btu/lbm) Hours (lbm/ft3) (Btu/lbm) Hours
0.086 1,080 60 5,573 0.074 1,048 60 4,653

0.085 1,079 60 5,503 0.073 1,045 60 4,577
0.084 1,078 60 5,433 0.072 1,042 60 4,501
0.083 1,077 60 5,363 0.071 1,037 60 4,418
0.082 1,076 60 5,294 0.070 1,031 60 4,330
0.081 1,075 60 5,225 0.069 1,025 60 4,244
0.080 1,074 60 5,155 0.068 1,022 60 4,170
0.079 1,073 60 5,086 0.067 1,019 60 4,096
0.078 1,068 60 4,998 0.066 1,014 60 4,015
0.077 1,062 60 4,906 0.065 1,008 60 3,931
0.076 1,057 60 4,820 0.064 1,001 60 3,844
0.075 1,052 60 4,734 0.063 996 60 3,765
0.062 990 60 3,683
0.061 984 60 3,601
0.060 971 60 3,496
This table is used if your humidity ratio is in grains.
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ

𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 𝑔𝑟
𝜌 ∗ℎ ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ ∆𝑊
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑟 7000 𝑔𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐻 𝑂
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊 ;
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐻 𝑂
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 0.68 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊
Latent Heat Equation for Air (grains)

Air Heat of Minutes
Grains
Density Vaporization to Constant
Conversion
(lbm/ft3) (Btu/lbm) Hours
0.086 1080 60 1.429E-04 0.80
0.085 1079 60 1.429E-04 0.79
0.084 1078 60 1.429E-04 0.78
0.083 1077 60 1.429E-04 0.77
0.082 1076 60 1.429E-04 0.76
0.081 1075 60 1.429E-04 0.75
0.080 1074 60 1.429E-04 0.74
0.079 1073 60 1.429E-04 0.73
0.078 1068 60 1.429E-04 0.71
0.077 1062 60 1.429E-04 0.70
0.076 1057 60 1.429E-04 0.69
0.075 1052 60 1.429E-04 0.68
0.074 1048 60 1.429E-04 0.66
0.073 1045 60 1.429E-04 0.65
0.072 1042 60 1.429E-04 0.64
0.071 1037 60 1.429E-04 0.63
0.070 1031 60 1.429E-04 0.62
0.069 1025 60 1.429E-04 0.61
0.068 1022 60 1.429E-04 0.60
0.067 1019 60 1.429E-04 0.59
0.066 1014 60 1.429E-04 0.57
0.065 1008 60 1.429E-04 0.56
0.064 1001 60 1.429E-04 0.55
0.063 996 60 1.429E-04 0.54
0.062 990 60 1.429E-04 0.53
0.061 984 60 1.429E-04 0.51
0.060 971 60 1.429E-04 0.50
0.059 970 60 1.429E-04 0.49
6.4 DENSITY FACTORS (AIR)

Although you won’t be able to bring in the tables above, similar adjustments to the quick
equations can be made with the “Temperature and Altitude Corrections for Air” table found in
Chapter 7 – Psychrometrics of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
The quick equations above are based on standard air density, 0.075 lbm/ft3, which is based on
70F dry air at sea level. During non-standard conditions, the density will change due to
higher/lower temperatures or altitudes much higher than sea level. To adjust the quick
equations, first find the new density, then lookup the density factor (DF) in the NCEES table.
The quick equations can then be revised below.
Altitude Changes:
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝐻 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹

𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐻 𝑂
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊
Temperature Changes:
During temperature changes, note that the heat of vaporization, hfg, for the latent heat equation
could also change, so in this case, the full equation should be used.
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝐻 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹

𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝜌 ∗ℎ ∗ ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏
6.5 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR WATER EQUATION

The sensible heat equation (no phase change) shows power as a function of temperature and
water flow rate. The constant at the beginning of the equation is typically 500 and this constant
encompasses the multiplication of water density, heat capacity (𝑐 , 1.0 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ 𝑅) and
the conversion from minutes to hours.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1𝑓𝑡

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑐 , 1.0 ∗ ∗𝜌 ∗ ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ °𝐹 ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹 ;
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑸 𝑩𝒕𝒖𝒉 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝑮𝑷𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑻 °𝑭 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
As water temperatures start to rise above a certain point, the full equation should be used
instead of the quick equation. The only thing that changes is the density, which can be found in
the “Properties of Water” table in Chapter 1 of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook.
Total Heat Equation for Water
Water Water
ft3 to Minutes
Temperature Density Constant
Gallons to Hours
(F) (lbs/ft3)
32.00 62.41 0.134 60 500.65
33.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.67
34.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.69
35.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.70
36.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.71
37.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.72
38.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.72
39.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.72
40.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.72
41.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.72
42.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.71
43.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.70
44.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.69
45.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.68
46.00 62.42 0.134 60 500.67
47.00 62.41 0.134 60 500.65
48.00 62.41 0.134 60 500.63
49.00 62.41 0.134 60 500.61
50.00 62.41 0.134 60 500.59
51.00 62.40 0.134 60 500.56
52.00 62.40 0.134 60 500.53
53.00 62.40 0.134 60 500.50
54.00 62.39 0.134 60 500.47
55.00 62.39 0.134 60 500.44
56.00 62.38 0.134 60 500.40
57.00 62.38 0.134 60 500.36
58.00 62.37 0.134 60 500.33
59.00 62.37 0.134 60 500.29
60.00 62.36 0.134 60 500.24
61.00 62.36 0.134 60 500.20
62.00 62.35 0.134 60 500.15
63.00 62.35 0.134 60 500.10
64.00 62.34 0.134 60 500.06
65.00 62.33 0.134 60 500.00
66.00 62.33 0.134 60 499.95
67.00 62.32 0.134 60 499.89
68.00 62.31 0.134 60 499.84
69.00 62.31 0.134 60 499.78

70.00 62.30 0.134 60 499.72
71.00 62.29 0.134 60 499.66
72.00 62.28 0.134 60 499.59
73.00 62.27 0.134 60 499.53
74.00 62.27 0.134 60 499.46
75.00 62.26 0.134 60 499.40
76.00 62.25 0.134 60 499.33
77.00 62.24 0.134 60 499.26
78.00 62.23 0.134 60 499.18
79.00 62.22 0.134 60 499.11
80.00 62.21 0.134 60 499.04
81.00 62.20 0.134 60 498.96
82.00 62.19 0.134 60 498.88
83.00 62.18 0.134 60 498.80
84.00 62.17 0.134 60 498.72
85.00 62.16 0.134 60 498.64
86.00 62.15 0.134 60 498.56
87.00 62.14 0.134 60 498.47
88.00 62.13 0.134 60 498.39
89.00 62.12 0.134 60 498.30
90.00 62.11 0.134 60 498.21
91.00 62.10 0.134 60 498.12
92.00 62.09 0.134 60 498.03
93.00 62.08 0.134 60 497.94
94.00 62.06 0.134 60 497.84
95.00 62.05 0.134 60 497.75
96.00 62.04 0.134 60 497.65
97.00 62.03 0.134 60 497.56
98.00 62.02 0.134 60 497.46
99.00 62.00 0.134 60 497.35
100.00 61.99 0.134 60 497.26
101.00 61.98 0.134 60 497.15
102.00 61.97 0.134 60 497.05
103.00 61.95 0.134 60 496.95
104.00 61.94 0.134 60 496.84
105.00 61.93 0.134 60 496.73
106.00 61.91 0.134 60 496.63
107.00 61.90 0.134 60 496.51
108.00 61.89 0.134 60 496.40
109.00 61.87 0.134 60 496.29
110.00 61.86 0.134 60 496.18
111.00 61.84 0.134 60 496.07
112.00 61.83 0.134 60 495.95

113.00 61.81 0.134 60 495.84
114.00 61.80 0.134 60 495.72
115.00 61.78 0.134 60 495.60
116.00 61.77 0.134 60 495.48
117.00 61.76 0.134 60 495.36
118.00 61.74 0.134 60 495.24
119.00 61.72 0.134 60 495.12
120.00 61.71 0.134 60 494.99
121.00 61.69 0.134 60 494.87
122.00 61.68 0.134 60 494.74
123.00 61.66 0.134 60 494.62
124.00 61.65 0.134 60 494.49
125.00 61.63 0.134 60 494.36
126.00 61.61 0.134 60 494.24
127.00 61.60 0.134 60 494.10
128.00 61.58 0.134 60 493.97
129.00 61.57 0.134 60 493.84
130.00 61.55 0.134 60 493.71
131.00 61.53 0.134 60 493.57
132.00 61.52 0.134 60 493.44
133.00 61.50 0.134 60 493.30
134.00 61.48 0.134 60 493.17
135.00 61.46 0.134 60 493.03
136.00 61.45 0.134 60 492.89
137.00 61.43 0.134 60 492.75
138.00 61.41 0.134 60 492.61
139.00 61.39 0.134 60 492.47
140.00 61.38 0.134 60 492.32
141.00 61.36 0.134 60 492.18
142.00 61.34 0.134 60 492.04
143.00 61.32 0.134 60 491.89
144.00 61.30 0.134 60 491.74
145.00 61.29 0.134 60 491.60
146.00 61.27 0.134 60 491.45
147.00 61.25 0.134 60 491.30
148.00 61.23 0.134 60 491.15
149.00 61.21 0.134 60 491.00
150.00 61.19 0.134 60 490.85
151.00 61.17 0.134 60 490.70
152.00 61.15 0.134 60 490.54
153.00 61.14 0.134 60 490.39
154.00 61.12 0.134 60 490.23
155.00 61.10 0.134 60 490.08

156.00 61.08 0.134 60 489.92
157.00 61.06 0.134 60 489.76
158.00 61.04 0.134 60 489.60
159.00 61.02 0.134 60 489.45
160.00 61.00 0.134 60 489.29
161.00 60.98 0.134 60 489.13
162.00 60.96 0.134 60 488.97
163.00 60.94 0.134 60 488.80
164.00 60.92 0.134 60 488.64
165.00 60.90 0.134 60 488.47
166.00 60.88 0.134 60 488.31
167.00 60.86 0.134 60 488.14
168.00 60.83 0.134 60 487.98
169.00 60.81 0.134 60 487.81
170.00 60.79 0.134 60 487.64
171.00 60.77 0.134 60 487.47
172.00 60.75 0.134 60 487.31
173.00 60.73 0.134 60 487.13
174.00 60.71 0.134 60 486.96
175.00 60.69 0.134 60 486.79
176.00 60.66 0.134 60 486.62
177.00 60.64 0.134 60 486.45
178.00 60.62 0.134 60 486.27
179.00 60.60 0.134 60 486.09
180.00 60.58 0.134 60 485.92
181.00 60.56 0.134 60 485.74
182.00 60.53 0.134 60 485.57
183.00 60.51 0.134 60 485.39
184.00 60.49 0.134 60 485.21
185.00 60.47 0.134 60 485.03
186.00 60.44 0.134 60 484.85
187.00 60.42 0.134 60 484.67
188.00 60.40 0.134 60 484.48
189.00 60.38 0.134 60 484.30
190.00 60.35 0.134 60 484.12
191.00 60.33 0.134 60 483.93
192.00 60.31 0.134 60 483.75
193.00 60.28 0.134 60 483.56
194.00 60.26 0.134 60 483.38
195.00 60.24 0.134 60 483.19
196.00 60.21 0.134 60 483.00
197.00 60.19 0.134 60 482.81
198.00 60.17 0.134 60 482.62

199.00 60.14 0.134 60 482.43
200.00 60.12 0.134 60 482.24
201.00 60.10 0.134 60 482.05
202.00 60.07 0.134 60 481.86
203.00 60.05 0.134 60 481.67
204.00 60.02 0.134 60 481.47
205.00 60.00 0.134 60 481.28
206.00 59.98 0.134 60 481.08
207.00 59.95 0.134 60 480.89
208.00 59.93 0.134 60 480.69
209.00 59.90 0.134 60 480.50
210.00 59.88 0.134 60 480.30
211.00 59.85 0.134 60 480.10
212.00 59.83 0.134 60 479.90
7.0 PAST EXAM SURVEYS

After every PE exam, I conduct an online survey with as many PE exam test takers that I can
find. I primarily use my website, www.engproguides.com and www.engineerboards.com to find
test takers to take the survey. The survey provides insight into an estimated passing score, how
well test takers do based on experience and number of hours studied, and which areas of the
exam are difficult or easy. The raw results of the survey and analysis of the results are provided
in the link below. This link shows a summary of the results with and without pivot chart analysis.
HVAC PE Survey Results:
https://www.engproguides.com/hvac-pe-exam-survey.html
i
Justin Kauwale is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to
provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon.com
2 - Basic Engineering Practice

Units and Conversions | Economic Analysis | Electrical Concepts
HVAC Textbook
Section 2.0 – Basic Engineering Practice
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Interest Rate & Time value of Money ............................................................................. 4
2.2 Annual value/Annuities ................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Equipment Type Questions ............................................................................................ 6
2.4 Convert to Present Value ............................................................................................... 8
2.5 Convert to Future Value ................................................................................................. 9
2.6 Convert to Annualized Value .......................................................................................... 9
2.7 Factor Tables ................................................................................................................ 10
2.8 Convert to Rate of Return ............................................................................................. 12
2.9 Break Even Analysis ..................................................................................................... 13
2.10 Simple Payback ............................................................................................................ 13
2.11 Depreciation ................................................................................................................. 13
2.11.1 Straight Line.............................................................................................................. 13
2.11.2 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) .......................................... 14
2.11.3 Sum of Years Digits (SYD) ....................................................................................... 15
2.11.4 Depreciation Comparison ...................................................................................... 16
3.0 Units and Conversions ..................................................................................................... 17
4.0 Electrical Concepts .......................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Current, Voltage and Resistance .................................................................................. 17
4.2 Basic DC Circuits .......................................................................................................... 17
4.3 D/C Power .................................................................................................................... 21
4.4 A/C Power .................................................................................................................... 21
4.5 Mechanical Equipment Motor Rating ............................................................................ 22
4.6 Motor Ratings ............................................................................................................... 26
4.7 Mechanical Equipment Heat Output ............................................................................. 27
5.0 Practice Problems ............................................................................................................ 28
5.1 Problem 1 - Economics ................................................................................................ 28
Basic Engineering Practice - 1 www.engproguides.com

4-6 out of 80 problems

5.6 Problem 6 – Unit Conversions ...................................................................................... 30
5.7 Problem 7 - Electrical ................................................................................................... 31
5.10 Problem 10 - Electrical ................................................................................................. 32
5.11 Problem 11 - Electrical ................................................................................................. 33
6.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 34
6.1 Solution 1 - Economics ................................................................................................. 34
6.6 Solution 6 – Unit Conversions ...................................................................................... 38
6.7 Solution 7 - Electrical .................................................................................................... 39
6.10 Solution 10 - Electrical .................................................................................................. 41
6.11 Solution 11 - Electrical .................................................................................................. 42

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Basic Engineering Practice accounts for approximately 4‐6 questions on the HVAC &
Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.
The HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam is designed to ensure that a passing engineer is
minimally competent to practice engineering. Being minimally competent does include
understanding engineering unit conversions, performing basic economic analyses, and
understanding electrical concepts that are required for supporting mechanical equipment.
However, many of these tasks can be completed without an engineering background and thus
the PE exam should provide questions that are more complex than just questions in one of these
topics. The questions may include an economic analysis but also with thermodynamics. It may
include power consumption and integrate fluids first to size a pump or fan. You may also have to
complete an energy-mass balance problem and convert units to match the selected answers.
Based on the above reasoning, you should focus your studying on other sections of this book,
with the exception of the Economic Analysis section. The skills learned in the Economic Analysis
and Electrical Concepts sections are necessary of a HVAC engineer.
Basic Engineering Practice

4-6 questions
Economic Units & Electrical Concepts

Analysis Conversions
 Present  Power/Energy
value Consumption
 Future value  Motor ratings
 Annual value  Efficiencies/
 Rate of Losses
return  Part Load Curves
 Interest rate  Amperage
 Factor tables  Heat output

2.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

As a professional engineer, you will be tasked with determining the course of action for a design.
Often times this will entail choosing one alternative instead of several other design alternatives.
Engineers need to be able to present engineering economic analysis to their clients in
order to justify why a certain alternative is more financially sound than another. The
following sub-sections will present the engineering economic concepts that should be understood
by the engineer for the PE exam and does not present a comprehensive look into the study of
engineering economics.
2.1 INTEREST RATE & TIME VALUE OF MONEY

Before discussing interest rates, it is important that the engineer understands that money today
is worth more than money in the future. This is the concept of “time value of money.” For example,
if you were given the option to have $1,000 today or to have $1,000 10 years from now, you
should choose $1,000 today. Why is that? The reason $1,000 today is worth more is because
of what you could have done with that money now. In the financial world this is the amount of
interest you could have earned with that money. If you took $1,000 today and invested it at 4%
per year, you would have $1,040 dollars at the end of the first year.
$1,000 ∗ 1 .04 $1,040
 If you kept the $1,040 in the investment for another year, then you would have $1,081.60.
$1,040 ∗ 1 .04 $1,081.60
 At the end of the 10 years the investment would have earned, $1,480.24.
$1,000 ∗ 1 .04 ∗ 1.04 ∗ 1.04 … … $1,000 ∗ 1.04 $1,480.24
This means $1,000 today is worth $1,480.24 ten years from now, assuming a yearly
interest rate of 4%.
 An important formula to remember is the Future Value (FV) is equal to the Present Value
(PV) multiplied by (1 + interest rate, 𝑖), raised to the number of years, 𝑛.
𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 𝑖 𝐹𝑉
 As an example, what would be the present value of $1,000, 10 years from now, if the
interest rate is 4%?
𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 .04 $1,000
𝑃𝑉 $675.46
 Thus in the previous example, receiving $1,000, 10 years from now, is only worth $675.46
today.

It is important to understand present value because when analyzing engineering alternatives,

cash values will be presented at many different times. The best way to make a uniform analysis
is to first convert all values to consistent terms, like present value.
For example, if instead your options were $1,000 today or $1,500 in 10 years (interest rate at
4%), then it would be a much more difficult question than the previous one. With an understanding
of present value, you can derive that it is better to accept $1,500 10 years from now, because
$1,000 at present value is only worth $1,480 10 years from now, at 4% interest. In this example,
the $1,000 today was converted to the “future value,” 10 years from now. Once this value was
converted, it can then be compared to the future value that was given as $1,500, 10 years later.
2.2 ANNUAL VALUE/ANNUITIES

The previous section described the difference between present value and future value. It also
showed how a lump sum given at certain times are worth different amounts in present terms. In
engineering, there are often times when annual sums are given in lieu of one time lump sums.
An example would be annual energy savings due to the implementation of a more efficient HVAC
system. Thus, it is important for the engineer to be able to determine the present/future value of
future annual gains or losses.
For example, let's assume that a solar hot water project provides an annual savings of $200.
Using the equations from the previous section, each annual savings can be converted to either
present or future value. Then these values can be summed up to determine the future and present
value of annual savings of $200 for four years at an interest rate of 4%.

 For longer periods, this method could become tedious. Luckily there is a formula that can
be used to speed up the process in converting annuities (A) to present value and future
value, based on the interest rate, 𝑖, and the number of years, 𝑛.
1 i 1
Future Value "FV" A∗
i
1 .04 1
𝐹𝑉 200 ∗ $849.29
. 04
1 1 i
Present Value "PV" A∗
i
1 1 .04
𝑃𝑉 200 ∗ $725.98
. 04
 Reverse Equations, where annual value is solved:
i∗ 1 i
Annuities "A" PV ∗
1 i 1
i
Annuities "A" FV
1 i 1
2.3 EQUIPMENT TYPE QUESTIONS

In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, often times the engineer must develop an economic analysis
for purchasing one piece of equipment over another. In the analysis, the engineer will use
terms like present value, annualized cost, future value, initial cost and other terms like salvage
value, equipment lifetime, rate of return, and payback.
Salvage value is the amount a piece of equipment will be worth at the end of its
lifetime. Lifetime is typically given by a manufacturer as the average lifespan (years) of a
piece of equipment. Looking at the figure below, initial cost is shown as a downward arrow at
year 0. Annual gains are shown as the upward arrow and maintenance costs and other costs to
run the piece of equipment are shown as downward arrows starting at year 1 and proceeding to
the end of the lifetime. Finally, at the end of the lifetime there is an upward arrow indicating the
salvage value.

Figure 1: Economic analysis of gains and losses over time.
As previously stated, the most important process in an engineering economic analysis is to

convert all monetary gains and costs to like terms , whether it is present value, future value,
annual value or rate of return. Each specific conversion will be discussed in the following
sections.
It is also important to note the language and the sign of the values. A “cost” or “loss” is
represented as a negative (–) value and is indicated as red downward arrows. Terms like
“savings,” “salvage,” or “gain” are represented as a positive (+) value, i.e. money gained, and is
indicated in green above. When the question asks, what is the present worth of a piece of
equipment over its lifetime, a negative value means there is an overall cost for the equipment,
while positive means there was an overall savings. However, when the question directly asks
you what the “cost” of an equipment is, the question is already implying that the value is a cost
(i.e. negative), so the answer will be given as a positive value. In other words, $10,000 cost is
the same as -$10,000 worth. It is important to pay attention to the wording during the exam and
not get tricked by the signs.
Each of the sections will use the same example, in order to illustrate the difference in converting
between each of the different terms and designating the signs (+ or -).
Example: A new chiller has an initial cost of $50,000 and a yearly maintenance cost of $1,000.
At the end of its 15 year lifetime, the chiller will have a salvage value of $5,000. It is estimated
that by installing this new chiller, there will be an energy savings of $5,000 per year. The interest
rate is 4%.

2.4 CONVERT TO PRESENT VALUE

What is the Present Value (Present Worth) of this chiller?
The first term, initial cost is already in present value.
𝑃𝑉 $50,000
The second term, maintenance cost must be converted from an annual cost to present
value. However, we can add the annual energy savings to this amount to save time.
𝐴 & 𝐴 $1,000 $5,000 $4,000
1 1 .04
𝑃𝑉 & $4,000 ∗ $44,473.55
. 04
The third term, salvage value must be converted from future value to present value.
$5,000
𝑃𝑉 $2,776.32
1 .04
Finally, sum up all the like terms.
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 & 𝑃𝑉
𝑃𝑉 $50,000 $44,473.55 $2,776.32 $ 2750.13
A negative Present Value indicates that the investment does not recoup the initial
investment.
Side note: If the question had instead asked, what is the present value “cost” of the chiller, the
answer would be +$2750.13 because the negative is already implied with “cost.” However, the
question asks ‘what is the present value worth,’ so the answer is -$2750.13.

2.5 CONVERT TO FUTURE VALUE

What is the Future Value (Future Worth) of this chiller at the end of its lifetime?
The first term, initial cost is in present value and must be converted to future value.
𝐹𝑉 $50,000 ∗ 1 .04 $ 90,047.18
The second term, maintenance cost must be converted from an annual cost to future
value. However, we can add the annual energy savings to this amount to save time.
𝐴 & 𝐴 $1,000 $5,000 $4,000
1 .04 1
𝐹𝑉 & $4,000 ∗ $80,094.35
. 04
The third term, salvage value is already in future value.
𝐹𝑉 $5,000
𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉 &
𝐹𝑉 $80,094.35 $90,047.18 $5,000 $ 4,952.83
2.6 CONVERT TO ANNUALIZED VALUE

What is the Annual Value of this chiller?
The first term, initial cost is in present value and must be converted to annual value.
. 04 ∗ 1 .04
𝐴𝑉 $50,000 ∗ $ 4,497.06
1 .04 1
The second term, maintenance cost is already annualized. However, we can add the
annual energy savings to this amount to save time.
𝐴𝑉 & 𝐴𝑉 $1,000 $5,000 $4,000
The third term, salvage value is in future value and must be annualized.
. 04
𝐴𝑉 $5,000 $249.71
1 .04 1

𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 &
𝐴𝑉 $249.71 $4,497.06 $4,000 $ 247.35
For an even faster method on how to do these calculations with tables, see the following section:
Factor Tables.
2.7 FACTOR TABLES

When conducting engineering economic analyses, factor values are used in lieu of formulas.
Factor values are pre-calculated values that correspond to:
(1) A specific equation (convert present value to annual, convert present value to future, etc.)
(2) An interest rate, 𝑖.
(3) Number of years, 𝑛.
Looking up these values in a table is sometimes quicker than using the equations and lessens
the possibility of calculator error. It is recommended that the engineer practice using the factor
tables in the NCEES PE Mechanical Reference Handbook . A summary of the factor values
are shown below.
Conversion Formula Factor Value

(from table)
Present Value to Future Value 𝐹𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ 1 𝑖 Multiply PV by (F/P, i, n)
𝐹𝑉
Future Value to Present Value 𝑃𝑉 Multiply FV by (P/F, i, n)
1 𝑖
𝑖∗ 1 𝑖
Present Value to Annual Value 𝐴𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ Multiply PV by (A/P, i, n)
1 𝑖 1
1 1 𝑖
Annual Value to Present Value 𝑃𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ∗ Multiply AV by (P/A, i, n)
𝑖
𝑖
Future Value to Annual Value 𝐴𝑉 𝐹𝑉 Multiply FV by (A/F, i, n)
1 𝑖 1
1 𝑖 1
Annual Value to Future Value 𝐹𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ∗ Multiply AV by (F/A, i, n)
𝑖

As an example, let’s redo the annual value calculation from the previous example, using the factor
tables.
What is the Annual Value of the chiller?
The first term, initial cost is in present value and must be converted to annual value.
Look up the A/P factor in the tables for 4% interest at 15 years.
Tip: The calculation is similar to unit conversions: A = P * (A/P), the P’s cancel out to get A.
𝐴𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ 𝐴/𝑃 4%, 15
Extra steps: Unfortunately the NCEES Reference Handbook only has values for 2% and 6% interest. Find
these two interest rates at 15 years and interpolate to estimate the 4% A/P value. Luckily 4% is right in
the middle, so we can just find the average.
𝐴 𝐴
2%, 15 0.0778; 6%, 15 0.1030
𝑃 𝑃
𝐴 0.0778 0.1030
4%, 15 0.0904
𝑃 2
Convert present to annualized cost.
𝐴𝑉 𝑃𝑉 ∗ 𝐴/𝑃 4%, 15 $50,000 ∗ 0.0904 $ 4,520
Notice that the answer is just slightly off from the previous example. This is because the values are not
linear between the 2% to 6% tables, so the interpolation to obtain the 4% values are approximate. If the
values are read straight from the tables without needing to interpolate, these answers would be exact.
The second term, maintenance cost is already annualized. However, we can add the
annual energy savings to this amount to save time.
𝐴𝑉 & 𝐴𝑉 $1,000 $5,000 $4,000
The third term, salvage value is in future value and must be annualized. Find the A/F
value at 4%, 15 years.
𝐴 𝐴
2%, 15 0.0578; 6%, 15 0.0430
𝐹 𝐹
𝐴 0.0578 0.0430
4%, 15 0.0504
𝐹 2
𝐴𝑉 𝐹𝑉 ∗ 𝐴/𝐹 4%, 15 $5,000 ∗ 0.0504 $252

𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 𝐴𝑉 &
𝐴𝑉 $252 $4,520 $4,000 $ 268
2.8 CONVERT TO RATE OF RETURN

What is the rate of return on the investment of $50,000 for the new chiller?
The rate of return is a tool used by engineers to describe how profitable or un-profitable an
investment is over the equipment’s lifetime. The calculation involves determining the equivalent
interest rate for a monetary investment and a monetary gain or loss.
In the previous example, $50,000 is invested in a new chiller and the returns on this chiller are
$4,000 a year ($5,000 energy savings minus $1,000 O&M) and a salvage value of $5,000 at the
end of the 15 years. For the calculation of rate of return (ROR) or return on investment (ROI),
the salvage value is assumed to be $0 only to simplify the problem.
The ROR is calculated as what "i" value is required in the below equation to make both
sides equal. This approach takes trial and error, unless you have a computer or financial
calculator.
1 1 𝑖
$4,000 ∗ $50,000
𝑖
First try, i= .04 (4%).
$44,473.55 $50,000
Second try, i= .03 (3%).
$47,751.74 $50,000
Third try, i= .025 (2.5%).
$49,525 $50,000
Fourth try, i= .023 (2.3%).
$50,262 $50,000
Correct answer is approximately, 2.4% ROR. Since, the ROR is less than the interest rate of
4%, this investment is not wise.

2.9 BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

Break even analysis is the point at which revenues equals cost. This is most commonly used in
manufacturing and is discussed briefly. The most common application is finding how many
products must be produced until the facility reaches the breakeven point, or until the facility will
finally start seeing profits. In this analysis, you use the same principals from the previous section,
except there is an unknown variable. First convert all terms to either present, annual, or future,
then equate the total sum of all income and expenses to zero and solve for the unknown variable.
In HVAC, this analysis may be more typically done to compare two options, i.e. at which point will
option A provide more savings than option B. Convert all terms to present, annual, or future, then
equate the sum of all expenses and savings/income from option A and option B to solve for the
variable. Again, you will use the same principals, but apply them to solve an unknown variable.
2.10 SIMPLE PAYBACK

Calculating simple payback is similar to a break even analysis. Simple payback is calculated by
taking the initial cost and divided it by the yearly savings that will be achieved through the project
or the installation of a new piece of equipment. Simple payback is the number of year that will be
required to recoup the initial cost. It is called simple because it does not take into account the
time value of money.
Example: A new chiller has an initial cost of $50,000 and a yearly maintenance cost of $1,000.
At the end of its 15 year lifetime, the chiller will have a salvage value of $5,000. It is estimated
that by installing this new chiller, there will be an energy savings of $5,000 per year. The interest
rate is 6%. What is the simple payback of the new chiller?
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 $50,000 $50,000
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 12.5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 $5,000 $1,000 $4,000
2.11 DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is the value that an asset decreases over time. For example, as a building or an
equipment gets older, it starts to gradually deteriorate and reduce in useful life over time.
Depreciation values can be represented as either a straight line or accelerated form.
2.11.1 STRAIGHT LINE

Straight line depreciation distributes the depreciation values evenly over the life of the asset. This
is the simplest method for calculating depreciation and is represented by the following equation.

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 $ 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 $

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 $/𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
For example, a machine is purchased at $100,000 and has a salvage value of $10,000. If the
machine has a useful life of 10 years, then the straight line depreciation value is:
$100,000 $10,000
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 $9,000/𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟
10 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Figure 2: Example of Straight Line Depreciation for an asset with ten years of usable life
2.11.2 MODIFIED ACCELERATED COST RECOVERY SYSTEM (MACRS)
The modified accelerated cost recovery depreciation system distributes the depreciation to be
heavily weighted in the earlier years of the asset’s usable life and less weighted in the later years.
In other words, it accelerates the depreciation to earlier in the lifetime of the asset. This system
is used for taxes in the United States. It allows for the company to take larger depreciation credits
in the earlier years, thereby deferring taxes to later in the asset’s lifetime.
There are two main differences between this depreciation method and the straight line method.
First, the depreciation occurs over n+1 years, where “n” is the lifetime of the asset. In addition,
there is no salvage value for MACRS depreciation. At the end of the “n+1” years, the asset will
have a salvage value of $0.
𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑆 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , $ 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑗 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 % , ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 $
In practice, the MACRS tables are published by the IRS. For the exam, use the table in the
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for the recovery rate based on the recovery period.

The same equipment used in the straight line example above ($100,000 initial cost, 10 year
lifespan) will have a recovery rate at year 2 of 18%, and a recovery rate at year 8 at 6.55%.
𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑆 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 18% ∗ $100,000 $18,000
𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑅𝑆 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 6.55% ∗ $100,000 $6,550
Figure 3: Example of MACRS Depreciation for an asset with ten years of usable life
2.11.3 SUM OF YEARS DIGITS (SYD)
The sum of the years digits method also uses accelerated depreciation, applying more
depreciation in the earlier part of an equipment’s life. The difference between MACRS is the
amount of depreciation that is distributed throughout the years. SYD is also different to MACRS,
but similar to straight line depreciation, in that it incorporates a salvage value and depreciates the
equipment over its lifetime, instead of the n+1 years that MACRS uses. SYD is an older method
that was used in taxes before MACRS. In present day, it is used for accounting, and is not allowed
for taxes.
2 ∗ 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 $ 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 $ ∗ 𝑛 𝑗 1

𝑆𝑌𝐷 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 $ 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑗
𝑛∗ 𝑛 1
𝑛 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 ; 𝑗 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Using the same example, a machine is purchased at $100,000 and has a salvage value of
$10,000. If the machine has a useful life of 10 years, then the sum of the years depreciation value
at year 2 and year 8 is found below.

2 ∗ $100,000 $10,000 ∗ 10 2 1
𝑆𝑌𝐷 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 $14,727
10 ∗ 10 1
2 ∗ $100,000 $10,000 ∗ 10 8 1
𝑆𝑌𝐷 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 $4,909
10 ∗ 10 1
Figure 4: Example of SYD Depreciation for an asset with ten years of usable life.
2.11.4 DEPRECIATION COMPARISON
The following table compares the straight line, MACRS, and SYD depreciation methods for an
equipment with initial cost of $100,000, lifespan of 10 years, and $0 salvage value.
Year (n) Straight Line MACRS SYD

1 10% $10,000 10% $10,000 18% $18,182
2 10% $10,000 18% $18,000 16% $16,364
3 10% $10,000 14% $14,400 15% $14,545
4 10% $10,000 12% $11,520 13% $12,727
5 10% $10,000 9% $9,220 11% $10,909
6 10% $10,000 7% $7,370 9% $9,091
7 10% $10,000 7% $6,550 7% $7,273
8 10% $10,000 7% $6,550 5% $5,455
9 10% $10,000 7% $6,560 4% $3,636
10 10% $10,000 7% $6,550 2% $1,818
11 3% $3,280

3.0 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS

Many of the problems on the PE exam will require you to convert units and will have incorrect
answers that use different units or wrong conversion techniques. Double check your work and
make sure you use the correct units. Make sure you are very familiar with the unit conversions
available in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
4.0 ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS

Mechanical and electrical engineers work closely together and there is often a lot of coordination
between the two disciplines. Most of the equipment that a HVAC & Refrigeration engineer designs
will require power. It is important for the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer to understand the basics
of electrical engineering.
4.1 CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

There are three basic terms that mechanical engineers should understand about electrical
engineering, current, voltage and resistance.
Current is the measure of the flow of electrons and is measured in terms of amperes (A). Current
is represented by the variable (I).
Voltage is best described in mechanical terms as the pressure at which current (flow) is supplied.
Voltage is often represented by the variable (V).
Resistance is the opposition to flow. It controls the amount of flow or voltage in a circuit.
Resistance is represented by the variable (R) and is measured in ohms ( ).
These three terms are related by the following equation. In order to solve for another variable,
simply re-arrange the equation to solve for the desired variable. This equation is called Ohm's
Law.
𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤: 𝑉 𝐼𝑅
4.2 BASIC DC CIRCUITS

A basic direct current circuit consists of a voltage source [battery] and a resistor. The voltage
source provides the "pressure" to drive the current (flow) through the circuit.

Figure 5: Basic DC Circuit
In order to solve a basic DC circuit question, the following tools must be understood and used
properly, 1. Ohm's Law, 2. Voltage around a Closed Loop is Equal to Zero, 3. Current into a Node
is Equal to Current Out, 4. Resistors in Series, 5. Resistors in Parallel.
1. Ohm's Law
The amount of current supplied is proportional to the ratio of the Voltage to Resistance. If the
Voltage is larger then there will be more current. Also if there is less Resistance then the current
will be higher. For example, in the below circuits, the circuit with a resistance of 6  has a current
of 2 amps while, the circuit with a resistance of 2  and equal voltage has a current of 6 amps.
𝑉
𝐼 ; 𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
𝑅
Figure 6: Ohm's Law
12
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝐼 ;𝐼 2 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
6
12
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝐼 ;𝐼 6 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
2
2. Voltage

The second thing that must be remembered is that the voltage change around a closed loop is
equal to zero. In simpler terms, any path that is returning to the same point must have a voltage
change of zero.
In the following example, there is a 12 V voltage source and two resistors of resistance 4  and
2 . Following the current, we see that prior to the 4  resistor the voltage is 12 V, following this
resistor the voltage has dropped to 4 V. After the 2  the voltage has dropped to 0 V, but once it
reaches the voltage source, the voltage is increased to 12 V.
Figure 7: Basic circuit showing voltage drops across resistors in series
The next example shows the same resistors, but they are arranged in parallel. Notice that the
voltage change across each loop (inner and outer) is shown to be zero. Then use this fact and
Ohm’s law to determine the current through each resistor. These currents are shown below in
green.
Figure 8: Basic circuit showing Voltage drop across resistors in Parallel.
3. Current
The next rule is that the current into and out of a junction must be equal. In Figure 7, it is shown
that the current is 2 amps and the current remains constant through each resistor because at
each junction there is only 1 path in and 1 path out.
In Figure 8, the total current is found to be 9 amps. When the current reaches the 1st junction,
the current can travel either through resistor 4  or resistor 2 . Three amps of current travels

through the 4  resistor, this leaves 6 amps of current left to travel to the 2  resistor. As shown
the current into the junction is 9 amps and the current leaving the junction is 3 amps + 6 amps.
4. Resistors in Series
For resistors in series, the resistors can be converted to an equivalent resistor by simply adding
the resistance values together.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
In the following example, there are two resistors in series. The equivalent resistance is found by
adding the two resistances, 𝑅 6 . Once the equivalent resistance is found, then the current
can be found through Ohm's law. 𝐼 2 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠.

Figure 9: Basic DC Circuit solving for equivalent resistance for resistors in series
Remember that resistors are simply resistances to flow, so if the current has to pass through two
resistors then it makes sense that both full values of the resistances need to be taken into account.
For resistors in series, the current going through each resistance is equal, but the voltage drop
across each resistor is inversely proportional to the resistance value.
5. Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are in parallel, the current has multiple paths to go through. Each path will have
a current that is inversely related to the resistance in that path. However, the voltage drop across
each resistor will remain constant. Use the following equation to find the equivalent resistance
value of multiple resistors in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1
In the following example, the equivalent resistance is found to be 𝑅 1.33. The current
through the equivalent resistance is then found to be 9 amps.

Figure 10: Basic dc circuit for equivalent resistance for resistors in parallel
4.3 D/C POWER

The next important electrical equation to remember is the DC electric power equation as shown
below. Real power is typically expressed in units, Watts and apparent power is expressed in units
volt-amperes. Current is represented by the variable "I" and is expressed in amperes and voltage
is represented by the variable "V" and is expressed in volts.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃 𝐼𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ;
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆 𝐼𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 ;
Variations of the equation can be shown by substituting I and V, through the use of Ohm's law.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑃 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 ∗ 𝑃𝐹
𝑅 𝑅
𝑃 𝐼 ∗ 𝐼𝑅 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑃𝐹
4.4 A/C POWER
The previous electrical sections have dealt with DC power or direct current electricity. This allows
for a basic understanding of common electrical terms. However, for the P.E. exam, the
mechanical engineer should also be aware of alternating current (AC) power terms and equations.
Power Factor: When electricity is supplied to a piece of equipment, it is supplied with a certain
amount of amps (current) at a designated voltage. However, not all of the power supplied
(apparent power) is useful. Some of its power is lost, because the current and voltage are out of
phase. [The explanation of phase is out of the scope of this section and is more representative
of the material found in the Electrical Power P.E. Exam] The degree at which the current and
voltage are out of phase is reported as the power factor. The total amount of real (useful) power
supplied to the equipment is found by multiplying the total power supplied (S = IV) by the power
factor. Typical power factors are around ~0.85.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 → 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆 𝐼 ∗ 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 𝑃 𝐼 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝑃𝐹 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
The above equations are only for single phase motors. The following sections will show the
difference for 3-phase motors.
4.5 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT MOTOR RATING

When selecting mechanical equipment, the mechanical engineer must coordinate the power
requirements with the electrical engineer. This is done through the following steps: (1) Determine
Mechanical Horsepower, (2) Determine Fan/Pump Brake horsepower, (3a) Determine Motor
Horsepower, (3b) Determine Electrical Input Power, and finally (4) Apparent Power.
1) Determine Mechanical Horsepower. Mechanical HP is defined as the amount of power

required to meet the needs of the system in question. For example, if the mechanical equipment
was a pump, then the mechanical HP would be the amount of power generated by a certain GPM
at a certain pressure. For a fan, the mechanical work would be the amount of power generated
by a certain amount of CFM at a certain pressure. These equations can be found below.
𝒉𝒇𝒕 ∗ 𝑸𝒈𝒑𝒎 ∗ 𝑺𝑮
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌,𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑯𝑷 ;
𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟔
ℎ ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑝𝑚 , 𝑆𝐺 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑸𝒄𝒇𝒎 ∗ 𝑻𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒈
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌,𝒇𝒂𝒏 𝑯𝑷 ;
𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟔
𝑇𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑔 , 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑓𝑚
Figure 11: Determining mechanical horsepower

In the figure above, mechanical horsepower is shown on the right in red. Two equations are
shown for solving for the mechanical horsepower for a fan and pump, based on flow and pressure.
There are other Mechanical horsepower formulas presented in the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook based on other given data. You should have these equations ready
for the exam.
2) Determine Fan/Pump Horsepower. In order to blow air or pump a fluid, a pump or fan is
required. This pump/fan is not perfect and cannot supply the mechanical HP required without
losing energy due to friction and inefficiencies in the equipment design. Thus the Pump/Fan
Horsepower is found by dividing the Mechanical HP by the efficiency of the Pump/Fan. This is
the size of the pump or fan required. Often times the fan/pump horsepower is called the brake
horsepower or BHP.
𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑴𝑯𝑷

𝑷𝒇𝒂𝒏/𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑩𝑯𝑷 ;
𝜼𝒇𝒂𝒏/𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑
Figure 12: Determining Pump/Fan Horsepower
In the figure above, pump/fan horsepower is shown in the middle in red. Given the mechanical
horsepower required, the pump/fan horsepower is found by dividing the Mechanical Horsepower
by the efficiency of the Pump/Fan. Typical efficiencies for pumps and fans can range from 60%
to 90%. The efficiencies depend on the design of the equipment and the operating point.
3a) Determine (Standard) Motor Horsepower Rating [OPTIONAL]. In order to power the
pump/fan, a motor is required to supply the power to the equipment. The horsepower rating of
the motor is based on the available motor sizes from the manufacturer, which are given in
standard increments. These standard motor ratings are discussed in the next section, “Motor

Ratings.” If the question does not explicitly ask for the standard horsepower rating, you may
typically skip this step.
 Standard Rating Excluded: If the standard motor horsepower rating is not accounted
for, the power calculated is the actual power consumed during operation. This is
typically done for energy calculations, where the engineer is concerned about actual
electrical consumption, and not rated criteria.
 Standard Rating Included: If the standard motor horsepower rating is accounted for,
the question is typically asking for a motor selection. Standard horsepower ratings are
also used in cooling load calculations when usage and load factors are given, see
Heating & Cooling Loads chapter of this book.
Figure 13: Determining Standard Motor Horsepower
3b) Determine Electrical Input (Watts). The motor is not perfect, similar to the pump/fan and some
power is lost due to friction. The electrical power delivered to the motor is found by dividing the
standard motor horsepower (or the Pump/Fan brake horsepower if the standard rating is not used)
by the efficiency of the motor. This is also known as the real, or usable, electrical power. Real
electrical power is typically given in watts, typical efficiencies of motors are around 90%.
𝑷𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑯𝑷 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝑾
𝑷𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑾 ∗ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑃 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒑
𝑷𝒇𝒂𝒏/𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑩𝑯𝑷 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝑾

𝑷𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑾 ∗ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑃 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜼𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒑

Figure 14: Determining (Real) Electrical Input Power
4) Determine Electrical Power. In order provide power to the motor, electrical wiring is connected
to the motor from a power source. This power source provides the necessary current at the
correct voltage of the motor. However, as mentioned in a previous section, the current and
voltage supplied to the equipment is not completely in phase, so not all of the power supplied is
useful (real power). The amount of electrical apparent power required is found through the use
of the power factor. Apparent power is given the variable, “S” and units VA. Real power is given
the variable, “P”.
𝑷𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑾
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 → 𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑽𝑨
𝑷𝑭
Figure 15: Determining electrical power.

In the figure above, the power supplied to the motor is shown on the left in red. The power
supplied to the motor is greater than the “real” electrical input because of the power factor term.
Not all of the power supplied to the motor is useful, thus additional power must be provided. The
actual power supplied to the motor is found by dividing the electrical input by the power factor in
order to get the apparent power value.
The electrical amperage can be determined from the following equations, depending on whether
or not the problem indicates you have a 3-phase or 1-phase motor.
𝑃 𝑊
1 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 → 𝑆 𝑉𝐴 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑃𝐹
𝑃 𝑊
3 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 → 𝑆 𝑉𝐴 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉 ∗ √3
𝑃𝐹
4.6 MOTOR RATINGS

For the purposes of the PE exam, you should be familiar with the following different motor ratings,
(1) Horsepower ratings and (2) Enclosure ratings. There are other ways that motors are rated
but those ratings are geared towards the Electrical Power PE exam and are not relevant to the
HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam.
First, motors are provided at standard horsepower values. Motors are not provided at any
horsepower value. Thus if a problem asks you to select a motor that meets a certain set of
requirements, then the possible answers will only have the standard horsepower values and you
must select the size that can meet the requirements without going excessively over the
requirement. For example, if you find out that you need 4.5 HP, then you would select the 5 HP
motor and not the 3 HP or 7.5 HP motors. The following table shows all the standard horsepower
motor values.
1 Phase Motor Horsepower Table

1/6 HP 1/2 HP 1-1/2 HP 5 HP
1/4 HP 3/4 HP 2 HP
1/3 HP 1 HP 3 HP
3 Phase Motor Horsepower Table

½ HP 7.5 HP 40 HP 150 HP
¾ HP 10 HP 50 HP 200 HP
1 HP 15 HP 60 HP 250 HP
2 HP 20 HP 75 HP
3 HP 25 HP 100 HP
5 HP 30 HP 125 HP

Secondly, HVAC & Refrigeration engineers must be able to select a motor enclosure that best
suits the environmental conditions. For example, if a motor will be located outside in a corrosive
environment then you may want to install a NEMA 4X enclosure. If the motor is in a location with
flammable fumes, then you may be required to install an explosion proof enclosure. The motor
enclosures are rated in accordance with NEMA standards as shown in the link below. NEMA
stands for National Electrical Manufacturers Association. The most common types of enclosures
are open drip proof and totally enclosed fan cooled. These descriptions correspond to the
following NEMA classifications as shown in the table below.
NEMA Type Description

Type 1 General purpose indoor
Type 2 Drip-proof indoor
Type 3 Dust tight, rain tight, ice resistant, outdoor
Type 3R Rain proof, ice resistant, outdoor
Type 3S Dust tight, rain tight, ice proof, outdoor
Type 4 Watertight and dust tight, indoor or outdoor
Type 4X Watertight, dust tight, corrosion resistant, indoor and outdoor
Type 6 Submersible, Dust tight, rain tight, ice resistant, outdoor
Type 7 Class 1, Group A, B, C, D, indoor hazardous location, air break
Type 8 Class 1, Group A, B, C, D, indoor hazardous location, oil immersed
Type 9 Class 2, Group E, F, G, indoor hazardous location, air break
Link: http://www.nema.org/Products/Documents/nema-enclosure-types.pdf
4.7 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT HEAT OUTPUT
The NCEES outline indicates the final topic under electrical concepts is motor heat output. This
topic is covered under Heating/Cooling Loads. The basic concept to understand for this topic is
that power is supplied to a motor, which is ultimately converted to mechanical power in the form
of moving air or water. Along the way, the power supplied is lost due to inefficiencies that result
in heat. In addition, the Heating/Cooling Loads will classify this heat further depending on whether
or not the heat is seen by the air conditioning system. For example, if the motor is located in a
non-air conditioned space, then the heat at the motor will not be seen by the air conditioned space.
However, if the fan that is powered by the motor is located in an air conditioned space, then the
heat output at the fan will be seen by the air conditioning system. The inefficiencies at the motor
will cause heat that will not be seen by the air conditioning system, but the inefficiencies at the
fan will cause heat that will be seen by the air conditioning system.

5.0 PRACTICE PROBLEMS
5.1 PROBLEM 1 - ECONOMICS

Background: A client is contemplating on purchasing a new high efficiency pump and motor, with
an initial cost of $10,000. The pump has a lifetime of 15 years and is estimated to save
approximately $1,000 per year. There is an additional maintenance cost of $300 per year
associated with this new pump. The pump will have a salvage value of $0 at the end of its lifetime.
Assume the interest rate is 4%.
Problem: What is the annual value of the pump?
(a) -$499
(b) -$199
(c) $199
(d) $499

Background: A client is contemplating between two separate turbines. Turbine 1 has a life of 25
years, an initial cost of $50,000, an ongoing maintenance/electricity cost totaling $1,000 per year.
Turbine 2 has a life of 25 years, an initial cost of $35,000 and an ongoing maintenance/electricity
cost totaling $1,500 per year. Assume interest rate is equal to 4%.
Problem: What is the present worth of the two turbines?
(a) Turbine 1 = -$48,099 ; Turbine 2 = -$39,651
(b) Turbine 1 = -$55,278 ; Turbine 2 = -$47,455
(c) Turbine 1 = -$61,222 ; Turbine 2 = -$49,469
(d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433


Background: An existing A/C control system is inefficient and you are researching whether or not
to replace system. You develop a new system that will cost $30,000 and require an ongoing
maintenance of $1,000 per year, but it will save $4,000 per year in energy savings. The new A/C
control system will have a lifetime of 30 years.
Problem: If the minimum rate of return is 8%, what will be the annual value of the new system?
Economically, should the new system be installed?
(a) -$665, Yes, it provides a negative annual value at the minimum rate of return.
(b) -$335, No it provides a negative annual value at the minimum rate of return
(c) $335, Yes, it provides a positive annual value at the minimum rate of return.
(d) $665, No, it provides a positive annual value at the minimum rate of return.

Background: A new high efficiency chiller with a lifetime is planned on being purchased. It has
an initial cost of $200,000 and an ongoing maintenance cost of $2,000. However, this chiller will
provide an energy savings of $10,000 per year. The chiller has a lifetime of 25 years and the
minimum attractive rate of return is 4%. At the end of its lifetime, the chiller will have a salvage
value of $25,000.
Problem: What is the annual value of the chiller at the minimum attractive rate of return? What
is the simple payback?
(a) -$8,210, 25 years
(b) -$4,202, 25 years
(c) -$4,202, 20 years
(d) -$2,820, 20 years


Background: A new boiler is planned on being purchased. It has an initial cost of $10,000 and
an ongoing maintenance cost of $500 per year. This new boiler is much more efficient than the
existing boiler and will have a yearly energy savings of a$1,500 per year. The boiler has a lifetime
of 15 years and the minimum attractive rate of return is 5%. At the end of its lifetime, the boiler
will have a salvage value of $1,000.
Problem: What is the present value of the boiler at the minimum attractive rate of return?
(a) -$860
(b) -$380
(c) $380
(d) $860
5.6 PROBLEM 6 – UNIT CONVERSIONS

Background: A boiler is sized at 10 boiler horsepower. The input to the boiler is 10 boiler
horsepower. It is found that the boiler outputs 300,000 BTUH of heat to produce steam.
Problem: The efficiency of the boiler is most nearly?
(a) 79%
(b) 81%
(c) 84%
(d) 89%

5.7 PROBLEM 7 - ELECTRICAL

Background: A 460 V, 3 phase, 60 HZ, 20 BHP pump. The motor has an efficiency of 75%.
There is a power factor of 0.85.
Problem: What is the current in amperes supplied to the motor?
(a) 29
(b) -38
(c) 44
(d) 51

Background: A 10 BHP fan operates for 4000 hours in the year. The motor is 85% efficient and
the power factor is 0.85. Energy cost is $0.25 per kilowatt-hour.
Problem: How much does it cost to operate the fan in one year?
(a) $7,460
(b) $8,770
(c) $10,320
(d) $12,140


Background: A new electrical circuit has 3 resistors in series. Each resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.
Problem: What is the current through the circuit?
(a) 0.5 amps
(b) 1.0 amps
(c) 2.0 amps
(d) 3.0 amps

Background: A new electrical circuit has 2 resistors in parallel. One resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The resistance of the other resistor is unknown. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.
Problem: If the total current through the circuit is 8 amps, what is the resistance of the 2nd
resistor?
(a) 1.2
(b) 1.6
(c) 2.0
(d) 2.4


Background: You are sizing a fan to deliver 500 CFM at a static pressure of 2.0 in wg. The fan
efficiency is 85% and the motor efficiency is also 85%.
Problem: What is most nearly the size of the motor?
(a) ¼ HP
(b) ½ HP
(c) 1 HP
(d) 1.5 HP

6.0 SOLUTIONS
6.1 SOLUTION 1 - ECONOMICS
Background: A client is contemplating on purchasing a new high efficiency pump and motor, with
an initial cost of $10,000. The pump has a lifetime of 15 years and is estimated to save
approximately $1,000 per year. There is an additional maintenance cost of $300 per year
associated with this new pump. The pump will have a salvage value of $0 at the end of its lifetime.
Assume the interest rate is 4%.
Problem: What is the annual value of the pump?
First convert all terms to annual values.
Maintenance cost and cost savings are already annual values.
𝐴 $300
𝐴 $1,000
Convert initial cost (present value) to annual value.
𝐴
𝐴 $10,000 ∗ , 4%, 15
𝑃
Refer to the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for I= 4.0% economics table.
Then navigate down to n = 15 and then to the A/P term to convert P to A.
𝐴 $10,000 ∗ .0899
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴 $300 $1,000 $899
𝐴 $199
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) -$199.
(a) -$499
(b) -$199
(c) $199
(d) $499


Background: A client is contemplating between two separate turbines. Turbine 1 has a life of 25
years, an initial cost of $50,000, an ongoing maintenance/electricity cost totaling $1,000 per year.
Turbine 2 has a life of 25 years, an initial cost of $35,000 and an ongoing maintenance/electricity
cost totaling $1,500 per year. Assume interest rate is equal to 4%.
Problem: What is the present value of the two turbines?
First convert all terms to present value, Turbine 1.
𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝐴 / ∗ , 4%, 25
𝐴
𝑃 $50,000 $1,000 ∗ 15.6221
𝑃 $65,622
Second convert all terms to present value, Turbine 2.
𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝐴 / ∗ , 4%, 25
𝐴
𝑃 $35,000 $1,500 ∗ 15.6221
𝑃 $58,433
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433.
(a) Turbine 1 = -$48,099 ; Turbine 2 = -$39,651
(b) Turbine 1 = -$55,278 ; Turbine 2 = -$47,455
(c) Turbine 1 = -$61,222 ; Turbine 2 = -$49,469
(d) Turbine 1 = -$65,622 ; Turbine 2 = -$58,433

Background: An existing A/C control system is inefficient and you are researching whether or not
to replace system. You develop a new system that will cost $30,000 and require an ongoing
maintenance of $1,000 per year, but it will save $4,000 per year in energy savings. The new A/C
control system will have a lifetime of 30 years.
Problem: If the minimum rate of return is 8%, what will be the annual value of the new system?
Economically, should the new system be installed?

Maintenance cost and energy savings are already annual values.
𝐴 $1,000
𝐴 $4,000
Convert initial cost (present value) to annual value.
𝐴
𝐴 $30,000 ∗ , 8%, 30
𝑃
Refer to economics tables for value.
𝐴 $30,000 ∗ .08883
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴 $4,000 $1,000 $2,664.90
𝐴 $335
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) $335; Yes, it provides a positive annual value at the
minimum rate of return.
(a) -$665, Yes, it provides a negative annual value at the minimum rate of return.
(b) -$335, No it provides a negative annual value at the minimum rate of return
(c) $335, Yes, it provides a positive annual value at the minimum rate of return.
(d) $665, No, it provides a positive annual value at the minimum rate of return.

Background: A new high efficiency chiller with a lifetime is planned on being purchased. It has
an initial cost of $200,000 and an ongoing maintenance cost of $2,000. However, this chiller will
provide an energy savings of $10,000 per year. The chiller has a lifetime of 25 years and the
minimum attractive rate of return is 4%. At the end of its lifetime, the chiller will have a salvage
value of $25,000.
Problem: What is the annual value of the chiller at the minimum attractive rate of return? What
is the simple payback?
Maintenance cost and energy savings are already annual values.

𝐴 $2,000
𝐴 $10,000
Convert initial cost/ (present value) and salvage value (future) to annual value.
𝐴
𝐴 $200,000 ∗ , 4%, 25
𝑃
Refer to economics tables for value.
𝐴 $200,000 ∗ .06401
𝐴
𝐴 $25,000 ∗ , 4%, 25
𝐹
𝐴 $25,000 ∗ .02401
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴 $2,000 $10,0000 600.25 $12,802
𝐴 $ 4,202
The simple payback term does not take into account the interest rate.
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 $200,000

𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑦 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 25 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 $10,000 $2,000
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) $-4,202; 25 years.
(a) -$8,210, 25 years
(b) -$4,202, 25 years
(c) -$4,202, 20 years
(d) -$2,820, 20 years

Background: A new boiler is planned on being purchased. It has an initial cost of $10,000 and
an ongoing maintenance cost of $500 per year. This new boiler is much more efficient than the
existing boiler and will have a yearly energy savings of a $1,500 per year. The boiler has a lifetime
of 15 years and the minimum attractive rate of return is 5%. At the end of its lifetime, the boiler
will have a salvage value of $1,000.

Problem: What is the present value of the boiler at the minimum attractive rate of return?
First convert all terms to present value.
Maintenance cost and energy savings can be combined and converted to present value.
𝐴 $500
𝐴 $1,500
𝑃
𝑃 / $1,000 ∗ , 5%, 15
𝐴
𝑃 / $1,000 ∗ 10.3797 $10,380
Convert salvage value (future value) to present value.
𝑃
𝑃 $1,000 ∗ , 5%, 15
𝐹
𝑃 $1,000 ∗ 0.4810 $481
𝑃 $10,000
𝑃 𝑃 / 𝑃 𝑃
𝑃 $10,380 481 $10,000
𝑃 $861
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 860.
(a) -$860
(b) -$380
(c) $380
(d) $860
6.6 SOLUTION 6 – UNIT CONVERSIONS

Background: A boiler is sized at 10 boiler horsepower. The input to the boiler is 10 boiler
horsepower. It is found that the boiler outputs 300,000 BTUH of heat to produce steam.
Problem: The efficiency of the boiler is most nearly?
First convert boiler horsepower to BTUH by using your NCEES Mechanical Reference
Handbook.

1 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 33,479 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
10 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ∗ 33,479 334,790 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
There are other boiler efficiency equations, but in this example problem the simplest
efficiency is found, which is just output energy divided by input energy.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
300,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 89.6%
334,790 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 89%.
(a) 79%
(b) 81%
(c) 84%
(d) 89%
6.7 SOLUTION 7 - ELECTRICAL

Background: A 460 V, 3 phase, 60 HZ, 20 BHP pump. The motor has an efficiency of 75%.
There is a power factor of 0.85.
Problem: What is the current in amperes supplied to the motor?
Convert pump brake horsepower to motor horsepower.
𝑃
𝑃
𝜀
20 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑃 26.7 𝐻𝑃
0.75
Determine the amount of power supplied to the motor, use power factor.
𝑃 26.7 𝐻𝑃
𝑃 31.4 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝐹 0.85
Find the current supplied to the motor through the below equation.
𝑃 , 𝐼∗𝑉
Make sure to convert horsepower to watts.

0.7457 𝐾𝑊 1000 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑃 , 31.4 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗ 23,395 𝑉𝐴
𝐻𝑃 𝐾𝑊
23,395 𝑉𝐴 𝐼 ∗ 460 𝑉 ∗ √3
29.4 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝐼
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 29 Amperes.
(a) 29
(b) -38
(c) 44
(d) 51

Background: A 10 BHP fan operates for 4000 hours in the year. The motor is 85% efficient and
the power factor is 0.85. Energy cost is $0.25 per kilowatt-hour.
Problem: How much does it cost to operate the fan in one year?
Convert fan brake horsepower to motor horsepower.
𝑃
𝑃
𝜀
10 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑃 11.8 𝐻𝑃
0.85
0.7457 𝐾𝑊 ℎ𝑟𝑠
11.8 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗ 4,000 35,197 𝑘𝑤ℎ
𝐻𝑃 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Find the cost ($) with the electricity cost.
$0.25
35,197 𝑘𝑤ℎ ∗ $8,799
𝑘𝑤ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (b), $8,770
(a) $7,460
(b) $8,770

(c) $10,320
(d) $12,140

Background: A new electrical circuit has 3 resistors in series. Each resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.
Problem: What is the current through the circuit?
𝑅 , 4 4 4 12
12
𝐼 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝
12
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 1 amp.
(a) 0.5 amps
(b) 1.0 amps
(c) 2.0 amps
(d) 3.0 amps
Background: A new electrical circuit has 2 resistors in parallel. One resistor has a resistance of
4 Ω. The resistance of the other resistor is unknown. The circuit is powered by a 12 V battery.
Problem: If the total current through the circuit is 8 amps, what is the resistance of the 2nd
resistor?
Determine the current through the 1st resistor.
12
𝐼 3 𝑎𝑚𝑝
4
Determine the current through the 2nd resistor.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 2𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
8 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 3 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 5 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

Determine the resistance of the 2nd resistor.
12
𝑅 2.4
5
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 2.4 Ω.
(a) 1.2
(b) 1.6
(c) 2.0
(d) 2.4

Background: You are sizing a fan to deliver 500 CFM at a static pressure of 2.0 in wg. The fan
efficiency is 85% and the motor efficiency is also 85%.
Problem: What is most nearly the size of the motor?
Find fan mechanical power
𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑆𝑃 500 ∗ 2
𝑃 0.16 𝑀𝐻𝑃
6356 6356
Convert fan mechanical horsepower to fan brake horsepower.
𝑃 0.16
𝑃 0.19 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝜀 . 85
Convert fan brake horsepower to motor horsepower.
𝑃 0.19
𝑃 0.22 𝐻𝑃
𝜀 . 85
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) .25 HP.
(a) ¼ HP
(b) ½ HP
(c) 1 HP
(d) 1.5 HP

A M
amperes ꞏ 31 Mechanical Equipment Heat Output ꞏ 27
annual value ꞏ 5, 34, 36 Mechanical Horsepower ꞏ 22
Annualized Value ꞏ 9 minimum attractive rate of return ꞏ 36, 38
Annuities ꞏ 5 minimum rate of return ꞏ 29, 35
Apparent power ꞏ 21, 25 Motor Horsepower ꞏ 23, 24
Motor Ratings ꞏ 26
B
N
boiler horsepower ꞏ 38
NEMA 4X ꞏ 27
NEMA standards ꞏ 27
C
Current ꞏ 17, 19 O
Ohm's Law ꞏ 17, 18
D
DC Circuits ꞏ 17 P
Power ꞏ 21
E Power Factor ꞏ 21
present value ꞏ 35, 38
Economic Analysis ꞏ 4 Present Value ꞏ 8
efficiencies of motors ꞏ 24
efficiency of the Pump/Fan ꞏ 23
Electrical Power ꞏ 25 R
Rate of Return ꞏ 12, 13
F Real power ꞏ 21, 25
resistance ꞏ 41
Factor Tables ꞏ 10 Resistance ꞏ 17
Fan/Pump Brake horsepower ꞏ 22 resistors ꞏ 41
Fan/Pump Horsepower ꞏ 23 Resistors in Parallel ꞏ 20
Future Value ꞏ 9 Resistors in Series ꞏ 20
I S
Interest Rate ꞏ 4 Salvage value ꞏ 6

simple payback ꞏ 36
K
T
kilowatt-hour ꞏ 40
Time value of Money ꞏ 4
L V
lifetime ꞏ 6, 29 Voltage ꞏ 17, 18

3 - Thermodynamics
Cycles | Properties | Compression Processes
HVAC Textbook
Section 3.0 – Principles Thermodynamics

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Thermodynamics Properties .............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Temperature ................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Enthalpy .......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Entropy ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Specific Heat .................................................................................................................. 7
3.0 Refrigerants........................................................................................................................ 8
4.0 Boiling Pressure/Temperature ........................................................................................... 8
5.0 Vapor Compression Cycle ............................................................................................... 10
5.1 Evaporator .................................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Compressor .................................................................................................................. 12
5.3 Condenser .................................................................................................................... 12
5.4 Expansion Device ......................................................................................................... 13
6.0 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram ............................................................................................. 14
6.1 Refrigeration Cycle ....................................................................................................... 17
6.1.1 Step 1 Evaporator ....................................................................................................... 18
6.1.2 Step 2 Compressor ..................................................................................................... 21
6.1.3 Step 3 Condenser ....................................................................................................... 24
6.1.4 Step 4 Expansion Device ............................................................................................ 25
6.1.5 Net Refrigeration/Condenser, Work and COP ............................................................ 26
7.0 Steam ............................................................................................................................... 29
7.1 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for Steam ......................................................................... 29
7.2 Steam Tables ............................................................................................................... 34
7.3 Mollier Diagram ............................................................................................................ 38
7.4 Determining Properties of Steam ................................................................................. 39
8.1 Problem 1 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 41
Thermodynamics - 1 www.engproguides.com
8.4 Problem 4 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 42

8.5 Problem 5 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 43
8.6 Problem 6 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 43
8.7 Problem 7 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 44
8.8 Problem 8 – Expansion Device .................................................................................... 44
8.9 Problem 9 – Expansion Device .................................................................................... 45
8.10 Problem 10 – COP ....................................................................................................... 45
8.11 Problem 11 – COP ....................................................................................................... 46
8.12 Problem 12 - Steam Production ................................................................................... 46
8.13 Problem 13 - Steam Air Coils ....................................................................................... 47
8.14 Problem 14: Steam - Hot Water Coils .......................................................................... 47
9.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 48
9.1 Solution 1 - Evaporator ................................................................................................. 48
9.2 Solution 2 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 49
9.3 Solution 3 – Evaporator ................................................................................................ 49
9.4 Solution 4 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 50
9.5 Solution 5 – Compressor .............................................................................................. 51
9.6 Solution 6 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 52
9.7 Solution 7 – Condenser ................................................................................................ 53
9.8 Solution 8 – Expansion Device ..................................................................................... 53
9.9 Solution 9 – Expansion Device ..................................................................................... 54
9.10 Solution 10 – COP ........................................................................................................ 55
9.11 Solution 11 – COP ........................................................................................................ 55
9.12 Solution 12 - Steam Production .................................................................................... 57
9.13 Solution 13 - Steam Air Coils ........................................................................................ 57
9.14 Solution 14 - Steam - Hot Water Coils .......................................................................... 58
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics accounts for approximately 4‐6 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration
Mechanical PE exam.
Thermodynamics includes the principles used in the vapor compression cycle. Also the properties
discussed in this section are used in the sections, Heating/Cooling Loads, Equipment, Systems,
Psychrometrics and Energy/Mass Balance.
A professional engineer should be able to properly navigate a refrigeration diagram and have a
deep understanding of the vapor compression cycle. In addition, this guide also focuses on the
(4) main parts of refrigeration systems, which are the evaporator, compressor, condenser and
expansion device. The refrigerant used in this cycle is also discussed in this section.
Also introduced in this section are the Thermodynamics properties, pressure, temperature,
enthalpy, entropy and specific heat. These properties are used throughout the vapor-
compression cycle and also in many other sections on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam.
At the end of this section, steam is covered. Steam is used heavily in the HVAC & Refrigeration
field for heating. Although there is no specific category in the NCEES outline, you should be
familiar with the skills presented in this section since it may appear in a heating question.
Thermodynamics
4-6 questions
Cycles Properties Compression Process
 Vapor-Compression  Pressure  Discussed in cycles

Cycle  Temperature
 Evaporator  Enthalpy
 Compressor  Entropy
 Condenser  Specific heat
 Expansion
2.0 THERMODYNAMICS PROPERTIES

On the exam, you should be able to find thermodynamic properties very easily through the use of
your thermodynamic property tables for given fluids, located in your NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook. These properties are the building blocks for solving the problems on the
exam. You should also have a concept of what these properties mean in the real world. These
concepts will help to reality check your answers, instead of blindly following the results of your
equations. Hopefully, this helps you to catch any math errors and speeds up your elimination of
incorrect answers.
2.1 PRESSURE
Pressure is one of the two most likely properties that you will start off with in a real world situation,
because pressure is a thermodynamic property that is easily measured.
Figure 1: Pressure gauge
The pressure of a fluid indicates the amount of force per unit area that the fluid imparts on the
system around it. Pressure is measured in units of pounds per square inch 𝑝𝑠𝑖 .
There are two different types of pressure scales, (1) absolute pressure and (2) gauge pressure.
These two pressure scales differ by their 0 reference point. Gauge pressures have a 0-reference
point as 1 atm. Thus 0 psig, where the g indicates gauge pressure, is equal to 1 atmospheric or
14.7 psia, where the “a” indicates absolute pressure. Most real world applications encountered
by practicing engineers will have pressures indicated in gauge pressure. These include pressures
measured at the discharge and intake of pumps and fans and the pressures measured at other
pieces of equipment like heat exchangers, chillers and cooling towers. The relationship between
gauge and atmospheric pressure is shown with the following equation and figure.
𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑃 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃 2 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃 0 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Figure 2: The relationship between gauge and absolute pressures
2.2 TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the second of the two most likely properties that you will start off with in a real
world situation, because temperature is easy to measure.
Figure 3: A temperature gauge.
This property is the one most people are familiar with, because it is shown on thermostats and
thermometers. Temperature is a direct indication of the amount of heat in the fluid. The USCS
units used for temperature are Fahrenheit and Rankine. Typical Fahrenheit temperatures for
chilled water (medium used for water-cooled Air Conditioning) range from 45F to 55F and hot
water temperatures range from 120F to 140F. The temperature at which water boils is 212F
and water freezes at 32F.
Rankine temperatures are used when it is necessary to define an absolute temperature scale
having only positive values. The conversion between Fahrenheit and Rankine is shown below.
When using equations during the exam, ensure that the correct temperature units are used.
Always double check the required units for your equation.
°𝑅 ℉ 460
2.2 ENTHALPY
Enthalpy, “h,” describes the amount of energy in a system. This property is used extensively in
the HVAC applications sections. It defines the entering and leaving energy of a fluid through a
system. On the exam, enthalpy refers to total enthalpy. Total enthalpy is equal to the internal
energy of the fluid plus the energy due to pressure-volume.
𝐵𝑇𝑈
0.18505
ℎ 𝑢 𝑝𝑣 ∗ 𝑙𝑏𝑚
1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ∗ 𝑓𝑡
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝑢 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ;
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑓𝑡
𝑝 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ; 𝑣 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑙𝑏𝑚
Enthalpy is commonly found in steam tables as shown in the below example.
Temperature Pressure Specific volume Internal energy Enthalpy

sat. sat. sat. sat. sat. sat.
liquid vapor evap
Press. liquid vapor liquid vapor
Temp 𝑣 𝑣 ℎ
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑢 𝑢 ℎ ℎ
℉ 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚
650 2208 .026 0.16 685 1054 696 424 1120
If you take the saturated liquid values and compare them with the above equation, you should
find that the equation holds true.
𝐵𝑇𝑈
0.18505
ℎ 𝑢 𝑝𝑣 ∗ 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝐵𝑇𝑈
0.18505
696 685 2,208 ∗ .026 ∗ 𝑙𝑏𝑚
696 696
2.3 ENTROPY
Entropy, “s,” is the measure of disorder in a fluid. For example, a solid has low entropy, because
it is orderly and the molecules have less possible configurations at any given time. A liquid has
a higher entropy than a solid, because of an increased amount of disorder. Finally, a gas has the
highest entropy in this example. At any given time, the configuration of the gas can be one of
many different configurations.
SSOLID < SLIQUID < SGAS
Figure 4: Entropy in a solid increases from solid to liquid to gas.
Entropy is mostly known for its use in the 2nd law, which states that a system’s entropy never
decreases. Also entropy is used to describe thermodynamic transitions. If there is no change in
entropy then the process is determined to be isentropic. Also a process is reversible if the entropy
is not increased and the process is irreversible if the entropy increases.
2.4 SPECIFIC HEAT

The specific heat describes the ease of a fluid or solid to increase in temperature, when heat is
applied. Specific heat is also known as heat capacitance and can be thought of as an objects
ability to hold and gain heat. For solids and liquids, specific heat is shown as the variable.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐
℉
Water has a specific heat of 1.0, while aluminum has a specific heat of 0.23. As heat is added
to water, water will increase in temperature at a slow rate. Since aluminum has a lower specific
heat, it needs less energy to raise its temperature.
Figure 5: The heat capacity on the left is much larger, thus the same input of heat only raises
the temperature by a small amount. The heat capacity on the right is smaller, thus the same
amount of heat, greatly raises the temperature.
For gases, the heat capacity value is given in two different forms, one for a gas undergoing a
constant-volume process and one for a gas undergoing a constant-pressure process.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐
The most common specific heats in HVAC & Refrigeration is air and water. You should have
these values memorized.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 , 0.240
𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝑅
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 , 0.171
𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝑅
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 , 1.0
𝑙𝑏𝑚 °𝐹
If you encounter a different gas and need the specific heat value, then you should check the
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
3.0 REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerants are fluids used in the commercial HVAC field to transfer heat from one source to
another. For example, in a water cooled chiller, refrigerant is used to remove heat from chilled
water and transfer heat to condenser water. Or in a typical residential split air conditioner system,
refrigerant is used to remove heat from the indoor air and transfer that heat to the outdoors
through the use of a condenser.
Refrigerant types and properties are discussed in the Equipment and Components section of this
book.
4.0 BOILING PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE

One key principle that must be understood for Refrigeration is the relationship between the
boiling/condensing point of a fluid, in this case a refrigerant, and the temperature and pressure of
the refrigerant. A refrigerant liquid’s boiling point is a function of the vapor pressure of the
refrigerant vapor that is in equilibrium with the refrigerant liquid. If the pressure is low, then there
is a smaller force acting upon the refrigerant liquid, thus it will take a lower temperature to boil the
refrigerant liquid. For example, water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere or 14.696 PSI will boil at
212°F. However, if the water was at a pressure of 0.122 PSI, then the water will boil at 40°F.
This principle is important to understand: Low pressure refrigerants boil at a lower
temperature, high pressure refrigerants condense at a higher temperature.
For more detail refer to the following table and figure.
Water
Pressure
Temperature [F]
[PSI]
Boiling Point
212 14.696
190 9.340
160 4.742
130 2.224
100 0.950
70 0.363
40 0.122
10 0.031
Figure 6: Relationship between boiling point and pressure
When a low pressure refrigerant changes from its liquid phase to a gas phase, it can absorb much
more heat than if it were to simply increase in temperature. The same is also true when a high
pressure refrigerant changes phase from its gas phase to a liquid phase; it releases much more
heat than if it were to decrease in temperature. The energy required to change the phase of a
liquid from a liquid to a gas is called the latent heat of evaporation. The energy released to change
the phase of a gas to a liquid is called the latent heat of condensation.
5.0 VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE
Figure 7: Vapor compression cycle
The vapor compression cycle is the primary cycle used in commercial refrigeration systems. This
cycle is shown in the above figure.
The vapor compression cycle starts at (Step 1) the evaporator, with cold, low-pressure, liquid-
vapor refrigerant. It absorbs heat and evaporates to a low-pressure gas. Then the gas is (Step
2) compressed to a high-pressure, high-temperature gas and (Step 3) condensed to a high
pressure, low temperature liquid. Finally, the gas is expanded (reduced in pressure) at the (Step
4) expansion device to a cold, low-pressure liquid refrigerant.
5.1 EVAPORATOR
Step 1: Evaporator. The first step in the vapor compression cycle is the evaporator, which can
also be called a liquid cooler. The evaporator is simply a heat exchanger. Heat is exchanged
from the warm medium (air or water) to the cold, liquid-vapor refrigerant mixture. The heat gained
by the liquid/vapor refrigerant mixture causes it to change phases to a refrigerant gas. The
refrigerant liquid gains the heat necessary to overcome the latent heat, in order to change to a
gas.
There are two types of evaporators, (1) an air cooled evaporator and (2) a water cooled
evaporator. The figure below shows the (1) air cooled evaporator which is most commonly
referred to as a direct expansion system. In this evaporator, warm air from an air conditioned
space is cooled and redistributed to the space. The figure below shows the water cooled system,
where chilled water return is cooled and supplied to the chilled water distribution system.
Figure 8: Direct expansion evaporator on the left and water cooled on the right
The most common system is the direct expansion system. This system is prevalent throughout
smaller systems, like those serving residential systems. In this system, the hot air from the space
is used to directly evaporate the refrigerant to a hot gas. Note that the hot air from the space is
roughly ~75 °F and the refrigerant liquid is typically 40 °F. The 75 °F room air is cooled down to
~55 °F and then distributed back to the space. In a water-cooled system, which is more common
for larger commercial systems, chilled water typically at 55 °F is cooled by the evaporator down
to ~45 °F. The colder chilled water is then supplied to another heat exchanger, where air is cooled
and then distributed to the space.
Besides the two different types of evaporator systems, there are also different types of heat
exchangers used in refrigeration. The most common heat exchangers include: (1) Shell and
Tube, (2) Tube in Tube and (3) Brazed Plate.
(1) Shell and Tube: This heat exchanger is the most common and consists of copper pipes
arranged in a coil that is constructed in a cylindrical shell. One fluid is provided in the shell and
contacts the outer surface of the inner tubes. Another fluid is contained inside of the tubes. Heat
exchange occurs in the shell at the outer surface of the tubes. Often times aluminum fins are
provided on the copper pipes. These fins provide more surface area for heat exchange to occur.
(2) Tube in Tube: A tube is constructed in a tube, sealed separately to keep the fluids in one tube
from contaminating the other. Heat exchange is conducted at the outer surface of the inner tube
and the inner surface of the outer tube.
(3) Brazed Plate: This type of heat exchanger consists of multiple thin plates separated by a
small distance. Each plate either carries the hot or cold fluid. Heat exchange occurs between
the surface areas of each plate.
As previously mentioned the evaporator acts as a heat exchanger with a cold side and a hot side.
The cold side consists of a mixture of refrigerant gas and liquid. At this point, the partial liquid-
gas refrigerant mixture moves through the evaporator, picking up heat from the hot side. But
instead of heating the gas, the heat is used to boil the remaining liquid. It is important for the
evaporator to boil all of the liquid, prior to the refrigerant entering the compressor in the following
step. Once all the liquid has boiled, the liquid-gas mixture turns into a refrigerant gas (vapor),
called a saturated vapor. Any additional heat will now increase the temperature of the refrigerant
vapor, into a region called super heat. Any release in heat will cause some of the gas to condense
back to a liquid.
It is important for the engineer to understand that the amount of cooling provided through the
evaporation of the refrigerant liquid is much more than simply increasing the temperature of the
refrigerant liquid. For example, R-134a takes 92.82 Btu of heat to change 1 lb of refrigerant from
liquid to gas. While it takes 0.204 Btu of heat to increase 1 lb of refrigerant gas by 1°F.
5.2 COMPRESSOR
Step 2: Compressor. The next step is where the refrigerant gas is compressed by the
compressor, which raises the temperature and pressure of the gas. The compressor is where
the work takes place. The compressor is also the driving force that moves the refrigerant through
the vapor compression cycle and prepares the refrigerant before it enters the condenser. It is
important that the refrigerant gas is raised to a temperature that is above the temperature of the
fluid in the condenser. This will allow heat to be transferred from the refrigerant to the condenser
fluid. The compression of the refrigerant gas occurs isentropically, meaning that there is no
change in entropy. Since the compressor is not completely efficient there will be an increase in
enthalpy as the heat generated by the compressor is transferred to the refrigerant gas.
Entropy - a measure of the amount of disorder in a thermodynamic system.
Enthalpy - a measure of the total energy in a thermodynamic system (sensible and latent
energy).
5.3 CONDENSER
Step 3: Condenser. The third step in the vapor compression cycle is the condenser. The
condenser is the counterpart of the evaporator. Similar to the evaporator, the condenser is simply
a heat exchanger. Except in this case, heat is exchanged from the warm refrigerant gas to the
cold medium. The heat released by the warm refrigerant gas causes it to change phases. The
refrigerant gas condenses to refrigerant liquid.
There are two types of condensers, similar to the two types of evaporators. The figure below
shows a sample water cooled condenser, where cool condenser water at ~85 °F is used to
remove heat from the refrigerant, causing it to increase in temperature to approximately ~95 °F.
The figure below shows the air cooled system, where heat is removed from the refrigerant by
blowing outside air over the coil. The location will determine the condenser water and outside air
temperatures.
Figure 9: Air cooled condenser on the left and water cooled on the right
The methods of heat exchange are similar to that of the evaporator. Refer to the evaporator
section for the different types of heat exchangers.
5.4 EXPANSION DEVICE
Step 4: Expansion Device. The final step is the expansion device, which is the counterpart of
the compressor. The expansion device reduces the pressure of the liquid, which causes not only
the pressure to decrease but also the temperature to decrease. During this process, some of the
liquid refrigerant is turned into a gas, this is called flash gas. The resultant of the expansion device
is a cold partial liquid-vapor refrigerant mix. The cold refrigerant liquid-vapor mix then repeats the
process at the evaporator.
The expansion device that is primarily used in air conditioning systems is called a thermostatic
expansion valve (TXV). The TXV as its name describes, opens and closes, based on a thermal
device. The adjustment of the opening/closing determines the amount of refrigerant that is
passed through and evaporated. The TXV uses the temperature of the evaporator output as a
basis for determining the amount of refrigerant.
For example, if the TXV senses that the evaporator is producing an output refrigerant temperature
that is too cold, then there is too much refrigerant for the heat load (hot side of the evaporator)
and the refrigerant sent to the evaporator needs to be throttled down (decrease cold side of the
evaporator). If the TXV senses that the output of the evaporator is too high, then the amount of
refrigerant cannot keep up with the heat load (hot side) then the TXV should allow more refrigerant
to the evaporator (increase cold side).
6.0 PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM

The pressure-enthalpy diagram or P-H diagram is a tool that all HVAC & Refrigeration engineers
should be able to use proficiently. This diagram describes the relationship of pressure and
enthalpy of a select refrigerant. In order to properly understand this diagram, it is best to go
through the vapor compression cycle on a P-H diagram.
On the P-H diagram, pressure is indicated on the y-axis and enthalpy is indicated on the x-axis.
Typically enthalpy is in units of Btu/lb and pressure is in units of pounds per square inch (psi).
The upside down U figure shown on the diagram designates the points at which the refrigerant
changes phase. The left vertical curve indicates the saturated liquid curve and the right vertical
curve indicates the saturated vapor curve. The region in-between the two curves describes
refrigerant states that contain a mixture of both liquid and vapor. The locations to the left of the
saturated liquid curve indicate that the refrigerant is in liquid form and locations to the right of the
saturated vapor curve indicate that the refrigerant is in vapor form. The point at which the two
curves meet is called the critical point. The importance of this point is that at any point above, no
additional pressure will change the vapor into a liquid. A simplified pressure-enthalpy diagram is
shown in the figure below, describing this information.
Figure 10: Pressure-enthalpy diagram
The curves break up the diagram into three regions (1) Liquid, (2) Vapor and (3) Mix.
(1) Liquid Region: The liquid region is also known as the sub-cooled region. In this region there
are vertical temperature lines, which increase as enthalpy is increased. The figure below is a
simplified P-H diagram illustrating the constant temperature lines.
(2) Vapor Region: The vapor region is also known as the super-heated region. In this region
there are vertical temperature lines, which increase as enthalpy is increased. Refer to the figure
below. There are also lines of constant entropy, which are also important. Entropy is the measure
of the amount of disorder in the system.
(3) Liquid-Vapor Mix Region: In this region, the P-H diagram shows horizontal temperature
lines, which indicate constant temperature. The mix region is the phase change region, where
any addition of enthalpy will cause additional liquid to vaporize instead of raising the temperature.
The below figure illustrates the horizontal temperature lines in the mix region. There are also
upward sloping curves which indicate quality. Quality is a measure of the ratio of vapor mass to
total mass. For example quality of 0.1 or 10%, which is located near the saturated liquid line,
describes points that have 10% vapor by mass. The 0.9 or 90% line, which is located near the
saturated vapor line, describes points that have 90% vapor by mass. The previous figure
indicates the quality lines.
Figure 11: P-H diagram, constant enthalpy lines
Figure 12: P-H Diagram, Constant Pressure & Enthalpy Lines
The x-y axes of the P-H diagram are the pressure lines running from left to right. The enthalpy
lines are the vertical lines. The skeletal graph shown in the figure above shows the pressure-
enthalpy lines.
The next important lines on the pressure-enthalpy diagram are those describing lines of constant
entropy, which are used and discussed in section 6.1.2 Compressor.
6.1 REFRIGERATION CYCLE

One of the most important skills needed for the professional engineer in the HVAC & Refrigeration
field is navigating the refrigeration cycle on a pressure-enthalpy diagram. The following sections
will show each specific part of the refrigeration cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram and it will
also highlight the important points and calculations needed.
Throughout this explanation the refrigerant R-134a is used as an example. It is recommended

that the engineer be familiar with the P-H diagram for R-134a and the other common refrigerants.
These diagrams can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. A sample R-
134a diagram is shown below, with a sample refrigeration cycle, identifying (Step 1) Evaporator,
(Step 2) Compressor, (Step 3) Condenser and (Step 4) Expansion Device.
Figure 13: Sample R-134a P-H diagram
6.1.1 Step 1 Evaporator

The refrigerant entering the evaporator is a cold, partial liquid-vapor mixture. The operating
pressure and temperature of the evaporator is called the suction pressure and suction
temperature. The suction line is the piping that routes refrigerant gas from the evaporator to the
compressor. It is important to note that pressure and temperature are constant in the evaporator
(the mixed region) and their values are dependent on each other.
For example, if a compressor operates at a suction pressure of 36.8 psia, then the corresponding
evaporator pressure is 36.8 psia and the corresponding evaporator temperature is 25 °F, see
below figure for points A and B (Values are for Refrigerant R-134a). If the compressor operates
at a suction pressure of 49.7 psia, then the corresponding evaporator pressure is also 49.7 psia
and the evaporator temperature is 40 °F. See below figure for points A' and B'(Values are for
Refrigerant R-134a).
Figure 14: R-134a P-H diagram with evaporator, suction pressure versus evaporator
temperature
The evaporator moves the refrigerant from point A (partial liquid-vapor mixture) to point B, a fully
saturated vapor refrigerant. As the evaporator transfers heat to the refrigerant, there is no gain
in temperature, since all the heat is used to convert the remaining liquid to a gas. In an ideal
evaporator, there is just enough heat transfer to convert all the liquid to gas and nothing more.
Thus, the output of an ideal evaporator is 100% vapor at the same entering temperature, refer to
the figure below. In this figure, we see that as the refrigerant moves through the evaporator, the
temperature remains the same and the percentage of vapor increases, until it reaches saturation
at 100%.
Figure 15: Ideal evaporator, zero superheat
Also introduced in the figure above is the term superheat. If additional heat were to be added to
the 100% vapor refrigerant, then the heat would be used to increase the temperature and it is this
increase in temperature that is called superheat.
In the figure below, an evaporator with 15 °F superheat is shown. The refrigerant reaches 100%
vapor prior to leaving the evaporator. All the additional heat from this point is used to increase
the temperature of the refrigerant until it reaches a temperature of 40 °F. This refrigerant has a
superheat of 15 °F because the final temperature is 15 degrees passed the saturation
temperature of 25 °F. It is important to note that the pressure remains constant throughout the
evaporator.
Figure 16: Evaporator with 15 F of superheat
On the pressure-enthalpy diagram superheat is shown as horizontal movement along the suction
pressure line passed the 100% vapor curve. The figure on the following page shows the
difference between 0 °F and 15 °F superheat. Point B is the 100% vapor point at a constant
evaporator/suction pressure of 36.8 psia and a temperature of 25 °F. Point B' results from
additional heat/enthalpy added to the refrigerant. The refrigerant moves from point B to point B',
where the resulting temperature is 40 °F.
The heat gained by the evaporator is calculated by the leaving enthalpy minus the entering
enthalpy, multiplied by the refrigerant mass flow rate. This is also called the net refrigeration
effect.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ𝑟 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
Figure 17: R134a pressure-enthalpy diagram, 0 °F vs. 15 °F superheat
6.1.2 Step 2 Compressor
The compressor is characterized by the refrigerant suction and discharge conditions. Horizontal
lines are drawn across the refrigerant's pressure enthalpy diagram for the suction and discharge
pressures. Then the incoming temperature of the compressor, as determined by the leaving
temperature of the evaporator, is used as the starting point of the compressor, as shown by point
B' in the figure below. The compressor then increases the pressure of the refrigerant up to the
discharge pressure. Ideal compression occurs at constant entropy, also known as
isentropic compression. Therefore the intersection of the constant entropy line and the
discharge pressure line will identify the final condition of the refrigerant gas leaving the
compressor, as shown by point C in the figure below.
Figure 18: R134a pressure-enthalpy diagram - compressor
A common skill, that is required of a professional engineer, is to determine the work done by the
compressor. This work is shown on the previous figure as the difference between the compressor
leaving enthalpy (H2) and the entering enthalpy (H1). The equation to determine the work of the
compressor is shown below. This equation multiples the refrigeration flow rate by the change in
enthalpy between the discharge and suction conditions.
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ𝑟 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
Compressor Efficiency: An ideal compressor follows the constant entropy line, but in reality,
friction losses from the compressor will produce heat. This heat is absorbed by the refrigerant,
which causes the actual discharge point (C’) to be slightly higher in temperature. The pressure
at C’ will be the same. The compressor efficiency will normally be given to you. H1 is known from
the evaporator outlet. H2,actual can be found by following the constant entropy line. Then, you can
use the following equation to solve for the ideal enthalpy, H2,ideal.
𝐻, 𝐻
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 %
𝐻, 𝐻
Tip: Normally when we calculate efficiency, we intuitively divide actual over ideal, since the actual
outputs we encounter are typically smaller, like in energy applications. However, by reviewing
the graph, we can see that the actual enthalpy is greater, because the inefficiencies from heat is
added. So, be aware that in these calculations, compressor efficiencies are ideal divided
by actual enthalpy.
Figure 19: The actual compressor process, with inefficiencies added, is shown.
6.1.3 Step 3 Condenser

The refrigerant entering the condenser is now a hot, high pressure refrigerant gas. The condenser
is shown on the pressure-enthalpy diagram as a horizontal line. This horizontal line is a line of
constant pressure, corresponding to the discharge pressure of the compressor. The condenser
proceeds from right to left in the following three steps:
(1) The superheated gas cools down to saturation temperature [C' 160 °F to D' 140 °F]. Cooling
takes place as heat flows from the hot refrigerant gas to the condenser cooling medium.
(2) Next, the100% saturated vapor at D' is converted to 100% saturated liquid at D''. Heat is lost
to the condenser cooling medium as the vapor is condensed to a liquid.
(3) Finally, the 100% saturated liquid is sub-cooled from D'' to D'''[140 °F to 115 °F]. In an ideal
condenser, no sub-cooling occurs. Once the refrigerant is a fully saturated liquid, any additional
heat loss results in a decrease in temperature. This cooling of the saturated liquid is referred to
as sub-cooling. In this example, the refrigerant has gone through 25 °F of sub-cooling and
resulted in a sub-cooled temperature of 115 °F.
Figure 20: R134a pressure-enthalpy diagram – condenser
A common question is to determine the heat expelled by the condenser, which is shown on the
previous figure as the difference between the condenser entering condition (H2) and the leaving
condition (H4). The equation to determine the net condenser effect is shown below. This equation
multiples the refrigeration flow rate by the change in enthalpy between the entrance and exit of
the condenser.
𝑄 , 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ𝑟 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏
6.1.4 Step 4 Expansion Device

The expansion device is the counterpart of the compressor. Similarly, the expansion device is
characterized by the suction and discharge pressures. Horizontal lines are again drawn on the
refrigerant's pressure-enthalpy diagram. The input condition of the expansion device is
determined by the condenser output conditions.
There are two entering conditions to the expansion device shown on the following diagram. The
first situation has 0 °F of sub-cooling [D’’] and the second situation has 15 °F of sub-cooling [D’’’].
The expansion device expands the high pressure refrigerant liquid adiabatically to a low pressure
liquid-vapor refrigerant mixture. Adiabatic expansion indicates that there is no change in enthalpy
and is characterized by a downward vertical line as shown on the below graph.
Note on the graph below as the refrigerant moves from point D to point A, the refrigerant moves
from the liquid phase of the graph to the vapor-liquid mixture region. The amount of gas that is
formed during this expansion is called flash gas.
Figure 21: Pressure-enthalpy diagram – expansion device
6.1.5 Net Refrigeration/Condenser, Work and COP:
Typical questions on the PE exam involve being able to navigate the P-H diagram through a
refrigeration cycle. The previous sections described each of the four steps of the refrigeration
cycle in detail and this section provides an overview of the cycle. In addition, this section provides
problems involving net refrigeration, net condenser effect, compressor-work and COP.
The net refrigeration effect is the amount of cooling provided by the evaporator. In order
to determine the net refrigeration effect, find the incoming and leaving enthalpy conditions of the
evaporator and multiply the difference by the refrigeration flow rate.
Figure 22: Summary of refrigeration cycle; no superheat/subcooling.
The compressor work is the amount of work provided by the compressor . In order to
determine the compressor work, find the incoming and leaving enthalpy conditions of the
compressor and multiply the difference by the refrigeration flow rate.
The net condenser effect is the amount of heat removed by the condenser . In order to
determine the net condenser effect, find the incoming and leaving enthalpy conditions of the
condenser and multiply the difference by the refrigeration flow rate. When determining the leaving
condition of the condenser, ensure that the appropriate amount of sub-cooling is used. Refer to
the previous figure. It is important to note that the net condenser effect is equal to sum
of the net refrigeration effect and the compressor work.
A summary of the useful equations are shown below.
Equation 1: Evaporator Net Refrigeration Effect
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
Equation 2: Compressor Work
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
Equation 3: Net Condenser Effect
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 ;𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
Equation 4: Net Condenser Effect
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
The next term that the engineer should understand is Coefficient of Performance or COP. COP
is the ratio of the amount of “Work Out” divided by the amount of “Work In”. In the refrigeration
cycle, “Work Out” is equal to the net refrigeration effect. “Work In” is equal to the Compressor
Work, this is the only point at which outside work is put into the system.
Equation 5: COP
𝑊 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑊 𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
COP is a term used to describe the efficiency of a piece of equipment. Another common term is
the Energy Efficiency Ratio or EER. The EER term describes the ratio of the cooling capacity in
units [Btu/hr] to the input electrical power in units [Watts]. The conversion of COP to EER is
shown below.
Equation 6: Relationship between COP and EER
𝐸𝐸𝑅
𝐶𝑂𝑃
3.412
7.0 STEAM
This section on steam provides background information on the steam pressure enthalpy diagram
and the Mollier Diagram and various pieces of steam equipment. The professional engineer in
the HVAC/R industry must have a deep understanding of steam systems, because it is often used
in the heating of both water and air. This guide teaches the key concepts and skills that are often
used in dealing with steam systems.
7.1 PRESSURE ENTHALPY DIAGRAM FOR STEAM

The pressure enthalpy diagram for steam is an excellent tool to gain an understanding of the
steam tables. The pressure-enthalpy diagram describes the liquid, vapor and mix region of water.
As shown in the following figure, the P-H diagram consists of Pressure (PSIA) on the y-axis and
Enthalpy (Btu/lbm) on the x-axis. It is important to note that pressure is shown on a logarithmic
scale while enthalpy is shown in a normal scale. In the middle of the diagram is the vapor dome.
This dome separates the sub-cooled liquid (aka water) on the left side, super-heated vapor (aka
steam) on the right side and the liquid-vapor mix region (aka mixed region or wet region) in the
middle.
Figure 23: Pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram: phases of water
The mixed region is cut by upward sloping lines that represent the percentage of vapor, as shown
in the following figure. The figure shows that as you move from left to right on a constant pressure
line, the percentage of vapor increases from 0% at the saturated liquid to 100% at the saturated
vapor line. The percentage of vapor is also known in other terms as steam quality and dryness
fraction, where saturated vapor has a steam quality or dryness fraction of 1.
Figure 24: P-H diagram for steam - dryness fraction/steam quality
The P-H diagram is also helpful in illustrating the relationship between the enthalpy of the
saturated liquid, saturated vapor and the enthalpy of vaporization.
First, take a horizontal line (constant pressure) from the saturated liquid curve to the saturated
vapor curve. These horizontal lines are shown on the next figure. Then read the corresponding
enthalpies of the saturated liquid and saturated vapor, shown as hf and hg, where hf is the enthalpy
of saturated liquid (fluid) and hg is the enthalpy of saturated vapor (gas). The difference between
these two enthalpies at constant pressure is the enthalpy of vaporization, shown as hfg. The
enthalpy of vaporization is the amount of enthalpy required to evaporate liquid at a certain
pressure. This relationship between the enthalpy of saturated liquid, vapor and enthalpy of
vaporization is shown by the following equation.
ℎ ℎ ℎ
Figure 25: P-H diagram for steam: enthalpy of vaporization
If a point in the mix region is selected, then the relationship between the enthalpy of the mixed
steam and the enthalpy of saturated liquid, enthalpy of vaporization and steam quality is as shown
below. “x” is the steam quality or dryness fraction.
ℎ ℎ 𝑥∗ℎ
In the figure above, the point is shown on the 50% steam quality. Therefore only 50% of the
enthalpy of vaporization has been added to the enthalpy of saturated liquid. Substituting 50% for
“x” results in the following equation.
ℎ ℎ 0.5 ∗ ℎ
The next important part of the P-H diagram is the constant temperature lines. These lines are
characterized by nearly vertical lines in the sub-cooled liquid and super-heated steam region.
This means that any increase in enthalpy during these phases, causes the temperature of the
liquid or steam to increase and vice versa for decreases in enthalpy. In the mixed region,
temperatures are shown to remain constant with increasing enthalpy and are identified as
horizontal lines. As enthalpy is added to a saturated liquid, the temperature does not change,
because the enthalpy is used to evaporate the liquid to a vapor.
Figure 26: P-H diagram for steam: constant temperature lines
A common point on the P-H diagram that the engineer should memorize is the location of the
boiling point of water at 1 atmosphere (14.7 PSIA), which is 212 °F. It is important to note that if
the temperature of a saturated liquid/vapor mixture is known then the pressure can be determined.
This is because in the phase change region, pressure and temperature are dependent on each
other. In the mixed region, the engineer is unable to determine the location on the P-H diagram
with only temperature and pressure. Another value must also be known, like entropy, specific
volume or steam quality. For example, if the engineer was asked to determine the enthalpy of
water at 212 F, 14.7 PSIA, it would be impossible, because the point could be located anywhere
in between the saturated vapor and liquid lines, along the constant pressure/temperature lines in
the dome.
Entropy lines on the P-H diagram are shown as upward sloping curves, refer to the figure below.
Figure 27: P-H diagram for steam: constant entropy lines
Entropy increases as enthalpy is increased in all three regions. Entropy is shown to decrease in
the super-heated steam region when pressure is increased. Constant entropy lines are used
during an isentropic process, which means a conversion in which entropy is held constant. One
common process is the flow of steam through an ideal steam turbine. Steam enters the turbine
at a high pressure and leaves at a lower pressure, transmitting the thermal energy to mechanical
work. However, in the HVAC & Refrigeration field, this situation is rarely encountered.
The final set of lines on the P-H diagram is the constant specific volume lines, shown below.
Specific volume lines are nearly horizontal in the vapor region and nearly vertical in the liquid
region. It can be seen that in the liquid region, there is very little change in specific volume.
However, in the superheated vapor region, there is a wide range of specific volumes. Specific
volume is shown to increase as pressure is lowered and enthalpy is constant.
Figure 28: P-H diagram: constant specific volume lines
Although the P-H diagram is a very powerful tool, typically steam tables are used to solve steam
problems. Steam tables are simply a listing of the values of specific volume, enthalpy and entropy
as a function of pressure and temperature at the saturated liquid and vapor curves.
7.2 STEAM TABLES
There are three main types of steam tables that the engineer must be able to use the, (1)
Saturation Tables as a function of pressure; (2) Saturation Tables as a function of temperature
and (3) Superheated Steam Tables. Graphically the steam tables show the values of the outer
dome on the pressure-enthalpy diagram. The following figure shows the points that are selected
for the steam tables. This figure shows the values as a function of pressure.
Figure 29: Steam tables as a function of pressure
The following figure shows the points that are selected for the steam tables. This figure shows
the values as a function of temperature.
Figure 30: Steam tables as a function of temperature
There are also steam tables for steam in the super-heated region. These steam tables are shown
as a function of pressure and temperature. These values are selected because they are the
easiest to measure in practice.
Figure 31: Superheated steam tables
The steam tables show that as temperature increases the specific volume, the enthalpy and the
entropy increase. As pressure increases there is a decrease in specific volume, enthalpy and
entropy.
7.3 MOLLIER DIAGRAM

The Mollier diagram also known as the enthalpy-entropy diagram shows graphically the various
properties of steam ranging from superheated steam to the mixed region. The diagram does not
provide water (liquid) properties. A sample of the diagram is shown below in order to illustrate
the main points of the diagram and how to use the diagram. The aspiring professional engineer
should refer to the actual tables located in the NCEES Mechanical Reference Handbook.
Figure 32: Simplified Mollier diagram
First, inspect the axes, note that the y-axis indicates enthalpy and the x-axis indicates entropy.
The Mollier diagram shows only two regions, the mixed region of vapor and liquid and the super-
heated vapor steam region. The two regions are separated by the downward sloping saturation
line, where steam quality is equal to 1. Secondly, notice the upward sloping (left to right) constant
pressure lines. Constant dryness fraction or steam quality lines are shown as downward sloping
in the mix region. Finally, the diagram has slightly downward sloping constant temperature lines,
which is only applicable in the super heat region.
7.4 DETERMINING PROPERTIES OF STEAM

One of the main skills that the aspiring professional engineer must acquire is the ability to
determine the properties of steam. In practice, the pressure and temperature of steam can be
found easily. The other useful properties of steam like entropy, enthalpy and specific volume
must be found through the use of the (1) P-H Diagram, (2) Mollier Diagram and (3) Steam Tables.
A simple way to find the properties of steam given the temperature and pressure is to draw a
simple P-H diagram. For example, assume water is at 14.7 psia and 60 F. Next draw a simple P-
H diagram. It is known that at 14.7 PSIA (1 ATM), the boiling point is 212 F, thus the constant
temperature line in blue can be drawn. Since the temperature of the water is 60 F, then the point
must be located to the left along the horizontal constant pressure line. Note that since constant
temperature lines are vertical in the sub-cooled liquid region, that the enthalpy of water at 14.7
PSIA, 60 F is equal to the enthalpy of saturated liquid water at 60 F (take vertical line down from
14.7 PSIA, 60 F to the intersection of the saturated liquid curve.
Figure 33: Determining location on p-h diagram Copyright © 2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
If water was given at a temperature of 212 F and a pressure of 14.7 PSIA, then it would be
impossible to find the location. The point could be located anywhere at the intersection of the
constant temperature line in blue and the horizontal constant pressure line, which is anywhere on
and in between the saturated liquid and vapor curves.
The previous example is simple because it is near the standard boiling point. However, the same
method can be used for varying temperatures and pressures. For example, water at 600 °F and
300 PSIA. Start the sketch by drawing in the constant temperature line for 600 °F. Then look up
the steam tables as a function of temperature and find 600 °F. In the table, saturated steam at
600 °F corresponds to a pressure of 1542.5 PSIA. It is known that the point in question (600 °F
and 300 PSIA) must lie on the constant temperature line and it must lie below the horizontal
portion corresponding to a pressure of 1542.5 because the pressure is only 300 PSIA. Thus 600
°F and 300 PSIA steam is located in the super-heated steam region and the super-heated tables
should be used. Please note that the NCEES Mechanical PE Handbook does not have saturation
temperatures exceeding 588 °F.
Figure 34: Finding a point on the p-h diagram
8.1 PROBLEM 1 – EVAPORATOR

Background: A chiller uses R-134a refrigerant, with a flow rate of 50 lb/min and has a suction
pressure of 40 PSIA and a discharge pressure of 200 PSIA, with no sub-cooling and no super
heating.
Problem: What is the net refrigeration effect of the evaporator?
(a) 10 Tons
(b) 11.5 Tons
(c) 13.5 Tons
(d) 16 Tons

Background: A chiller uses R-134a refrigerant, with a flow rate of 50 lb/min. The chiller is used
to provide chilled water leaving the evaporator at a temperature of 45 F. .
Problem: Which suction pressure should the evaporator operate at to provide a 10 degree F
differential between the chilled water and refrigeration liquid temperature?
(a) 40 PSIA
(b) 45 PSIA
(c) 50 PSIA
(d) 55 PSIA

Background: A chiller with a refrigerant flow rate of 50 lb/min of R-134a has a suction pressure
of 40 PSIA and a discharge pressure of 200 PSIA. The evaporator provides 20 F of super-heating
and the condenser provides no sub-cooling.
Problem: What is the net refrigeration effect?
(a) 11 Tons
(b) 12.25 Tons
(c) 13 Tons
(d) 14.25 Tons
8.4 PROBLEM 4 – COMPRESSOR

Background: A chiller operates with a R-134A refrigerant flow rate of 200 lb/min, with a suction
pressure of 40 PSIA and a discharge pressure of 200 PSIA. The condenser provides 10 F of sub-
cooling and the evaporator provides 0 F of superheat.
Problem: What is the work done by the compressor?
(a) 144,000 BTUH
(b) 206,000 BTUH
(c) 241,000 BTUH
(d) 288,000 BTUH
8.5 PROBLEM 5 – COMPRESSOR

Background: A chiller has a R-134a refrigerant flow rate of 175 lb/min. The compressor is
measured to provide 200,000 Btuh of work. If the evaporator operates at a suction pressure of
40 PSIA and provides 0 degrees F of superheat.
Problem: What is the discharge pressure?
(a) 180
(b) 220
(c) 320
(d) 480
8.6 PROBLEM 6 – CONDENSER

Background: A chiller operates with a R-134a refrigerant flow rate of 250 lb/min. The suction
pressure is 40 PSIA and the discharge pressure is 200 PSIA. The evaporator provides 0 F of
superheat and the condenser provides 10 F of sub-cooling.
Problem: What is net condenser effect?
(a) 62 tons
(b) 76 tons
(c) 89 tons
(d) 100 tons
8.7 PROBLEM 7 – CONDENSER

Background: A chiller operates with a suction pressure of 35 PSIA and a discharge pressure of
225 PSIA. The refrigerant flow rate is 100 lb/min of R-134a. The compressor provides 200,000
BTUH of work. The COP of the chiller is 4.0. What is the net condenser effect?
Problem: What is the net condenser effect?
(a) 83.3 Tons
(b) 93.6 Tons
(c) 120.3 Tons
(d) 139.3 Tons
8.8 PROBLEM 8 – EXPANSION DEVICE

Background: A temperature expansion valve, senses that the temperature at the end of the
evaporator has increased from 10 F super heat [normal operation] to 15 F super heat [current].
Problem: What best describes the situation and the temperature expansion valve's next action?
(a) Cooling load is decreasing, TXV should decrease refrigerant flow to decrease super heat.
(b) Cooling load is decreasing, TXV should increase refrigerant flow to decrease super heat.
(c) Cooling load is increasing, TXV should decrease refrigerant flow to decrease super heat.
(d) Cooling load is increasing, TXV should increase refrigerant flow to decrease super heat.
8.9 PROBLEM 9 – EXPANSION DEVICE

Problem: Which of the following is NOT a primary function of a thermal expansion valve in a
refrigeration cycle?
(a) Control the amount of refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle.
(b) Ensure the correct amount of sub-cooling is provided by the condenser.
(c) Maintain the correct level of superheat from the evaporator.
(d) Ensure no liquid is passed from the evaporator to the compressor.
8.10 PROBLEM 10 – COP

Background: A chiller with a R-134a. The chiller operates with a suction pressure of 40 PSIA
and a discharge pressure of 200 PSIA. The chiller is rated at 100 tons of useful cooling. The
compressor also provides 84 KW of useful work to the system.
Problem: What is the COP?
(a) 3.5
(b) 4
(c) 4.2
(d) 4.6
8.11 PROBLEM 11 – COP

Background: A chiller with a R-134a refrigerant flow rate of 75 lb/min. The chiller operates with
a suction pressure of 40 PSIA and a discharge pressure of 200 PSIA. The evaporator produces
15 degrees F of superheat and the condenser produces 10 degrees F of sub-cooling.
Problem: What is the COP?
(a) 4
(b) 3
(c) 6
(d) 3.5
8.12 PROBLEM 12 - STEAM PRODUCTION

Water (120 F, 50 lbm/hr) is converted to saturated steam (no super-heat) at a pressure of 15
PSIA. What is the total production of the boiler (Btu/hr)?
a) 35,000
b) 45,000
c) 55,000
d) 75,000
8.13 PROBLEM 13 - STEAM AIR COILS

50 lbm/hr of steam enters a heating coil at a pressure of 15 PSIA. 700 CFM of air enters the coil
at 60 F. Assume 100% efficient heat transfer. What is the resulting exiting temperature of the
air?
a) 105 ℉
b) 110 ℉
c) 115 ℉
d) 125 ℉
8.14 PROBLEM 14: STEAM - HOT WATER COILS

A hot water coil has an incoming water temperature of 70 F and an outgoing temperature of 140
F. Hot water is flowing through the coil at a rate of 40 GPM. What steam flow rate is required to
properly heat the water [lb/hr]? Assume saturated steam at a pressure of 15 PSIA, with no super
heat and sub-cooling and 100% effective heat exchange.
a) 1,320
b) 1,440
c) 1,560
d) 1,800
9.0 SOLUTIONS
9.1 SOLUTION 1 - EVAPORATOR

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 107 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 54 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 107 54 ∗ 50 ∗ 60
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑄 159,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ ∗ 13.25 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
12,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
9.2 SOLUTION 2 – EVAPORATOR

In order to provide a 10 degree differential between the chilled water temperature at 45 F, the
refrigerant liquid in the evaporator must be 35 F. According to the R-134A P-H diagram, 35 F
corresponds to a pressure of ~45 PSIA.
(a) 40 PSIA - corresponding evaporator temperature = 29 F.
(b) 45 PSIA - corresponding evaporator temperature = 34.9 F.
(c) 50 PSIA - corresponding evaporator temperature = 40.3 F.
(d) 55 PSIA - corresponding evaporator temperature = 45.2 F.
9.3 SOLUTION 3 – EVAPORATOR

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 111 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 54 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 111 54 ∗ 50 ∗ 60
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑄 171,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ ∗ 14.25 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
12,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
9.4 SOLUTION 4 – COMPRESSOR
𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 107
𝑙𝑏
𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐻 , 0.22
𝑙𝑏 °𝐹
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 119
𝑙𝑏
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 119 107 ∗ 200 ∗ 60
𝑊 144,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 144,000 Btuh.
9.5 SOLUTION 5 – COMPRESSOR

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑋
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 107
𝑙𝑏
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑋 107 ∗ 175 ∗ 60
𝑊 200,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑋
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑋 126
𝑙𝑏
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, 126 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 0.22
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 °𝐹
Discharge pressure is roughly 480 PSIA.
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 480 PSIA.
9.6 SOLUTION 6 – CONDENSER

Step 1: A is found by the intersection of the suction pressure line
and the saturated vapor line, since there is no superheat
Step 2: Follow the constant entrop line at A to the intersection
of the discharge pressure line, to get point B and H

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 122
𝑙𝑏
Step 3: Follow the discharge pressure line, to the intersection
of the saturated liquid line, then move 10 F left to the sub cooled region
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 50.5
𝑙𝑏
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐻 𝐻 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 60
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 122 50.5 ∗ 250 ∗ 60 1,072,050 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑜𝑟 89.4 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑙𝑏
There is a discrepancy in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook, R-134a chart. This
chart will result in an enthalpy of 119 Btu/lb at the exit of the compressor. The ASHRAE R-134a
chart results in the enthalpy of 122 Btu/lb.
9.7 SOLUTION 7 – CONDENSER

Step 1: Determine the net refrigeration effect.
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝐶𝑂𝑃 4.0
200,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑄 800,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
Step 2: Determine the net condenser effect.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑊
𝑄 800,000 200,000 1,000,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑜𝑟 83.3 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
9.8 SOLUTION 8 – EXPANSION DEVICE

If the amount of super heat is increasing from normal conditions,
then the net refrigeration effect is increasing, as point B is moving further to the right.
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔.
If the cooling load is increasing,
then the TXV should provide more refrigerant to increase net refrigeration effect
9.9 SOLUTION 9 – EXPANSION DEVICE
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑋𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
 The amount of subcooling provided by the condenser is determined.
by the condensers
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑋𝑉 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑋𝑉 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑.
Correct Answer: B
9.10 SOLUTION 10 – COP

𝑄
𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝑊
This question involves converting the useful cooling of the chiller and the work done by
the compressor to the same units.
1 𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑊 84 𝑘𝑤 ∗ 23.9 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
3.517 𝑘𝑊
𝑄 100 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
100 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐶𝑂𝑃 4.18
23.9 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
Correct Answer: C
9.11 SOLUTION 11 – COP

First find point H1, which is the enthalpy entering the compressor, by following the
suction pressure line to a superheat temperature of 15 F.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 110
𝑙𝑏
Second find point H2, which is the enthalpy leaving the compressor, by following the
constant entropy line from point entering the compressor to the intersection of the
discharge pressure.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 124
𝑙𝑏
Third find point H4, which is the enthalpy entering the evaporator, by following the
constant enthalpy line by following the discharge pressure line to a sub‐cooled
temperature of 10 F.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 50.5
𝑙𝑏
𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 124 110 14
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 110 50.5 59.5
59.5
𝐶𝑂𝑃 4.25
14
Correct Answer: A
9.12 SOLUTION 12 - STEAM PRODUCTION

Water (120 F, 50 lbm/hr) is converted to saturated steam (no super-heat) at a pressure of 15
PSIA. What is the total production of the boiler (Btu/hr)?
The enthalpy of the incoming feed-water at 120 F and a pressure of 15 PSIA is shown below.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 88.10
𝑙𝑏
The enthalpy of the outgoing steam at 15 PSIA, saturated is equal to 1,150.76 Btu/lb.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 1,150.76
𝑙𝑏
The total production of the boiler (Btu/hr) is found by multiplying the difference between the
incoming and outgoing boiler enthalpies by the mass flow rate of the steam.
𝑄 𝑚∗ ℎ ℎ
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑄 50 ∗ 1150.76 88.10
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 53,133
ℎ𝑟
9.13 SOLUTION 13 - STEAM AIR COILS
50 lbm/hr of steam enters a heating coil at a pressure of 15 PSIA. 700 CFM of air enters the coil
at 60 F. Assume 100% efficient heat transfer. What is the resulting existing temperature of the
air?
Steam at 15 PSIA has an enthalpy of vaporization of 970 Btu/lb.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ℎ 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑏𝑡𝑢
50 ∗ 970 1.08 ∗ 700 ∗ ∆𝑇
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏
∆𝑇 64 ℉
The final temperature of the air is 124 F.
60℉ 64 ℉ 124 ℉
9.14 SOLUTION 14 - STEAM - HOT WATER COILS

A hot water coil has an incoming water temperature of 70 F and an outgoing temperature of 140
F. Hot water is flowing through the coil at a rate of 40 GPM. What steam flow rate is required to
properly heat the water [lb/hr]? Assume saturated steam at a pressure of 15 PSIA, with no super
heat and sub-cooling and 100% effective heat exchange. .
Steam at 15 PSIA has an enthalpy of evaporation of 970 Btu/lb.
An energy balance is conducted on the heat loss through condensing the steam and the heat
gained by the water.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚 ∗ℎ 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑚 ∗ 970 500 ∗ 40 ∗ 70
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 1,443
ℎ𝑟
B N
boiler ꞏ 57 net condenser effect ꞏ 27
boiling ꞏ 8 net refrigeration effect ꞏ 26
Brazed Plate ꞏ 12
P
C
Pressure ꞏ 4
Compressor ꞏ 12, 21, 50, 51 pressure-enthalpy ꞏ 14
compressor work ꞏ 27 Properties of Steam ꞏ 39
Condenser ꞏ 12, 24, 52, 53
condensing ꞏ 8
Constant entropy ꞏ 33 Q
constant temperature ꞏ 32
COP ꞏ 28, 55 quality ꞏ 15
D R
discharge ꞏ 22 Rankine ꞏ 5
dryness fraction/steam quality ꞏ 30 Refrigeration Cycle ꞏ 17
E S
EER ꞏ 28 Saturation Tables ꞏ 34
Enthalpy ꞏ 6, 12 Shell and Tube ꞏ 11
enthalpy of evaporation ꞏ 58 Specific Heat ꞏ 7
enthalpy of vaporization ꞏ 31, 57 specific volume ꞏ 34
Entropy ꞏ 6, 12 Steam ꞏ 29, 56, 57
Evaporator ꞏ 10, 18, 48, 49 Steam Tables ꞏ 34
Expansion Device ꞏ 13, 25, 53, 54 sub-cooled region ꞏ 15
suction ꞏ 22
super-heated region ꞏ 15
F Superheated Steam Tables ꞏ 34
Fahrenheit ꞏ 5
T
Temperature ꞏ 5
H
Thermodynamics Properties ꞏ 4
heat capacity ꞏ 7 Tube in Tube ꞏ 11
Hot Water Coils ꞏ 58 TXV ꞏ 14
I V
internal energy ꞏ 6
Vapor Compression Cycle ꞏ 10
isentropic compression ꞏ 21
M W
work ꞏ 22
Mollier Diagram ꞏ 38
4 - Psychrometrics
Moist Air Properties | Movement on Chart | Various Elevations
Heating/Cooling | Humidification/Dehumidification
HVAC Textbook
Section 4.0 – Principles Psychrometrics

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Psychrometric Chart ........................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Properties of Moist Air .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Dry Bulb Temperature ............................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Wet Bulb Temperature ............................................................................................ 6
2.1.3 Relative Humidity .................................................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Humidity Ratio ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.5 Enthalpy ................................................................................................................ 11
2.1.6 Specific Volume ..................................................................................................... 11
2.1.7 Dew Point .............................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Movement on Psychrometric Chart .............................................................................. 14
2.2.1 Sensible Heating/Cooling ...................................................................................... 14
2.2.2 Latent Heating/Cooling .......................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Total Heating/Cooling ............................................................................................ 22
2.2.3 Sensible Heat Ratio ............................................................................................... 23
2.2.4 Mixing of Two Air Streams .................................................................................... 25
2.3 Equipment & Psychrometrics ....................................................................................... 27
2.3.1 (A) Cooling Coil ..................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2 (B) Heating Coil ..................................................................................................... 28
2.3.3 (C) Air Washer with Water Temperature Below Dew Point ................................... 29
2.3.4 (D) Air Washer with Water Temperature Equal to Wet Bulb ................................. 30
2.3.5 (E) Air Washer with Water Temperature Above Wet Bulb..................................... 31
2.3.7 (F) Steam Humidifier ............................................................................................. 31
2.3.6 (G) Desiccant/Chemical Dehumidifier ................................................................... 33
3.0 Different Elevations .......................................................................................................... 33
4.1 Problem 1 - Navigating Psychrometric Chart ............................................................... 36
4.2 Problem 2 - Condensation on Surfaces ........................................................................ 37
4.3 Problem 3 - Change in Enthalpy/Humidity Ratio .......................................................... 38
4.4 Problem 4 - Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 39
Psychrometrics - 1 www.engproguides.com
4.5 Problem 5 - Electric Heater .......................................................................................... 39

4.6 Problem 6 - Cooling Coil ............................................................................................... 40
4.7 Problem 7 – Relative Humidity ..................................................................................... 40
4.8 Problem 8 – Sensible Heat Ratio ................................................................................. 41
4.9 Problem 9 - Enthalpy Wheel ......................................................................................... 41
5.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 42
5.1 Solution 1 - Navigating Psychrometric Chart ................................................................ 42
5.2 Solution 2 – Condensation on Surfaces. ...................................................................... 43
5.3 Solution 3 - Change in Enthalpy/Humidity Ratio ........................................................... 43
5.4 Solution 4 - Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 44
5.5 Solution 5 - Electric Heater ........................................................................................... 44
5.6 Solution 6 - Cooling Coil ............................................................................................... 45
5.7 Solution 7 – Relative Humidity ...................................................................................... 46
5.8 Solution 8 – Sensible Heat Ratio .................................................................................. 47
5.9 Solution 9 - Enthalpy Wheel ......................................................................................... 47
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section focuses on the skills and concepts related to the Psychrometric Chart. The
Psychrometric Chart is a key tool used by HVAC & Refrigeration engineers in many situations.
It is used in calculating cooling loads and selecting mechanical equipment like enthalpy wheels,
heat exchangers (air), air handlers and fan coils. Psychrometrics counts for 7-11 questions
on the Mechanical HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam.
This guide focuses on constant atmospheric pressure at sea level, which is the most common
situation encountered by most Mechanical Engineers in the HVAC field. However, if a question
indicates a different pressure or extreme temperatures, then you will need to use the other
charts in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
Exam Tip: Do not spend enormous amounts of time trying to interpolate the exact value on the
psychrometric chart.
The psychrometric chart is provided as part of the NCEES exam, but the chart is small and
unclear compared to the ones typically used in practice. It is the opinion of the writer that this
fact should indicate to the test taker that it is not important to get the values to the nearest
0.0001 (exaggeration) because it is impossible. In addition, the exam writer would not provide
possible multiple choice answers that are fairly close together because of the confusion that
would arise. You need to get used to using the psychrometric chart on a computer with the
Adobe PDF program.
Psychrometrics
7-11 questions
Moist Air Properties Movement on Chart Different Elevations
• Dry bulb • Heating • Sea level

• Wet bulb • Cooling • Higher elevations
• Relative • Humidification
humidity • Dehumidification
• Dew point
• Humidity ratio
• Enthalpy
2.0 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

The Psychrometric Chart describes the various properties (Dry Bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb
Temperature, Enthalpy, Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity and Specific Volume) of moist air.
Moist air is defined as an air-water mixture. Moist air on a psychrometric chart ranges from Dry
Air to Saturated Air.
Dry air is defined as having no water vapor and is located on the x-axis of the psychrometric
chart. Saturated air is defined as an air-water mixture at equilibrium between the liquid and
vapor phase. Saturated air is moist air in balance with its liquid and vapor phases. At
saturation, air cannot hold any more moisture. It is the extreme opposite of dry air. This
saturated air is defined by the exponential curve, called the saturation curve, which is clearly
shown on Figure 3.
The psychrometric chart does not account for variations in pressure. Pressure is not shown on
any axis, because it is constant. For the most of the PE exam and for this guide, it is assumed
that the psychrometric chart is based on atmospheric pressure at sea level (14.696 psia or 1
atm or 29.921 in. Hg), unless noted otherwise. The psychrometric chart for the PE exam also
only shows a range of the temperatures typically encountered by a typical HVAC & Refrigeration
Engineer.
Figure 1: Psychrometric Chart at Sea Level
The following (3) Psychrometric Chart Topics will now be discussed in detail:
• Air Properties on the Psychrometric Chart: What does each property tell of the air-water
mixture? How much energy does an air mixture have? How do two different air
conditions compare? Is the air hot/cold, wet/dry?
• Movement on the Psychrometric Chart: What causes each type of movement on the
chart (Right to Left, Up and Down, Diagonal). What is sensible heating/cooling? What is
humidification/dehumidification? What is the sensible heat ratio?
• Typical Psychrometric Questions: Mixtures of Moist Air, Humidification/Dehumidification,

Heating/Cooling Questions, Condensation, etc.
2.1 PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR

Psychrometric Chart – Properties: The psychrometric chart as previously discussed, graphically
shows the following thermodynamic properties of Moist Air, 1) Dry Bulb Temperature, 2) Wet
Bulb Temperature, 3) Relative Humidity, 4) Humidity Ratio, 5) Enthalpy, 6) Specific Volume and
7) Dew Point. If any of the two above properties are known of an air mixture, then the five other
corresponding properties can be found.
The following sections go into detail on each of the thermodynamic properties. It is the intent of
these sections for the reader to gain an understanding of the concepts and to grasp the
meaning of each property.
2.1.1 DRY BULB TEMPERATURE

This is the temperature most people are familiar with, since the Dry Bulb
temperature is the temperature always shown on thermometers and thermostats.
It is called dry because the temperature is not affected by the moisture in the air. It
is a direct indication of the amount of sensible heat in the air at the given
conditions.
In practice, design dry bulb temperatures for typical offices range from 72° to 75°
F. Also typical dry bulb temperatures of cool supply air from an air handling coil
ranges from 52° to 55° F. For the purpose of the PE Exam, United States
Customary Units or USCS are used. Please do not spend additional time on
Figure 2: Dry
studying conversions to International System of Units (SI).
Bulb Temperature
On the psychrometric chart, the dry bulb temperature is shown by vertical, parallel lines, below
in blue.
Figure 3: Psychrometric Chart – Dry Bulb & Wet Bulb Temperature
2.1.2 WET BULB TEMPERATURE

This property takes into account the moisture in the air. The wet bulb
temperature in conjunction with the dry bulb temperature is a direct indication of
the amount of moisture in the air.
The wet bulb temperature is measured through the use of a sling psychrometer,
which consists of a thermometer covered by a wetted cloth wick. The
psychrometer is swung and if the air is dry, then the wetted cloth wick will begin
Figure 4: Wet Bulb

Psychrometrics - 6 Temperature
to evaporate. The energy lost to evaporation cools the wetted cloth wick, which will in turn
decrease the temperature reading.
If the air is saturated, then the wetted cloth wick will not evaporate and the wetted cloth wick will
read the same temperature as the air. The drier the air, the more evaporation will take place,
which will cool the wetted cloth wick and will decrease the wet bulb temperature reading. Thus
the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature describes
whether or not the air is humid or dry.
For example, wet bulb temperatures significantly lower than the dry bulb temperature is an
indication of dry air. A wet bulb temperature near the dry bulb temperature describes air that is
nearly saturated.
On the psychrometric chart shown in the previous figure, the wet bulb temperature lines
originate from the intersection of the corresponding dry bulb temperature and the saturation
curve. The wet bulb lines are shown in red. If you follow the dry bulb lines shown in blue from
the dry air line up to the saturation curve, you can see that the wet bulb increases until it equals
the dry bulb temperature. When the wet bulb temperature equals the dry bulb temperature,
then the air is saturated.
2.1.3 RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the
air mixture - compared to the maximum amount of water vapor
the air can hold at that dry bulb temperature. For example, an
air mixture at 100% relative humidity is shown on the saturation
curve because the amount of water vapor in the air mixture is
equal to the maximum amount. Dry air is shown as the x-axis,
which has a relative humidity of 0%, since there is no water
vapor in the air mixture.
Figure 5: Relative Humidity
The figure on the right shows two equal volumes of air in a jar.
One jar or volume of air contains the maximum amount of water it can hold, as illustrated as a
completely filled jar of water vapor droplets. The other jar is showing only half the amount of
water vapor droplets and therefore has a relative humidity of 50%.
Figure 6: Psychrometric Chart – Relative Humidity, RH
Whereas the previous discussion describes relative humidity in terms of the number of water
vapor particles in the air, it can also be given in terms of pressure. Relative humidity can be
calculated with the following equation. Partial pressure is described in the next paragraph.
Saturated water pressure can be found using the steam tables.
𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 % ∗ 100%
𝑃 @
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟;
𝑃 @ 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Partial Pressure: To better understand the above equation, we must define partial pressures.
Partial pressure is the pressure contributed by each gas type in a gas mixture. Thus, the total
pressure of the mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures: 𝑃 𝑃 , 𝑃 ,
𝑃 , , where Pgas,i is the partial pressure of gas i. For air, the mixture contains dry air and water
vapor particles. Since air is maintained at atmospheric pressure, the total pressure is equal to
the pressure of the atmosphere, which can vary by elevation. At sea level, the total pressure is
14.7 psia. The partial pressure of water vapor is the pressure contributed by the water vapor
particles. The total pressure of air is calculated as follows.
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
One way to visualize this is that the atmosphere exerts a pressure on the air particles.
Therefore, the pressure of the dry air and water vapor particles in the air will resist the
atmospheric pressure, as shown below.
Figure 7: Partial pressures of water vapor and dry air.
2.1.4 HUMIDITY RATIO

This property describes the amount of water content in the air,
expressed as the water vapor per unit mass of dry air
or . Sometimes the humidity
ratio is expressed as , where the symbol of

these units is [W]. Figure 8: Humidity ratio or
specific humidity
Figure 8 illustrates air with a humidity ratio of .009 ,
as shown graphically by (9) water vapor droplets. The jar on the right, holding a volume of air,
has a humidity ratio of .005 , as illustrated by (5) water vapor droplets in the
same volume of air. Mass can be interchanged with volume, if it is assumed that the density is
constant. Thus, the jar with the larger number of droplets for the same volume of air has a
higher humidity ratio. Humidity ratio is shown in the psychrometric chart as horizontal lines.
Figure 9: Psychrometric Chart – Humidity Ratio, W
Two less commonly used ratios of humidity are specific humidity and absolute humidity.
Specific humidity is similar to humidity ratio, except that the denominator is equal to the total
mass of the air, which includes dry air plus water vapor. Specific humidity is calculated as the
mass of the water vapor divided by the total mass of the air and is given in units of
or . Specific humidity is
represented by the symbol, γ.
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor divided by the total volume of air. This is
also known as the water vapor density. Absolute humidity is given in units of
or and represented by the symbol dv.
2.1.5 ENTHALPY
Enthalpy is the summation of the amount of sensible and latent energy in the air. [Btu/lb of dry
air]. Enthalpy is represented by the symbol = [ℎ]. In HVAC, enthalpy is used to determine the
amount of energy that is in moist air. It is important to recognize that on the psychrometric
chart, enthalpy is shown as downward sloping lines in green. These enthalpy lines are closely
aligned (but not completely) to the downward sloping wet bulb lines. Enthalpy shall be covered
more closely in the following sections. This section is meant to introduce the term and its role
on the psychrometric chart to the reader.
Figure 10: Psychrometric Chart - Enthalpy
2.1.6 SPECIFIC VOLUME

Specific volume is used to define the volume taken up by air at specific conditions. The units are
defined as [ft3/lb of dry air] and the symbol for specific volume is [v]. On the psychrometric
chart, specific volume is shown as downward sloping lines, shown in orange on the next figure.
For example, air at 1 atmosphere, 68° F DB and 60° F WB would have a specific volume of 13.5
ft3/lb and air at 1 atmosphere, 88° F DB and 66° F WB would have a specific volume of 14.0
ft3/lb.
Density is simply the inverse of specific volume. At standard conditions, the density of air is
1/13.33 [ft3/lb] or 0.075 [lb/ft3]. Standard pressure is taken at sea level, 14.7 psia, but standard
temperature can vary based on the moisture content or the reference source. Standard
temperatures of dry air at the standard density are 69°F, 0% RH or 60°F, 100% RH for moist air.
For fan testing, the Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. (AMCA) sets the
standard temperature at 68°F, 50% RH. All conditions have a density that rounds to 0.075 lb/ft3.
For exam purposes, air at standard conditions based on the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook is 69°F, 14.7 psia, 0.075 lb/ft3 for dry air.
Figure 11: Psychrometric chart - Specific Volume. Standard conditions at 13.3 ft3/lbm
2.1.7 DEW POINT

The dew point can be found by first finding a certain condition on the graph and moving
horizontally left to the saturation curve. This is the temperature at which the air mixture must be
cooled in order for condensation to first occur. In HVAC, this skill is often used to determine
under what conditions condensation will occur on a window, pipe, duct or equipment surface.
One example is the fairly new HVAC system called Chilled Beams. Chilled beams is the system
of cooling spaces through the use of pipes containing cool water suspended below a ceiling, the
pipes are often situated into a passive (no fan) or active (fan) heat exchanger. As warm air
passes over the chilled beam, it cools and falls to the floor, thereby cooling the space below.
Condensation is a concern because if the chilled beam is at a temperature below the dew point
of the air, then as the air hits the coil, water may condense on the chilled beam and drip into the
space.
Figure 12: Psychrometric Chart - Dew Point
2.2 MOVEMENT ON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
2.2.1 SENSIBLE HEATING/COOLING

Sensible heating and cooling is defined as the removal or addition of heat to an air mixture, with
no effect on the moisture content. Its sole effect is on the increase or decrease of the dry bulb
temperature.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇
ℎ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 0.24 , 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟*

∙℉
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 0.075 𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑉 ∗ ∗
ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛. 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 0.24 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ ℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑸𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 𝟏. 𝟏 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑻
ℎ
*Note: The full equation includes the specific heat of vapor, which is added to the specific heat
of dry air as shown in the calculation below. The contribution from the specific heat of vapor is
very small and excluded in the previous analysis for simplicity. You should not waste your time
including this in your calculations, unless you have extreme temperature and humidity
conditions, which is not very likely. As an example of how small the changes are, 90F, 65% RH,
where W = 0.020 lbw/lbd, which is higher than average, the heat equation factor is 1.12. For
winter conditions when W = 0.002 lbw/lbd and cp,wet = 0.45 Btu/lbm-F, the factor is 1.08.
𝑐 𝑐 , 𝑐 , 0.24 𝑐 ,
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏
𝑐 , 𝑐 , ∗𝑊
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙℉ 𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 , @ , % 0.46 ∗ 0.0093 .0043
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙℉ 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙℉
Substituting this into the heat equation results in a 1.10 factor instead of 1.08 from the previous
derivation.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑸𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑻
ℎ
On a Psychrometric Chart, sensible heating and cooling is shown as a horizontal line. It is

horizontal because the amount of water vapor in the air is not changed, thus the Humidity Ratio
remains the same. A horizontal movement increases or decreases the dry bulb temperature.
As the dry bulb temperature increases with sensible heating, the air's capacity to hold water
also increases. The opposite is true with sensible cooling. In addition, sensible heating is
shown on the graph below to decrease relative humidity, while sensible cooling increases
relative humidity.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦.
Figure 13: Sensible heating/cooling - horizontal movement
Sensible Heating is characterized by the following: (1) Increase in dry bulb temperature, (2)
Decrease in relative humidity, (3) No change in humidity ratio, (4) Increase in enthalpy, (5)
Increase in specific volume [hotter air takes up more volume], (6) No change in dew point, (7)
Increase in wet bulb.
Sensible Cooling is characterized by the following: (1) Decrease in dry bulb temperature, (2)
Increase in relative humidity, (3) No change in humidity ratio, (4) Decrease in enthalpy, (5)
Decrease in specific volume, (6) No change in dew point, (7) Decrease in wet bulb.
Quantifying sensible movement on the psychrometric chart is best described through the use of
an example problem.
Example Problem: Sensible Heating
Background: 1,000 CFM of conditioned air at 55° F DB/53° F WB, passes through an electric
resistance heater that provides 12,000 Btu/h of heat to the air, assume that 100% of the air is in
contact with the heater (bypass factor = 0). Assume a constant density of 0.075 lb/ft3.
Question: What are the final conditions of the air? Dry bulb, wet bulb, relative humidity,
humidity ratio?
Solution: The electric heater will only provide sensible heating of the air, therefore the following
equation can be used:
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
12,000 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 1,000 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
∆𝑇 10.9F 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
10.9F 𝑇 55F
𝑇 65.9 F
We now know the final dry bulb temperature and since only sensible heating occurred, there is
no change in water content, thus humidity ratios are equal 𝑊 𝑊 . In order to get the
final conditions of the air, the psychrometric chart must be used. Knowing two values allows the
other 5 properties to be determined, see the following page.
57.4
Figure 14: Sensible heating example
2.2.2 LATENT HEATING/COOLING

Latent heat energy is the amount of energy required to produce a phase change, water (liquid)
to water (vapor).
Latent heating and cooling is defined as the removal or addition of moisture (water vapor) to an
air mixture. Latent heating is more commonly known as humidification and latent cooling is
known as dehumidification. In HVAC, common latent heat sources include people, equipment
(kitchen or industrial equipment, steamers, anything that produced water vapor) and outdoor air.
Latent heating and cooling is calculated with the latent heat of vaporization, or the energy
required to change phases from liquid to vapor. It does not account for actual temperature
changes to the air. Since typical HVAC cooling occurs from 75°F, 50% RH to around 50°F,
convention is to use a latent heat of vaporization of 1076 Btu/lb.
𝐻 ℎ @ ℎ @ 1094 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏 18 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝑩𝒕𝒖/𝒍𝒃
You will notice other sources use the heat of vaporization at 60°F, hfg,60F = 1060 Btu/lb. This is
just a different reference point. For the sake of the exam, you should use the heat of
vaporization given in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook, unless your temperature
conditions vary widely. The amount of latent heating/cooling is determined through the following
two ways [constants shown for standard conditions].
(1) ∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 : Change in pounds of water vapor per pound of dry air.
Step 1: 𝑸𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎 ∗ 𝑯𝒗
Latent Energy is equal to change in mass flow rate

of water multiplied by the heat of vaporization.
𝑄 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 1076
Step 2: 𝒎 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ .075 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑳𝑩
Find the mass flow rate of water in air, using the specific volume of air and the specific humidity.
𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
. 075 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 60°𝐹/58°𝐹 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑖𝑛
60 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
∆𝑊 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Step 3: 𝑸𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟎 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴
Consolidated constants.
(2) ∆𝑾𝑮𝑹 : Change in grains of water vapor per pound of dry air.
Step 1: 𝑸𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎 ∗ 𝑯𝒗
Latent Energy is equal to change in mass flow rate of water multiplied by the heat of
vaporization.
𝑄 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 1076
Step 2: 𝒎 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ .075 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑮𝑹 ∗
Find the mass flow rate of water in air, using the specific volume of air and the specific humidity.
𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
. 075 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 60°𝐹 𝐷𝐵/58°𝐹 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑖𝑛
60 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
∆𝑊 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
1 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
7000 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
Step 3: 𝑸𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑮𝑹 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴
Consolidated constants.
Exam Tip: Ensure that these quick equations can be used, know the signs.
In most cases, the test taker will be able to use the quick equations shown as part of
the exam guide, but it is still important to understand where these quick equations
come from. In the event that the exam provides a non-standard condition, the test
taker should be able to rapidly move from the quick equation back to the original roots
[Step 1]. Certain signs include, (1) The exam states the density of the air in question,
(2) the exam gives hint to extreme temperatures outside of the norm, or (3) the exam
indicates a non-standard pressure. For the purposes of this exam, it is assumed that
standard conditions are used. With your understanding of the derivation of the quick
conditions and standard conditions, feel confident that you will be able to solve similar
type problems at differing conditions.
On a Psychrometric Chart, latent heating and cooling is shown as a vertical line. Latent heating
or humidification is shown as an upward movement and latent cooling or dehumidification is
shown as a downward movement.
Figure 15: Latent heating and cooling/ humidification and dehumidification
Quantifying latent movement on the psychrometric chart is best described through the use of an
example problem.
Example Problem - Latent Heating, Humidification
Background: 1,000 CFM of dry air at 66°F DB/30% Relative Humidity, passes through a
humidifier that provides 12,000 Btu/h of latent heat to the air, assume that 100% of the air is in
contact with the humidifier (bypass factor = 0). Assume a constant density of 0.075 lb/ft3.
Question: What are the final conditions of the air? Dry bulb, wet bulb, relative humidity,
humidity ratio?
Solution: The humidifier will only provide latent heating of the air; therefore the following
equation can be used:
𝑸𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟎 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴

𝐵𝑡𝑢
12,000 𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟎 ∗ ∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 ∗ 𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
ℎ
∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 .0025 𝑊 𝑊
At 66°F, 30% RH, the humidity ratio is 0.0041 lbw/lbd. Solve for the final humidity ratio.
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
. 0025 𝑊 .0041 ⇒ 𝑊 .0066
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
We now know the final humidity ratio and since the air has only undergone latent heating, there
is no change in dry bulb temperature, dry bulbs are equal 𝑇 , 𝑇 , . In order to get
the final conditions of the air, the psychrometric chart must be used. Knowing two values allows
the other 5 properties to be determined. See the figure below.
Figure 16: Latent heating, humidification example
2.2.3 TOTAL HEATING/COOLING

When both latent and sensible heating/cooling occurs, the total load is the sum of the latent and
cooling loads.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ ℎ ℎ
The total heat equation can be calculated using enthalpy with the following general equation.
𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎 ∗ ∆𝒉
𝒉
∆ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
For standard temperature and pressure conditions, the equation simplifies to the following.
𝑓𝑡3 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 60
𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝑩𝒕𝒖
𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟒. 𝟓 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝒉
𝒉
Figure 17: Total cooling/heating is calculated as the sum of latent and sensible cooling/heating
or the difference in enthalpy times the mass flow rate.
2.2.3 SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO

The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is used when there is diagonal movement on the psychrometric
chart. Diagonal movement would indicate both sensible heating/cooling and latent heating/
cooling. SHR is defined as the ratio of sensible heat to total heat.
𝑆𝐻𝑅
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is used in HVAC to describe the ratio of the sensible space
cooling to total cooling required for a space. Typically, there will be more sensible cooling
required than latent cooling. On the psychrometric chart it describes the slope of the line as
shown in the figure below. If the ratio is known, this slope can also be plotted using the
compass provided with the psychrometric chart. This slope is a tool to finding the final air
conditions due to the cooling or heating loads.
Figure 18: Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)
In order to determine the sensible heat ratio, you must be able to determine the total amount of
heat and the sensible heat through the use of a psychrometric chart. As a reminder, the
sensible, latent, and total heats can be found with the following simplified equations for standard
temperature and pressure conditions.
𝑄 1.08 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑄 4,840 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 - or - 𝑄 0.69 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑄 4.5 ∗ ∆h ∗ CFM
In air conditioning, sensible heat ratios range from 0.60 to 0.99, where 0.60 type buildings
include spaces with high humid outside air loads and 0.99 type buildings include computer
rooms/server rooms with high sensible loads and limited outside air and other latent loads.
Example: Calculate the sensible heat ratio for the following problem:
Problem: Discharge air at 55°F DB/53°F WB from a coil enters a space with both sensible
heating and latent heating. The following space conditions of the air are 75°F DB/50% Relative
Humidity.
Solution: In this problem, the starting condition is the supply air at 55°F DB/53°F WB. Then,
sensible and latent heat is picked up from the load in the space, which raises the temperature to
its final condition: 75°F DB/50% RH. These conditions are plotted on the psychrometric chart.
The sensible heat ratio is calculated as the sensible heat divided by the total heat. You can find
the sensible and total heats individually with the following equation:
𝑄 1.08 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
SHR
Q 4.5 ∗ ∆h ∗ CFM
Or, you can realize that 𝑄 𝑚 ∗ ∆ℎ applies for all heat equations, whether sensible, latent, or
total. The mass flow rate does not change, so simplify the equations using only enthalpies.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ 𝛥ℎ 𝛥ℎ
SHR
Q 𝑚 ∗ 𝛥ℎ 𝛥ℎ
During the exam, you should use whichever approach is fastest.
STEP 1: Find initial (1) and final (3) air conditions

(1) 55°F DB/ 53°F WB, (3) 75° F DB/50% RH
STEP 2: Show sensible change, with a horizontal
movement right from (1)  (2).
STEP 3: Show latent change, with vertical movement from
(2)  (3).
STEP 4: Calculate total, sensible and latent heat changes
per pound of air.
Q 4.5 ∗ CFM ∗ h h = 1.3 Btu/lb.
Q 4.5 ∗ CFM ∗ h h = 4.8 Btu/lb.
Q 4.5 ∗ CFM ∗ h h = 6.1 Btu/lb.
STEP 5: Calculate sensible heat ratio
𝐡𝟐 𝐡𝟏 𝟒. 𝟖
𝐒𝐇𝐑 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖
𝐡𝟑 𝐡𝟏 𝟔. 𝟏
Figure 19: Sensible Heat Ratio Example
2.2.4 MIXING OF TWO AIR STREAMS

A common skill is determining the output conditions of the mixture of two air streams. The
important concept to first understand is that the output conditions of the mixed airstream will be
most similar to the air stream that has the most volumetric flow rate.
For example, if 2,000 CFM of 80°F DB/65°F WB is mixed with 100 CFM of 50°F DB/45°F WB,
then the resulting mixed air conditions will be most similar to the 80°F DB/65°F WB air. This
seems obvious but often times in test situations, the test taker may forget the obvious and
simply rely on the calculations, which can be mistakenly entered into a calculator. This
realization, will give the engineer an insight into the most probable answer of the four possible
choices.
The second concept is that the dry bulb and humidity ratios change linearly. For example, if
2,000 CFM of 80°F DB is mixed with 2,000 CFM of 50°F DB, then the resulting temperature will
be located equally in between 80°F DB and 50°F DB. The resulting temperature will be 65°F
DB.
For example, if 3,000 CFM of 80°F DB is mixed with 1,000 CFM of 50°F DB, then the resulting
temperature will be 72.5°F DB, corresponding to the location on the graph indicated by 75% of
the total mixture is from 80°F DB air.
Refer to the following graph for more information.
Figure 20: Mixing of two airstreams
Once an understanding of the graph is shown, then the following equations can be used.
T , T , ∗% T , ∗%
T , ∗ CFM T , ∗ CFM
T ,
CFM CFM
This linear relationship for dry bulb temperatures is also true for humidity ratios and enthalpies,
as shown in the following equations.
Humidity Ratio Mixing Equation
W W ∗% W ∗%
W ∗ CFM W ∗ CFM
W
CFM CFM
Enthalpy Mixing Equation
h h , ∗% h ∗%
h ∗ CFM h ∗ CFM
h
CFM CFM
This is also known as the lever rule. Realize that this rule does not apply to wet bulb and
relative humidity properties.
2.3 EQUIPMENT & PSYCHROMETRICS

The next section focuses on the effects of various HVAC equipment on air. There may be some
overlap between this section and the Equipment & Components section.
2.3.1 (A) COOLING COIL

A cooling coil will provide sensible movement towards the left, until the air becomes completely
saturated. After the air becomes completely saturated, it can no longer hold any water and
water will be removed. This is shown by movement along the 100% saturation curve. The
movement will be stopped at the apparatus dew point (ADP). This point is defined by the HVAC
engineer. In the Equipment & Components section, two more terms will be introduced called
the bypass factor and contact factor. This is a way to show the coil efficiency. If the coil is
100% efficient then all of the entering air will leave at the ADP.
Figure 21: This figure shows a cooling coil movement on the psychrometric chart. The
movement is shown as (A) in blue.
The first movement to the left is completely sensible, so there is no change in the humidity ratio.
The next movement consists of both sensible and latent cooling.
2.3.2 (B) HEATING COIL
A heating coil will only provide sensible movement on the psychrometric chart. A heating coil
can be a hot water coil, steam coil or electric coil. The steam and water coils must be
completely contained so that there is no way for any moisture to enter the airstream. Since no
moisture can enter the airstream, the movement on the psychrometric chart is completely
horizontal. There is no change to the humidity ratio.
Figure 22: This figure shows a heating coil movement on the psychrometric chart. The
movement is shown as (B) in green.
2.3.3 (C) AIR WASHER WITH WATER TEMPERATURE BELOW DEW POINT
An air washer provides direct contact between water and the air. The movement on the
psychrometric chart will be dependent on the temperature of the water. The water temperature
can be represented as 100% saturation on the psychrometric chart.
In this scenario, moisture is transferred from the air to the water. Since the water is cooler than
the air, the air will also lose sensible heat. This is shown as the lower dry bulb and also the
horizontal movement towards the left.
There are two other scenarios that you should also envision from this graph. The first is when
the water temperature is the same as the dew point of the air. When this is the case, there will
only be horizontal movement. The dry bulb will be lowered, but the humidity ratio will not
change.
Figure 23: In this figure the movement is towards the 100% saturated water temperature.
However, the movement is stopped at the new dry bulb line. Since the water temperature is so
low, moisture is actually being removed from the air.
The second scenario is when the water temperature is greater than the dew point of the air.
There will be an upward, left movement, so the air will gain moisture. The exact movement will
depend on the water temperature, but one such temperature that you should know is shown in
the next section.
2.3.4 (D) AIR WASHER WITH WATER TEMPERATURE EQUAL TO WET BULB
When the water temperature is the same temperature as the air wet bulb, there will be an
upward left movement. Since the wet bulb temperature lines, nearly lines up with the enthalpy
lines. This movement is often called adiabatic, meaning there is no change in enthalpy. The
latent heat that is gained by the air is equal to the amount of sensible heat that is lost by the air.
Figure 24: Adiabatic movement occurs when the water temperature is equal to the wet bulb of
the air.
2.3.5 (E) AIR WASHER WITH WATER TEMPERATURE ABOVE WET BULB
An air washer with water temperature above the wet bulb temperature of the air will have an
upward left or upward right movement. A cooling tower will often operate with this same type of
movement. In a cooling tower, latent heat is transferred to the air and latent heat is lost by the
water. This causes water to evaporate into the air and for the water temperature to drop.
Figure 25: A cooling tower or air washer with the water temperature greater than the wet bulb
temperature of the air, will cause an upward left or upward right movement. Moisture will be
transferred to the air. Depending on the water temperature, sensible heat could be transferred
to the air or from the air to the water.
2.3.7 (F) STEAM HUMIDIFIER

In a steam humidifier, the water has already been vaporized. The movement on a
psychrometric chart will be dependent on the amount of sensible heat and latent heat contained
in the steam. This is similar movement as shown in the sensible heat ratio section. In the
sensible heat ratio section, movement was determined by the sensible heat ratio protractor. On
that same protractor is another set of tick marks for the ratio of the change in enthalpy of the dry
air to the change in humidity ratio.
∆ℎ 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢
∆𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
These tick marks show how total heat and latent heat are added to the air. The 0 value
corresponds to no change in enthalpy, even though moisture may be added. The movement
follows the constant enthalpy lines. Even though you add in moisture (latent heat), you are
losing the same amount of sensible heat, which causes no change in enthalpy.
In the example below, steam is added at a rate of 1,100 Btu/lbw. This value is equal to the
enthalpy of the steam that is injected into the air, and can be found in the steam tables using the
given steam conditions. You can think of it as all the energy of the steam is being added to the
air.
Figure 26: Since steam is 100% moisture, then you can use the hg value of the steam with this
protractor. The hg value is the amount of enthalpy in the steam per pound of moisture. The
typical values will be around 1,100 Btu/lbw.
2.3.6 (G) DESICCANT/CHEMICAL DEHUMIDIFIER

A desiccant dehumidifier uses a chemical like a desiccant to attract moisture. The desiccant will
adsorb moisture. Adsorb means that the moisture molecules will sit on the outside surface of
the desiccant. This serves as a distinction between the absorb team, which means that the
molecules are taken into the desiccant. You can think of adsorption as a method of attraction
like a magnet.
In a desiccant dehumidifier, the temperature of the desiccant will determine the path of the air.
You know that the dehumidifier will remove moisture, but the downward angle will depend on
the temperature of the desiccant. The 0%, dry air x-axis will be the direction that the air will
move on the psychrometric chart.
Figure 27: After air passes through a desiccant or chemical dehumidifier, moisture will be
removed from the air. This is shown as a downward movement on the psychrometric chart.
Depending on the temperature of the desiccant, will determine whether sensible heat is gained
or lost or remains the same.
There is also a scenario in which the air movement occurs adiabatically. This occurs when the
enthalpy of the air lines up with the enthalpy of the desiccant temperature.
3.0 DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS

Standard psychrometric charts are for sea level and assumes that the density of air is roughly
0.075 lb/ft3. At higher elevations, the atmospheric pressure drops, this decreases the density of
air. Since the density of air decreases, the mass flow rate of air will decrease for the same
volumetric flow rate from sea level to a higher elevation. This means that the amount of energy
transferred at a higher elevation will be less than at sea level for the same volumetric flow rate
(CFM).
Do not use the quick and easy key equations for higher elevations. The values assume the
standard density. In order to complete the psychrometric problems at higher elevations, you
must use the following equations and your NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for the
density, specific heat and latent heat of vaporization values. If only the density changes, the
density factor can be used to quickly adjust the quick equations for a given elevation. This data
can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook during the exam.
Sensible Heat Equation at all Conditions

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝜌 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ𝑟
∆𝑇 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ;𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 ∗ ℉
Latent Heat Equation at all Conditions

𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 𝜌 ∗ ∆ℎ ∗ 60
∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ𝑟
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
∆𝑊 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
∆ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ;
Total Heat Equation at all Conditions

𝑚𝑖𝑛
Q 𝜌 ∗ 60 ∗ ∆h ∗ CFM
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
ℎ𝑟
∆h 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑙𝑏
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ;
𝑓𝑡
Quick Equations at Standard Temperature, Revised for Density
Q ,@ DF ∗ 4.5 ∗ CFM ∗ ∆h
Q ,@ DF ∗ 1.1 ∗ CFM ∗ ∆T
Q ,@ DF ∗ 4840 ∗ CFM ∗ ∆W
𝜌 𝜌
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐷𝐹 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜌@ 0.075 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡
To calculate the atmospheric pressure at various elevations above sea level, the following
equation can be used.
.
𝑃@ 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑃 ∗ 1 6.875 ∗ 10 ∗ 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
The movement on the psychrometic charts provided for higher elevations will follow the same
movements as the standard sea level chart.

4.1 PROBLEM 1 - NAVIGATING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Background: The return air temperature to an air conditioning coil is 80°F DB and 65% Relative
Humidity. Assume pressure = 1 atm.
Problem: What is the Enthalpy ?
(a) 45
(b) 40
(c) 35
(d) 30
Problem: What is the Humidity Ratio ?
(a) .014
(b) .012
(c) .010
(d) .008
Problem: What is the Wet Bulb (F°)?
(a) 80° F
(b) 75° F
(c) 71° F
(d) 65° F
Problem: What is the Specific Volume ?
(a) 11
(b) 12
(c) 13
(d) 14
4.2 PROBLEM 2 - CONDENSATION ON SURFACES

Background: Condensation occurs on windows, when moist air comes into contact with a cold
window. This often occurs when windows cool during the night then moist air during the
morning comes into contact with the window. Assume pressure = 1 atm.
Problem: At which of the following below conditions will condensation occur at the exterior of
the window.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
4.3 PROBLEM 3 - CHANGE IN ENTHALPY/HUMIDITY RATIO

Background: Air returns from a conditioned space at 80°F/60% relative humidity and is cooled
at an air handling unit down to 55°F DB/ 54°F WB. The air handling unit has no outside air
mixing.
Problem: Determine the enthalpy change and the change in humidity ratio.
Enthalpy Change :
(a) 11.1
(b) -11.1
(c) 15.5
(d) -15.5
Humidity Ratio Change :
(a) .004
(b) -.004
(c) .010
(d) -.010
4.4 PROBLEM 4 - AIR MIXTURES

Background: Return air is often mixed with outside air prior to entering an air handler, where it
is then cooled/heated to the appropriate air delivery temperature.
Problem: Determine the mixed air condition of the following.
1,000 CFM return air at 78°F DB/54% Relative Humidity is mixed with 1,000 CFM outside air at
88°F DB/70% Relative Humidity, what is the resulting state of air?
(a) 80°F DB/54% Relative Humidity
(b) 83°F DB/70% Relative Humidity
(c) 83°F DB/64% Relative Humidity
(d) 86°F DB/54% Relative Humidity
4.5 PROBLEM 5 - ELECTRIC HEATER

Background: Electric heaters are placed in air conditioning systems to raise the dry bulb
temperature of air. 2,000 CFM of air at 55°F DB/53°F DB is passed through a 36,000 Btuh
heater. Assume the heater is 100% efficient. Assume a density of 0.075 lb/ft^3. What are the
resulting air conditions?
(a) 70°F DB/55% Relative Humidity
(b) 71.4°F DB/49% Relative Humidity
(c) 72.5°F DB/45% Relative Humidity
(d) 73.6°F DB42% Relative Humidity
4.6 PROBLEM 6 - COOLING COIL

Background: Cooling coils in air conditioning systems serve as a source of both latent and
sensible cooling, if the apparatus dew point of the cooling coil is below the dew point of the
entering air. 1,000 CFM of air at 78°F DB/60% relative humidity enters a cooling coil with a
sensible capacity of 24,000 Btuh and a total cooling capacity of 40,000 Btuh, assume the
cooling coil is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?
(a) 56.2°F DB/95% Relative Humidity
(b) 62.6°F DB/87.1% Relative Humidity
(c) 64.8°F DB/89.0% Relative Humidity
(d) 68.1°F DB/92.1% Relative Humidity
4.7 PROBLEM 7 – RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Background: This question is meant to test your understanding of the concept of relative
humidity without the use of a psychrometric chart. Quickly rank the following states of air from
Highest Relative humidity to lowest relative humidity.
a) 75° F DB/60° F WB
b) 75° F DB/63° F WB
c) 40° F DB/39° F WB
d) 87° F DB/20° F WB
4.8 PROBLEM 8 – SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO

Background: 2,000 CFM of air leaves a coil at 55°F DB/53°F WB. The air enters the space with
sensible and latent loads. The resulting temperature in the space is 75°F DB/63°F WB. What is
the sensible heat ratio?
(a) 0.7
(b) 0.75
(c) 0.8
(d) 0.85
4.9 PROBLEM 9 - ENTHALPY WHEEL

Background: An enthalpy wheel is used to transfer energy (enthalpy) from one air stream to
another. 2,000 CFM of air leaving a building at 80°F DB/69°F WB is used to pre-cool and pre-
dehumidify 2,000 CFM of air at 87°F DB/75°F WB prior to the air entering the building HVAC
system. Assume the enthalpy wheel is 80% effective. What is the resulting temperature of the
air entering the building HVAC system after the enthalpy wheel?
80°F DB/ 69°F WB
Air leaving bldg.
87°F DB/ 75°F WB
Air entering bldg.

??°F DB/ ??°Btu/lb
(a) 80°F DB/32.5 Btu/lb
(b) 81.4°F DB/34.2 Btu/lb
(c) 85.6°F DB/35.8 Btu/lb
(d) 87°F DB/37.1 Btu/lb
5.0 SOLUTIONS
5.1 SOLUTION 1 - NAVIGATING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Problem: What is the Enthalpy ?
(c) 35
Problem: What is the Humidity Ratio ?
(a) .014
Problem: What is the Wet Bulb (°F)?
(c) 71°F
Problem: What is the Specific Volume ?
(d) 14
5.2 SOLUTION 2 – CONDENSATION ON SURFACES.

(A) Given 55 °F DB, .007 ? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew
point of the air is approximately 47°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 50°F, then no
condensation will occur.
Answer: No.
(B) Given 60°F DB, 20 ? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of
the air is approximately 41°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 52°F, then no
condensation will occur.
Answer: No.
(C) Given 80 °F DB, 60°F WB? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of the
air is approximately 45.5°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 40°F, then condensation will
occur.
Answer: Yes.
(D) Given 75 °F DB, 50% RH? Using the psychrometric chart, we find that the dew point of the
air is approximately 55°F DB. If the temperature of the window is 56°F, then no condensation
will occur.
Answer: No.
5.3 SOLUTION 3 - CHANGE IN ENTHALPY/HUMIDITY RATIO
Enthalpy Change :
∆𝒉 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
From psychrometric chart, 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔 ; 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 33.7 ;
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
∆𝒉 𝒉𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Answer - (b) –11.1
Humidity Ratio Change :
∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 𝑾𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
From psychrometric chart, 𝑾𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 . 𝟎𝟎𝟗 ; 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 .013 ;
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

∆𝑾𝑳𝑩 𝑾𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 . 𝟎𝟎𝟒
Answer - (b) –.004
5.4 SOLUTION 4 - AIR MIXTURES

Background: Return air is often mixed with outside air prior to entering an air handler, where it
is then cooled/heated to the appropriate air delivery temperature.
1,000 CFM of 88°F DB/70% rel hum; 1,000 CFM of 78°F DB/54% rel hum
88 , ∗ 1,000 78 , ∗ 1,000
T ,
1,000 1,000
166,000
T , 83 ℉ DB
2,000
Next, plot the conditions on the psychrometric chart in order to determine the relative humidity of
the mixed condition. Plot the two entering conditions and connect the two points with a line.
The mixed condition is found at the intersection of the mixed dry bulb temperature and the line
connecting the two entering conditions.
Answer - (c) 83°F DB/64% Relative Humidity
5.5 SOLUTION 5 - ELECTRIC HEATER
The electric heater only provides sensible heat, thus the following equation can be used:
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
36,000 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 2000
ℎ
∆𝑇 16.4F
T 55F 𝐷𝐵 16.4 71.4F 𝐷𝐵
Since only one of the possible solutions as the temperature 71.4 °F DB, then this must be the
correct answer. The final condition is shown at the intersection of the 71.4 F line and the
horizontal rightward moving line [sensible heating].
Answer - (b) 71.4°F DB/49% Relative Humidity
5.6 SOLUTION 6 - COOLING COIL
Background: Cooling coils in air conditioning systems serve as a source of both latent and
sensible cooling, if the apparatus dew point of the cooling coil is below the dew point of the
entering air. 1,000 CFM of air at 78°F DB/60% relative humidity enters a cooling coil with a
sensible capacity of 24,000 Btuh and a total cooling capacity of 40,000 Btuh, assume the
cooling coil is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?
Since the cooling coil provides both sensible and latent cooling, both the sensible and latent
heat equations must be used. First the sensible heat equation to determine the dry bulb
temperature and second the total heat equation to determine the exit enthalpy.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
24,000 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 1000
ℎ
∆𝑇 21.8F
T 78F DB 21.8 56.2F DB
𝑄 4.5 ∗ ∆𝐻 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
40,000 4.5 ∗ ∆𝐻 ∗ 1000
∆𝐻 8.89; H 32.25 Btu/lb
H 32.25 8.89 23.4 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏
From the psychrometric chart, 56.2F DB & 23.4 ⇒ 56.2F DB/95% RH
If you use the latent heat equation, instead of the total heat equation then you should get the
same results.
𝑄 4840 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
16,000 4840 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 1000

𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
∆𝑊 .0033
W .0124 lb water/lb dry air
𝑙𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

W .0124 .0033 .00899
From the psychrometric chart, 56.2F DB & .00899 ⇒ 56.2F DB/93% RH
The relative humidity is just slightly off due to the assumptions made with the quick equations,
but it is not a significant enough of a difference.
Answer - (a) 56.2°F DB/95% Relative Humidity
5.7 SOLUTION 7 – RELATIVE HUMIDITY

The state of air with the highest relative humidity will be the air where the wet bulb is nearest to
the dry bulb.
Highest relative humidity = 40° F DB/39° F WB
The state of air with the lowest relative humidity will be the air where the wet bulb is furthest
from the dry bulb.
Lowest relative humidity = 87° F DB/20° F WB
The next two states of air can be distinguished in the same manner. Since the two states have
the same dry bulb temperature, the state of air with the highest wet bulb temperature will have
the highest relative humidity.
75° F DB/63° F WB has a higher humidity than 75° F DB/60° F WB.
Ranking from highest to lowest relative humidity:

1) C 40° F DB/39° F WB ~ 92% Relative Humidity; 0.0048
2) B 75° F DB/63° F WB ~ 52% Relative Humidity; 0.0096
3) A 75° F DB/60° F WB ~ 41% Relative Humidity; 0.0076
4) D 87° F DB/20° F WB ~18% Relative Humidity; 0.0049
5.8 SOLUTION 8 – SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO

In order to determine the sensible heat ratio, the sensible and total load must be found.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
𝑄 1.1 ∗ 75 55 ∗ 2,000 44,000
ℎ ℎ
𝑊 .0081; 𝑊 .0096;
𝑄 4,840 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑄 4,840 ∗ . 0096 .0081 ∗ 2,000 14,520
ℎ ℎ
𝑄 44,000
𝑆𝐻𝑅 0.75
𝑄 44,000 14,520
Answer - (b) 0.75
5.9 SOLUTION 9 - ENTHALPY WHEEL

The enthalpy wheel will be able to transfer the enthalpy from one air stream to the other.
h 38.5 ;h 33.1 ; from psych. Chart.
h , h E h h ; where E effecitiveness
h , 38.5 0.8 38.5 33.1
Btu
h , 34.2
lb of dry air
T , T E T T ; where E effecitiveness
T , 87℉ DB 0.8 87℉ DB 80℉ DB
T , 81.4 ℉ DB
Answer - (b) 81.4°F DB/34.2 Btu/lb
Latent Heating · 17
A
Air Mixtures · 44 M
Air Washer · 29, 30, 31
Apparatus Dew Point · 27 Mixing · 25
Moist Air · 5
C
P
Condensation · 43
Cooling Coil · 27, 45 psychrometer · 6
Psychrometric Chart · 4
D
R
Dehumidification · 17
Density · 12 Relative Humidity · 7
Desiccant Dehumidifier · 33
Dew Point · 13
Different Elevations · 33 S
Dry Bulb Temperature · 5
Sensible Cooling · 16, 34
sensible heat ratio · 23
E Sensible Heating · 14, 16
SHR · 23
Electric Heater · 44 Specific Volume · 11, 42
Enthalpy · 11, 42, 43 Steam Humidifier · 31
Enthalpy Mixing · 27
Enthalpy Wheel · 47
T
H Total Cooling · 22, 34
Total Heating · 22
Heating Coil · 28
Humidification · 17, 20
Humidity Ratio · 9, 42, 43 W
Humidity Ratio Mixing · 27
Wet Bulb · 42
Wet Bulb Temperature · 6
L
Latent Cooling · 17, 34
5 - Heat Transfer
Conduction | Convection | Radiation
HVAC Textbook
Section 5.0 – Principles Heat Transfer

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 Conduction ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Thermal Conductivity ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 U-Factor .......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 R-Value ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Cylinder .......................................................................................................................... 6
3.0 Convection ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Heat Transfer For Pipes ................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Forced convective heat transfer in pipe flow .................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (heating) .......................................................... 10
3.2.2 Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (cooling) .......................................................... 10
3.2.3 Laminar flow inside circular pipe (heating) ............................................................ 11
3.2.4 Laminar flow inside circular pipe (cooling) ............................................................ 11
3.2.4 Other situations ..................................................................................................... 11
4.0 Radiation .......................................................................................................................... 11
4.1 Radiative Heat from an Object ..................................................................................... 12
4.2 Emissivity ...................................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Radiative Heat to Surroundings .................................................................................... 13
4.4 Radiative Heat to Between Objects .............................................................................. 13
4.5 Incident Radiation ......................................................................................................... 14
5.0 Calculating Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .................................................................. 15
5.1 Materials in Series ........................................................................................................ 17
5.2 Materials in Parallel ...................................................................................................... 18
6.0 Thermal Insulation............................................................................................................ 18
6.1 Flat Surface .................................................................................................................. 19
6.2 Radial Geometry ........................................................................................................... 20
7.0 Practice Problems ................................................................................................................. 21
7.1 Problem 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 21
7.2 Problem 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 22
7.3 Problem 3 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 23
Heat Transfer - 1 www.engproguides.com

7.4 Problem 4 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 23

7.5 Problem 5 – Pipe Resistances ..................................................................................... 24
7.6 Problem 6 – Pipe Resistances ..................................................................................... 24
8.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 25
8.1 Solution 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 25
8.2 Solution 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................. 25
8.3 Solution 3 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 26
8.4 Solution 4 – Materials in Parallel .................................................................................. 27
8.5 Solution 5 – Pipe Resistances ...................................................................................... 29
8.6 Solution 6 – Pipe Resistances ...................................................................................... 30

1.0 Introduction
Heat transfer is the topic centering on the movement of heat from one system to the next system.
In this section, the three modes of heat transfer will first be discussed in order to give a
background into the concepts of heat transfer. The three modes of heat transfer are (1)
Conduction, (2) Convection and (3) Radiation. This section leads to determining overall heat
transfer coefficients, which is an important and practical skill and can be used for determining the
resistances of walls and roofs. Following this discussion, this section will delve into the thermal
insulation topic.
It is important to note that this section discusses the basic principles of heat transfer. The
application of these principles and the incorporation of factors to estimate the additional elements
at play in real life situations are further discussed in the heating and cooling load section. The
best resources for Heat Transfer is ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017, Chapter 4 Heat Transfer and
Chapter 23 Insulation.
Heat Transfer
6-9 questions
Conduction Convection Radiation
 U-value  Find convective heat  Radiative heat

 R-value transfer coefficient  Radiative heat
 Overall heat transfer  Convective heat between objects
coefficient
 Temperature
transitions through
materials
 Required insulation
 Conductive heat

2.0 Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer through material(s) in physical contact. The driving
force in conduction is a temperature difference on either side of the material(s). For example, if
the end of a metal rod is placed in a fire, heat will be conducted through the metal rod to the other
end. In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, heat transfer due to conduction is most commonly
calculated for wall and roof heat loads. The outside of a wall or roof is heated by the outdoor
conditions. Then the heat is conducted from the outside of the wall through the wall material and
to the inside of the wall, where the heat is transferred to the space. The formula for calculating
heat transfer due to conduction through a uniform material is as follows:
𝑘∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 ,
𝑡
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 , 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑇 𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℉
𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑙 𝑓𝑡
Figure 1: Conduction through a building wall
The amount of heat transferred is linearly dependent on the difference in temperature between
the inside and outside surfaces of the wall. The conduction equation shows that as the
temperature difference increases, the heat load also increases. The same is also true for the

area available for heat transfer and the thermal conductivity. On the other hand, the amount of
heat transferred is inversely related to the thickness of the wall or roof material.
2.1 Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity for various materials can be found in ASHRAE Handbook –
Fundamentals and in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Book. Thermal conductivity is a
measure of how well a material conducts and promotes heat transfer. Metals are excellent
conductors and thus have a high conductivity. For example, aluminum has a thermal conductivity
of 128 and iron has a conductivity of ~30 . Poor conductors include materials like
∗ ∗℉ ∗ ∗℉
wood (Douglas fir 0.0833 ) and insulation materials (Cellular Glass 0.0275 ; Glass
∗ ∗℉ ∗ ∗℉
Fiber 0.0221 ).
∗ ∗℉
∗
It is important to note that often times, thermal conductivity is given in units of . This value
∗ ∗℉
is a thermal conductivity value per inch thickness of materials. Insulation, masonry, plastering
and wood materials often have thermal conductivity per inch of materials. For example, cellular
∗
glass has a unit thermal conductivity of 0.33 , which means that for an inch in thickness of
∗ ∗℉
cellular glass material the thermal conductivity is 0.33. For 2” of thickness the U-value is halved
to 0.165, as shown in the next section.
Besides thermal conductivity, materials can also be classified by their R-Value or their U-Factors
as shown below.
2.2 U-Factor
U-Factor stands for the overall heat transfer coefficient and it is representative of a material’s
ability to conduct heat. Similar to thermal conductance, a higher U-factor value has a higher ability
to conduct and transfer heat. U-factor is related to thermal conductance by the following formula.
𝑘 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈
𝑡 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑄 𝑈∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇
This equation assumes that U does not vary based on temperature. For purposes of the exam,
this is a safe assumption.

2.3 R-Value
R-Value stands for thermal resistance and it is representative of a material’s ability to resist heat.
The R-Value is the inverse of the U-Factor and thermal conductance, which are measures of a
materials ability to conduct heat. The relationship between the R-Value, U-Factor and thermal
conductance is shown in the following formula.
1 𝑡 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅
𝑈 𝑘 𝐵𝑡𝑢
1
𝑄 ∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑅
This equation assumes that R does not vary based on temperature. For purposes of the exam,
this is a safe assumption.
R-values are typically used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field to describe building insulation
materials. Often times, R-values are shown as a function of thickness, similar to the table below.
Thickness R-Value
1” 5
1.5” 7,5
2” 10
2.5” 12.5
Notice that the unit R-Value is 5 for 1” of insulation. The corresponding R-values for various
inches of thicknesses are found by simply multiplying the thickness in inches by the unit R-value,
refer to the below equation.
𝑡∗𝑅 𝑅
" "
𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑅 " 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑅 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅 " 𝑅 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡"
2.4 Cylinder
The previous equations for conductive heat transfer are based on the material being a flat plate.
For circular materials, the surface area changes as you move radially outward, so the equation
changes. The most common shape encountered in the HVAC/R field after the flat surface is the
cylinder, for pipes. The equation for conductive heat transfer through a cylindrical material is
shown below.

𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 , 𝑘 ∗ 2𝜋𝐿 ∗ 𝑟
ln
𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 , 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑇 𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℉
𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑡
𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ; 𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛
Figure 2: Conductive Heat Transfer through a cylinder
3.0 Convection
Convection is the second mode of heat transfer and is defined as the transfer of heat through the
movement of fluids. In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, convective heat transfer can be found in
heating and air conditioning systems, whenever a moving fluid passes over a surface at a different
temperature.
One of the most common examples of convection is natural convection. As people enter a
building, the lights get turned on and the sun heats the building. These various heat sources
cause the air in the building to get warmer. The warm air is less dense than the air around it and
begins to rise up and out of the building. The empty space left by the warm air is then replaced
by cooler outside air and the cycle continues. This convective heat transfer through the movement
of air is called natural convection. It is referred to as natural because it does not rely on a
mechanical source, like a fan to move the air.

Figure 3: Example of natural convection
Convective heat transfer has a similar equation to conductive heat transfer, except the U-Factor
or R-Value is replaced with the convective heat transfer coefficient. This convective heat transfer
coefficient characterizes the moving fluid by taking into account its viscosity, thermal
conductance, temperature, velocity and it also characterizes the surface that the fluid is moving
upon. The derivation of this coefficient for various situations is not part of the scope of this section
and is more suited to the Thermal and Fluids Depth Exam.
Convective Heat Transfer Equation
𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
∆𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 ℉
This equation is used in the Heating/Cooling Loads section. It is used to determine the convective
heating/cooling load that affects a building.
3.1 Heat Transfer For Pipes

When including the convective heat transfer in pipes with the conductive heat transfer, add
into the denominator of the conductive heat transfer equation for pipes. The resulting heat

transfer (conductive + convective) through pipes is found by the following equation.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠
2𝜋𝐿 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln ln ln
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝟏 𝟏
⋯
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓
Figure 4: Conductive and convective heat transfer through pipe
The following discussion describes how to find the convective coefficient and will most likely not
be on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam, because it is too detailed and not normally encountered
in practice. Please do not spend a lot of time on the following discussion, it is only provided here
in the very rare situation that the PE exam will have one question on the convective heat transfer
in the pipes of a heat exchanger.
3.2 Forced convective heat transfer in pipe flow

To find the convective heat transfer coefficient for fluids inside the pipe, several factors must first
be determined to know which equation to use. The first step in finding the convective heat transfer
coefficient is to find the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces
to the viscous forces. The Reynolds number describes whether or not a fluid is turbulent or
laminar. A higher number implies a turbulent flow, typically above 2,300.
𝐷∗𝑣
𝑅𝑒
𝜈
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;𝜈 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠 𝑠

The second step in finding the convective heat transfer coefficient is to find the Prandtl number.
This number describes the fluid and its ability to store heat and transfer heat through conduction.
𝜇∗𝑐
𝑃𝑟
𝑘
𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ;𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉ ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉/𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜇 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑟
The Prandtl numbers for typical fluids are as follows:
Fluid Pr
Air 0.7
Water 7
Seawater 32 F 13.4
Seawater 68 F 7.2
The final step is the most difficult step and it is to use the Nusselt number using the Reynolds
and Prandtl number. Once solved, the following equations can be used to solve for the
convective heat transfer coefficient.
𝐷∗ℎ
𝑁𝑢 𝐶
𝑘
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,
The value to the right of the equation is a constant that is determined from one of the following
equations depending on the scenario you encounter.
3.2.1 Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (heating)
𝐷∗ℎ
𝑁𝑢 .023 ∗ 𝑅𝑒 . ∗ 𝑃𝑟 .
𝑘
This equation works when the temperature of the wall of the pipe is greater than the temperature
of the fluid. The Reynolds number must also be greater than 2300 to qualify as turbulent flow.
3.2.2 Turbulent flow inside circular pipe (cooling)

𝐷∗ℎ
𝑁𝑢 .023 ∗ 𝑅𝑒 . ∗ 𝑃𝑟 .
𝑘
This equation works when the temperature of the wall of the pipe is less than the temperature of
the fluid. The Reynolds number must also be greater than 2300 to qualify as turbulent flow.

3.2.3 Laminar flow inside circular pipe (heating)

𝐷∗ℎ
𝑁𝑢 4.36
𝑘
This equation works when it is assumed that there is uniform heat transfer through the pipe and
laminar flow. The Reynolds number must be less than 2300 to qualify as laminar flow.
3.2.4 Laminar flow inside circular pipe (cooling)

𝐷∗ℎ
𝑁𝑢 3.66
𝑘
This equation works when it is assumed that the surface temperature of the pipe is constant and
there is laminar flow. The Reynolds number must be less than 2300 to qualify as laminar flow.
3.2.4 Other situations

There are many other types of situations, such as flat plate, external cylinder flow, etc. Each have
their own Nusselt equation. You do not need to memorize these specific situations but you should
be aware of these equations in your references. These equations can be found in the NCEES
Mechanical PE Reference Handbook under the Heat Transfer section.
Once you have the convective heat transfer coefficient then you can use the below equation to
calculate the convective heat transfer.
𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
4.0 Radiation
The third and final mode of heat transfer is radiation. Radiation heat gains for a typical building’s
window or skylight must be calculated with a computer program like Trane Trace 700, Carrier
HAP or a similar load calculation program, because the calculation is iterative and complex.
However, calculations for heat gains from radiation are simplified in hand calculated applications
and it is the opinion of the writer that the simplified equations for radiation are what can be tested
on during the PE exam. Thus only the simplified equations will be discussed in this section and
the subsequent sections.

Radiation is the mode of heat transfer that requires no substance to transmit heat. All objects
above absolute zero radiate or project heat from its surface. For HVAC & Refrigeration the
primary heat gain due to radiation is from solar radiation. Heat is radiated from the sun and
transmitted to a building either by heating up the building envelope or transmitting heat directly
through windows and skylights. These specific examples of solar radiation are described further
in the Cooling Load Calculations part of this section.
𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
This equation is used in the Heating/Cooling Loads section. It is used to determine the radiative
heating/cooling load that affects a building.
4.1 Radiative Heat from an Object

It is possible on the PE exam that you will ask to determine the heat load due to an object in a
space that is emitting heat. Most often the object will be a motor and you should use the heat
output from motor equations. However, if the exam gives you emissivity or area of an object, then
you will most likely have to use the following equations and discussion.
All objects above absolute zero radiate or project heat from its surface. The amount of heat that
is transferred is governed by the surface temperature of the object. The term used to describe
radiation is emissive power.
𝑄 , 𝜎𝐴𝑇
𝑄 , 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 100% 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ ;
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝜎 0.1713 𝑥 10 ;𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑅
4.2 Emissivity
The above equation assumes an ideal, 100% radiative body, also known as a black body.
However, in practice this does not occur. Not all of the energy from the hot object will be radiated
to the atmosphere. Some will be kept in the body. Emissivity is a factor that describes how much
of the radiative energy will be emitted from the object.
𝜀 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

For example, a solar hot water heating panel has absorbing material because of its low emissivity.
The absorbing material does not release heat through radiation. The material keeps the heat
internally. Black asphalt has a high emissivity. It greatly radiates heat to the atmosphere.
The radiation equation is revised to incorporate emissivity.
𝑄 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑇
Emissivity values for common materials can be found in ASHRAE Fundamentals Chapter 23,
Insulation for Mechanical Systems and in the Heat Transfer Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical
PE Reference Handbook.
4.3 Radiative Heat to Surroundings

The below equation is used to calculate the radiative heat transfer from an object to its
surroundings. This is the more common equation used for radiative heat transfer in HVAC
applications.
𝑄 𝜀∗𝜎∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐴 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝜎 0.1713 𝑥 10 ;𝜀 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅 ; 𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅
Figure 5: Radiative Heat Transfer from object 1 to its surroundings at temperature 2.
4.4 Radiative Heat to Between Objects

Radiative heat transfer between objects is less common for HVAC applications, but is provided
for your information. When an object transfers radiative heat to another object, the shape of the
objects will determine how much of the energy can be delivered. This is characterized by the
shape factor, which is a value between 0 and 1. For a shape factor, F12, object 1 is transferring
radiative heat to object 2. A shape factor of 1 is used for an object 1 that is completely enclosed
by object 2, meaning object 2 will receive all the energy. The shape factor will either have to be
given to you or provided in a table. The equation for radiation energy delivered by object 1 to

object 2 is found below.
𝜎∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 , → 1 𝜀 1 1 𝜀
𝜀 𝐴 𝐴 𝐹 𝜀 𝐴
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐴 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝜎 0.1713 𝑥 10 ;𝜀 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅 ; 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 1 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1; 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 2 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 2
Figure 6: Radiative heat transfer between objects 1 and 2, with heat transmission based on the
shape factor, F12.
4.5 Incident Radiation

When radiation is acting on an object, this is called incident radiation or irradiation. When the
radiation hits the object, it can either be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. Absorptivity, 𝛼, is the
fraction that the radiation energy is absorbed into the object. This is the opposite of emissivity,
where radiation is now coming in instead of leaving. Since a perfect black body can emit 100%
of its energy, it can also absorb 100% of the radiation. Therefore, for a black body, absorptivity,
𝛼 1. Reflectivity, 𝜌, is the fraction of the radiation that is reflected back into the
atmosphere. Polished aluminum for example has a high reflectivity. Transmissibility, 𝜏, is the
fraction of the energy that is sent through the object. Clear glass has a high transmissibility and
an opaque wall has zero transmissibility. Since the incident radiation must follow one of these
three paths, the following equation holds.
𝛼 𝜌 𝜏 1
Figure 7: Incident radiation on an object being transmitted, reflected, and absorbed.

These factors are important in defining how much heat energy from solar radiation will be
delivered into a space. Due to the complexity of the calculations involved with these factors, you
will most likely use a table to look up, or directly be given, the radiative heat transfer coefficient.
5.0 Calculating Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

A must have skill for the aspiring professional engineer is to be able to calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient (U-factor) for a wall, roof, duct or pipe. This skill will be described and
explained through the following example.
Figure 8: Overall Heat transfer Coefficient
It is important to be able to follow the flow of heat from the beginning to the end of this diagram
[from left to right]. The diagram shows how the temperature starts from a high temperature of 87
°F down to 75 °F.
(1) The first method of heat transfer is due to convection and radiation. Warm outdoor air moves
across the outer surface of the concrete wall causing the outer surface of the wall to heat up. At
the same time, radiative heat is applied to the wall surface in parallel with the convective heat.
(2) Next the heat travels from the outer surface of the concrete wall to the inside surface.
(3) The heat then moves from the outer surface of the insulation and through the insulation.
(4) Next, the heat moves from the outer surface of the gypsum board and through the board.

(5) Finally the outer surface of the gypsum board transmits heat via convection and radiation to
the indoor air.
In order to find the overall heat transfer coefficient, all of the resistances must be summed. It is
recommended that each method of heat transfer should be converted to its equivalent R-Value in
order to simplify the calculation, because R-Values in series are simply added together.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 … 𝑅
R-Values in parallel follow a different equation which is highlighted below.
1 1 1 1
⋯
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
First, convert all resistances to R-values.
1
𝑅 ,
ℎ ,
1
𝑅 ,
ℎ ,
𝑅 ,𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑.
1
𝑅 ,
ℎ ,
1
𝑅 ,
ℎ ,
Next, notice that the radiation and convection heat transfer modes are arranged in parallel.
Convert these two items to a single term.
1 1 1
𝑅 , 𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
𝑅 , ∗𝑅 ,
𝑅 ,
𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
𝑅 , ∗𝑅 ,
𝑅 ,
𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
Now that all terms are in series, the terms can be summed together.
𝑅 , ∗𝑅 , 𝑅 , ∗𝑅 ,
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 , 𝑅 , 𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
Side note: For simplicity, the HVAC Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook
and the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook define a combined convective and radiative heat

transfer coefficient for indoor and outdoor conditions. This is known as the surface film coefficient
and is based on the direction of heat transfer and typical seasonal conditions. When conducting
building envelope calculations and convective/radiative coefficients are not given, these values
can be used. The revised total R-value is provided below.
1 1
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
ℎ , ℎ ,
Finally, to find the overall heat transfer coefficient (U-factor), simply take the inverse of the total
R-value.
1
𝑈
𝑅
5.1 Materials in Series

The driving force for heat transfer through materials in series is the difference in temperature.
When materials are placed in series, like the way shown in the previous section, the resistances
are simply added. The heat transfer rate through one resistance is the same as the heat transfer
rate through another resistance in series.
Figure 9: If you have materials in series, then the resistances are added and the heat transfer
rates are the same through each resistance.
The total equivalent resistance of materials in series can be found by adding all the resistances
together.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
The heat transfer rate through each resistance is the same.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
In order to calculate the total heat transfer rate, you must take the inverse of the total equivalent
resistance and multiply it by the area and the driving force (difference in temperature).
1
𝑄 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑅

5.2 Materials in Parallel

The driving force for heat transfer through materials in parallel is still the difference in temperature.
However, when materials are placed in parallel, the resistances are not simply added. The heat
transfer rates through each resistance in parallel are added together. Steady state heat transfer
will occur simultaneously in parallel materials (resistances) as opposed to sequentially in series
materials.
Figure 10: Materials in parallel are shown in the above figure with resistances R1 and R2.
Parallel materials can be combined to form an equivalent resistance by taking the inverse of the
sum of the inverse of each material resistance.
The total equivalent resistance of materials in series can be found by adding the U-factors or the
inverse of the resistances.
1/𝑅 1/𝑅 1/𝑅
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
The total heat transfer rate is found by adding up the individual heat transfer rates through each
resistance.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
In order to calculate the total heat transfer rate, you must take the inverse of the total equivalent
resistance and multiply it by the area and the driving force (difference in temperature).
𝑄 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
6.0 Thermal Insulation

Insulation is provided in HVAC & Refrigeration systems on pipes, ducts, walls and roofs.
Insulation for walls and roofs was discussed in beginning of the Heat Transfer section. The
primary purpose of insulation is to limit heat transfer. For example, in chilled water pipes,
insulation is provided to limit heat transfer to the chilled water and to keep the water cold. In hot
air ducts, insulation is provided to limit heat loss to the surrounding areas.
Insulation is characterized by its ability to conduct heat transfer and is rated by either a k-value,
U-factor or an R-value. K-values are often used when rating pipe, duct or equipment insulation

where R-values and U-factors are typically used to describe roof and wall insulation. Please refer
to the Conduction section for more detail on insulation for roofs and walls. This section primarily
deals with insulation for pipes and ducts, specifically being able to determine the insulation
requirements for a pipe or duct, in order to (1) Control Surface Temperature.
Controlling Surface Temperature: One important skill that the professional engineer must attain
is the ability to determine the insulation required to keep the surface temperature of a pipe, duct,
wall, roof or other piece of equipment within a set range. A common problem encountered in the
HVAC & Refrigeration field is determining the required insulation for a chilled water pipe or duct
in order to stop condensation from forming on the surface.
Figure 11: Surface temperature problems
The governing equation for this problem is that the heat transfer from the chilled water pipe or
duct through the insulation and to the outer surface is equal to the heat transfer from the outer
surface to the ambient air.
𝑄 𝑄
6.1 Flat Surface

𝑄 𝑄
Heat transfer in the system is constant.

𝐵𝑡𝑢 ∗ 𝑖𝑛
𝑘
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑄 ∗ 𝐴 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 ℉
𝑡 𝑖𝑛
Where k is equal to the conductivity of the insulation and t is equal to the thickness of
the insulation. K can vary depending on the temperature of the material.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 ℉
𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℎ ∗ ℉
Where h is equal to the surface coefficient of the insulation. This value is a measure of
how well the surface of the material in question is at conducting heat to the ambient
air. The value can increase for higher wind speeds and varying surface and air
temperatures.
The best resource for calculating insulation for mechanical systems is ASHRAE Fundamentals
2017 Chapter 23 Insulation for Mechanical Systems. The above equations can vary based on
the geometry. The flat geometry like in a duct will use the above equations, but pipes will use the
radial geometry equations.
6.2 Radial Geometry

The following equations can be used for radial geometry like pipes. The heat flow from the pipe
surface to the outer surface of the insulation must equal the heat flow from the outer surface of
the insulation to the ambient air.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑇 𝑇 ℉
𝑄 𝑘 ∗ 𝐴 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑟
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉ 𝑟 ln 𝑓𝑡
𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 ℉
𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℎ ∗ ℉
The following equation is the result of equating the above two equations. The area terms cancel
out. The area term is the area of the outer surface of the insulation.
𝑄 𝑄
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑇 𝑇 ℉ 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 ∗ 𝑟 ℎ ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 ℉
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉ 𝑟 ln 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℎ ∗ ℉
𝑟
You can use the above equation to solve for the insulation thickness required to achieve a certain
outer surface temperature on the pipe. The ambient air temperature and pipe temperature are
typically known, along with the thermal conductivity and surface convective coefficient for the
insulation.

7.0 Practice Problems

7.1 Problem 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for the following wall conditions.
a) 0.12
∗ ∗℉
b) .25
∗ ∗℉
c) 3.12
∗ ∗℉
d) 8.7
∗ ∗℉

7.2 Problem 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for the following wall conditions.
a) 0.06
∗ ∗℉
b) .11
∗ ∗℉
c). 21
∗ ∗℉
d) 15
∗ ∗℉

7.3 Problem 3 – Materials in Parallel

A composite wall consists of an outer layer with a conductivity of 100 W/m-°C and an inner layer.
The inner layer is comprised of an area that is 75% material A (k = 25 W/m-°C) and 25% material
B (k = 45 W/m-°C). The inner layer has a thickness of 7 cm and the outer layer has a thickness
of 10 cm. What is the equivalent heat transfer coefficient of the wall? Assume a difference in
temperature of 45 °C and a surface area of 50 m2.
(a) 79 W/m2-°C
(b) 425 W/m2-°C
(c) 145 W/m2-°C
(d) 298 W/m2-°C
7.4 Problem 4 – Materials in Parallel

of 15 cm. What is the total heat transfer through the wall? Assume a difference in temperature
of 45 °C and a surface area of 50 m2.
(a) 50,000 W
(b) 300,000 W
(c) 650,000 W
(d) 1,520,000 W

7.5 Problem 5 – Pipe Resistances

A pipe has an outer diameter of 1.315 inches and an inner diameter of 1.049 inches. The thermal
conductivity of the pipe material is 20 Btu/h-ft-°F. The inner convective heat transfer coefficient
between the fluid within the pipe and the inner pipe walls is 150 Btu/h-ft2-°F. The outer convective
heat transfer coefficient between the outer pipe wall and ambient air is 50 Btu/h-ft2-°F. What is
the overall heat transfer coefficient per length of pipe?
(a) 12 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(b) 42 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(c) 85 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(d) 107 Btu/hr-ft-°F
7.6 Problem 6 – Pipe Resistances

heat transfer coefficient between the outside insulation layer and ambient air is 5 Btu/h-ft2-°F. The
pipe has 2 inches of insulation. The insulation has a thermal conductivity of 0.05 Btu/h-ft-°F. If
the temperature of the fluid within the pipe is 300 °F and the ambient air outside of the pipe is 75
°F, then what is the rate of heat transfer per foot of pipe?
(a) 105 Btu/hr
(b) 671 Btu/hr
(c) 1,743 Btu/hr
(d) 2,990 Btu/hr

8.0 Solutions
8.1 Solution 1 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient is found by first converting all values to R-values.
1 1 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 0.33
ℎ 3 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑡 2 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 6.67
𝑘 0.3 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑡 8 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 0.89
𝑘 9 𝐵𝑡𝑢
Sum up all R-values that are in series.
𝑅 0.33 0.89 6.67 0.8
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 8.69
𝐵𝑡𝑢
The overall heat transfer coefficient is simply the inverse of the total resistance.
1 1
𝑈
𝑅 8.69
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 0.12
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
8.2 Solution 2 - Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient is found by first converting all values to R-values.
1 1 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 0.5
ℎ 2 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑡 1.5 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 10
𝑡 8 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 5.33

1 1 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 0.59
ℎ 1.7 𝐵𝑡𝑢
Sum up all R-values that are in series.
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 0.5 5.33 10 0.8 0.59
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝑅 17.22
𝐵𝑡𝑢
The overall heat transfer coefficient is simply the inverse of the total resistance.
1 1
𝑈
𝑅 17.22
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 0.058
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
8.3 Solution 3 – Materials in Parallel

of 10 cm. What is the equivalent heat transfer coefficient of the wall? Assume a difference in
temperature of 45 °C and a surface area of 50 m2.
First, create a figure to show the heat transfer graphically.
Next, you need to convert thermal conductivity to resistances.
10
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.001
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
100
𝑚 °𝐶

7
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.0028
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
25
𝑚 °𝐶
7
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.0016
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
45
𝑚 °𝐶
Next, combine the parallel resistances.
1 𝑚 𝐶 1 𝑚 𝐶
𝑈 0.75 0.25
0.0028 𝑊 0.0016 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑈 267.9 156.25 424.15
𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶
Convert the previous U-value, to R-value. Then add the outer layer resistance.
1 𝑚 °𝐶
𝑅 𝑅
424.15 𝑊
𝑚 𝐶 1 𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶
𝑅 0.001 0.0034
𝑊 424.15 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑈 297.8
𝑚 °𝐶
(a) 79 W/m2-°C
(b) 425 W/m2-°C
(c) 145 W/m2-°C
(d) 298 W/m2-°C
8.4 Solution 4 – Materials in Parallel

of 15 cm. What is the total heat transfer through the wall? Assume a difference in temperature
of 45 °C and a surface area of 50 m2.
First, create a figure to show the heat transfer graphically.

Next, you need to convert thermal conductivity to resistances.
15
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.00273
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
55
𝑚 °𝐶
10
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.0008
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
125
𝑚 °𝐶
10
𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝐶
𝑅 100 0.00057
𝑘 𝑊 𝑊
175
𝑚 °𝐶
Next, combine the parallel resistances.
1 𝑚 𝐶 1 𝑚 𝐶
𝑈 0.80 0.20
0.0008 𝑊 0.00057 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑈 1,000 350 1,350
𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶
Convert the previous U-value, to R-value. Then add the outer layer resistance.
1 𝑚 °𝐶
𝑅 𝑅
1,350 𝑊
𝑚 𝐶 1 𝑚 °𝐶 𝑚 °𝐶
𝑅 0.00273 0.00347
𝑊 1,350 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑈 288
𝑚 °𝐶
Finally, use the heat transfer equation.
𝑄 𝑈 𝐴 ∆𝑇
𝑊
𝑄 288 50 𝑚 45 °𝐶 648,000 𝑊
𝑚 °𝐶

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 650,000 W.
(a) 50,000 W
(b) 300,000 W
(c) 650,000 W
(d) 1,520,000 W
8.5 Solution 5 – Pipe Resistances

heat transfer coefficient between the outer pipe wall and ambient air is 50 Btu/h-ft2-°F. What is
the overall heat transfer coefficient? What is the overall heat transfer coefficient per length of
pipe?
The heat transfer area changes with the pipe radius. Therefore, the area is kept integral to each
layer of pipe and the composite heat transfer coefficient is taken over a generic area, U*A. The
question is asking for the heat transfer coefficient per length of pipe, so solve for U*A/L.
First, convert all heat transfer coefficients to resistances.
1 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
𝑅 , 0.0067
150 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑅 , 0.02
50 𝐵𝑡𝑢
For the conductivity through the pipe, you need the equivalent thickness of a pipe.
1.315 𝑖𝑛
𝑟 1.315 𝑖𝑛 2
𝑡 𝑟 ln ln 0.1486 𝑖𝑛 0.01238 𝑓𝑡
𝑟 2 1.049 𝑖𝑛
2
0.01238 𝑓𝑡 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
𝑅 , 0.000619
20
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
Finally, add up all the resistances, since all the materials are in series. You need to be sure to
multiply the resistance by the inverse of the applicable area per unit length of pipe.
1
𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 0.5245 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 0.275 𝑓𝑡 /𝑓𝑡
12

1
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 0.6575 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 0.344 𝑓𝑡 /𝑓𝑡
12
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 ℎ °𝐹 1 𝑓𝑡 ℎ
𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 ∗ 0.0067 0.02
𝐴 𝐵𝑡𝑢 0.275 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢 0.344 𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1 𝑓𝑡 ℎ °𝐹 𝑓𝑡
0.000619 0.0843
𝐵𝑡𝑢 0.344 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 ∗𝐴 𝐴 𝐵𝑡𝑢
11.9
𝑓𝑡 𝑅 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 12 Btu/hr-ft-°F.
(a) 12 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(b) 42 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(c) 85 Btu/hr-ft-°F
(d) 107 Btu/hr-ft-°F
Alternatively, you may directly solve for this problem using the heat transfer for pipe equation.
𝑈𝐴 𝑄 2𝜋
𝐿 𝐿∗ 𝑇 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln ln ln
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1 1
⋯
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑟 ℎ 𝑟 ℎ
8.6 Solution 6 – Pipe Resistances
heat transfer coefficient between the outside insulation layer and ambient air is 5 Btu/h-ft2-°F. The
pipe has 2 inches of insulation. The insulation has a thermal conductivity of 0.05 Btu/h-ft-°F. If
the temperature of the fluid within the pipe is 300 °F and the ambient air outside of the pipe is 75
°F, then what is the rate of heat transfer per foot of pipe?
First, convert all heat transfer coefficients to resistances.
𝑅 , 0.029
35 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑅 , 0.20
5 𝐵𝑡𝑢
For the conductivity through the pipe, you need the equivalent thickness of a pipe.
4.2 𝑖𝑛
𝑟 4.2 𝑖𝑛 2
𝑡 𝑟 ln ln 0.1025 𝑖𝑛 0.00853 𝑓𝑡
𝑟 2 4 𝑖𝑛
2
0.00853 𝑓𝑡 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
𝑅 , 0.000853
10
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
For the conductivity of the insulation, you need the equivalent thickness of the insulation.
8.2 𝑖𝑛
𝑟 8.2 𝑖𝑛 2
𝑡 𝑟 ln ln 2.743 𝑖𝑛 0.2286 𝑓𝑡
𝑟 2 4.2 𝑖𝑛
2
0.2286 𝑓𝑡 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
𝑅 , 4.572
0.05
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹
Next, add up all the resistances, since all the materials are in series. You need to be sure to
multiply the resistance by the inverse of the applicable area.
1
𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 2 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 1.0472 𝑓𝑡
12
1
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 2.1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 1.0996 𝑓𝑡
12
1
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2𝜋𝑟 , 𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 4.1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡 2.1468 𝑓𝑡
12
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1
𝑅 0.029 0.2
𝐵𝑡𝑢 1.0472 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢 2.1468 𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 °𝐹 1
0.000853 4.572
𝐵𝑡𝑢 1.0996𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢 2.1468 𝑓𝑡
ℎ °𝐹
2.25
𝐵𝑡𝑢
1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 0.44
𝑅 ℎ °𝐹
Finally, multiply by the driving force, which is the difference in temperature.

𝑄 0.44 ∗ 300 75 100 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡
ℎ °𝐹 ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 105 Btu/hr.
(a) 105 Btu/hr
(b) 671 Btu/hr
(c) 1,743 Btu/hr
(d) 2,990 Btu/hr

C
O
Conduction ꞏ 4
Controlling Surface Temperature ꞏ 19 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ꞏ 15, 25
Convection ꞏ 7
Convective Heat Transfer ꞏ 8
P
E parallel ꞏ 16
Prandtl ꞏ 10
Emissivity ꞏ 12
R
F
Radial ꞏ 20
Flat Surface ꞏ 19 Radiation ꞏ 11
Forced convective ꞏ 9 Radiative Heat ꞏ 12
Reynolds number ꞏ 10
R-Value ꞏ 6, 17, 18
H
Heat Transfer For Pipes ꞏ 8 S
series ꞏ 16
I
Insulation ꞏ 18 T
Thermal Conductivity ꞏ 5
N
natural convection ꞏ 7 U
Nusselt ꞏ 10
U-Factor ꞏ 5

6 - Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Properties
HVAC Textbook
Section 6.0 – Principles Fluid Mechanics

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Fluid Properties .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Density/Specific Volume ................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Viscosity ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity .................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity ................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Temperature ................................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Reynolds Number ........................................................................................................... 7
2.6.1 Laminar Flow ........................................................................................................... 8
2.6.2 Turbulent Flow ......................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Ideal Gas Law ................................................................................................................. 9
2.7.1 Gay-Lussac’s Law ................................................................................................... 9
2.7.2 Charles’ Law ............................................................................................................ 9
2.7.3 Boyle’s Law ........................................................................................................... 10
2.7.4 Avogadro’s Law ..................................................................................................... 10
2.7.5 Gas Constant ........................................................................................................ 10
2.7.6 Ideal Gas Law ....................................................................................................... 10
3.0 Fluid Statics ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Pressure Due To A Fluid .............................................................................................. 11
3.2 Manometers .................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Forces on Submerged Surfaces ................................................................................... 14
3.4 Buoyancy ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.0 Incompressible Fluids ...................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Bernoulli’s Equation ...................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Friction Loss: Darcy Weisbach ..................................................................................... 18
4.2.1 Inner diameter tables of common pipe materials and sizes .................................. 19
4.2.2 Flow unit conversions. ........................................................................................... 19
4.2.3 Inner Area table of common pipe materials and sizes. ........................................ 19
Fluid Mechanics - 1 www.engproguides.com

4.2.4 Kinematic viscosity tables of common fluids at various temperatures................... 19

4.2.5 Pipe Roughness .................................................................................................... 20
4.2.6 Moody Diagram. .................................................................................................... 20
4.2.7 Fittings ................................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Friction Loss: Hazen-Williams Equation ....................................................................... 22
4.3.1 Friction Loss Tables .............................................................................................. 23
4.4 Lift ................................................................................................................................. 24
4.5 Drag .............................................................................................................................. 24
4.6 Pitot Tube ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.7 Venturi Meters .............................................................................................................. 28
5.1 Problem 1 - Reynolds Number ..................................................................................... 31
5.2 Problem 2 - Reynolds Number ..................................................................................... 31
5.3 Problem 3 – Pitot Tube ................................................................................................. 32
5.4 Problem 4 – Venturi Meter ............................................................................................ 32
6.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 33
6.1 Solution 1 - Reynolds Number ...................................................................................... 33
6.2 Solution 2 - Reynolds Number ...................................................................................... 33
6.3 Solution 3 – Pitot Tube ................................................................................................. 34
6.4 Solution 4 – Venturi Meter ............................................................................................ 35

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The fluid mechanics principles section accounts for 3-5 questions. These questions can cover
any of the topics below. Fluid properties describe the density, viscosity, kinematic viscosity,
specific gravity and much more. Other properties are described in other sections of this book.
In order to be prepared for questions on Fluid properties you need to understand what these
properties describe, its units and where to find the properties of common fluids.
Fluid Mechanics
3-5 questions
Fluid Properties
 Density
 Viscosity
 Kinematic viscosity
 Specific gravity
 Reynolds number
2.0 FLUID PROPERTIES
A fluid is a substance that is continually changing its shape when under a shear stress. In
engineering application, fluids include gases and liquids. Gases include air, steam, compressed
air, medical gases like nitrogen, oxygen, etc. and industrial gases like natural gas, ethane,
acetylene, etc. Liquids include domestic water, chilled water, hot water and industrial liquids like
diesel fuel, propane and oil. This section describes the various explicit properties of fluids and
other implicit properties of non-moving fluids.
During the exam you will need to be able to find and use fluid properties to complete many
problems. You should be very familiar with your resources and where to find these fluid
properties. As you go through these descriptions of the important fluid properties, look through
the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. Become familiar with the tables that contain
these properties and recognize the units. The key is to not waste time looking for fluid
properties and to not make mistakes when solving a problem due to incorrect units.

2.1 DENSITY/SPECIFIC VOLUME

The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume, basically how heavy is something in one
cubic foot or one cubic meter. Density is represented by the symbol ρ, and is typically in units of
lbm/ft3 or kg/m3. The density of water at standard temperature and pressure is 62.4 lbm/ft3. As
discussed in the Psychrometrics section, density of air at standard conditions is 0.075 lbm/ft3.
Specific volume is the inverse of density and is measures as a volume per unit mass. It is
represented by the symbol, v, and is typically in units of ft3/lbm or m3/kg.
1
𝜌 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑣
2.2 VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid describes the fluids resistance to flow. There are two types of
viscosities, dynamic (absolute) viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
2.2.1 DYNAMIC (ABSOLUTE) VISCOSITY

Dynamic viscosity, also known as absolute viscosity, is measured in 𝑐𝑃 or centipoises and is
represented by the variable, µ or mu. Viscosity is measured with a device called a viscometer.
There are many different types of viscometers but each typically has the fluid moving
past/through an object or it has the object moving through the fluid. The time of travel will vary
based on the viscosity of the fluid. For example, water has a viscosity of ~1.00 cP (centipoises)
at 68° F, while syrup has a viscosity of ~1400 cP and air has a viscosity of ~.01827 cP.
µ 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑐𝑝
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∗ 𝑠 𝑔 𝑁∗𝑠
𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 µ: 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟
𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑚 ∗ 𝑠 𝑚
100 cP is equal to 1 . The imperial units are and are related to cP by the following
∗ ∗
conversion.
𝑙𝑏𝑚
1 cP 6.72 x 10
𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑠
Dynamic viscosity is also sometimes given in terms of pound-force (lbf). To convert lbm to lbf,
use the gravitational constant, gc. This is a key conversion factor between mass and force for
the English units system.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 32.2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∗ 𝑠

During the exam, it is important to differentiate between lbm and lbf. In general, it is highly
recommended that you always write out your units to avoid making simple unit conversion
mistakes.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∗ 𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∗ 𝑠

1 cP 6.72 x 10 ∗ 2.09 ∗ 10
𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑠 32.2 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
2.2.2 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

The second type of viscosity is kinematic viscosity. Kinematic viscosity describes the ratio of
the fluids resistance to flow (dynamic viscosity) to the fluids density. Kinematic viscosity is
indicated by the symbol, 𝑣 or nu, and has units of 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠 as shown below.
∗
𝑣
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜇 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑣 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Figure 1: Varying liquids and their kinematic viscosities
Viscosities of water at various temperatures is shown below.
Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature Density
Fluid Viscosity Viscosity
[F] [lb/ft3]
[cP] [ft2/sec]
32 Water 1.792 62.42 1.9291E-05
50 Water 1.308 62.41 1.4083E-05
68 Water 1.002 62.32 1.0804E-05
86 Water 0.7978 62.15 8.6259E-06
104 Water 0.6531 61.94 7.0853E-06
122 Water 0.5471 61.68 5.9603E-06
140 Water 0.4668 61.38 5.1104E-06
158 Water 0.4044 61.04 4.4519E-06

176 Water 0.355 60.67 3.9319E-06

194 Water 0.315 60.26 3.5126E-06
212 Water 0.2822 59.83 3.1695E-06
Figure 2: Viscosities for water as a function of temperature
2.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the term used to describe the ratio between a fluid’s density compared to the
density of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1.0.
𝜌
𝑆𝐺
𝜌
As an example, the specific gravity of diesel is found below.
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜌 59.9 ; 𝜌 62.4
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
59.9
𝑆𝐺 0.96
62.4
Specific gravity can also be used to describe the ratio between a gas’s densities compared to
the density of air. Air has a specific gravity of 1.0.
𝜌
𝑆𝐺
𝜌
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜌 0.041 ; 𝜌 0.075
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
0.041
𝑆𝐺 0.55
0.075
2.4 TEMPERATURE
This property is the one most people are familiar with because it is encountered regularly on
thermostats and thermometers. Temperature is a direct indication of the amount of heat in the
fluid. The USCS units used for temperature are Fahrenheit and Rankine. Typical Fahrenheit
temperatures for chilled water (fluid medium used for water-cooled air conditioning) range from
45F to 55F and hot water temperatures range from 120F to 140F. The temperature at which
water boils is 212F and water freezes at 32F. Rankine temperatures are used when it is
necessary to define an absolute temperature scale having only positive values. The conversion
between Fahrenheit and Rankine is shown below. When using equations during the exam,
ensure that the correct temperature units are used.
°𝑅 ℉ 460

2.5 PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid indicates the amount of force per unit area that the fluid imparts on the
system around it. Pressure is measured in units of pound force per square inch 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑖𝑛 . There are two different types of pressure scales, (1) absolute pressure and (2) gauge
pressure. These two pressure scales differ by their 0 reference point. Gauge pressures have a
0-reference point at 1 atm. Thus 0 psig, where the g in psi(g) indicates gauge pressure, is equal
to 1 atmospheric or 14.7 psia, where the “a” indicates absolute pressure. Most real world
applications encountered by practicing engineers will have pressures indicated in gauge
pressure. These include pressures measured at the discharge and intake of pumps and fans
and the pressures measured at other pieces of equipment like heat exchangers, chillers and
cooling towers. The relationship between gauge and atmospheric pressure is shown with the
following equation and figure.
𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑃 0 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Figure 3: Relationship between gauge and absolute pressures
2.6 REYNOLDS NUMBER
The Reynolds number (Re) is used to determine the flow characteristic of the fluid, i.e. whether
it is laminar (smooth) or turbulent (rough). The Reynolds number is a unitless number that is
found by multiplying the velocity of the fluid through the pipe by the diameter of the pipe and
dividing by the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
𝑣∗𝐷 𝜌∗𝑣∗𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒
𝜈 𝑛𝑢 𝜇
There are some variations based on what resource you use as to what values of Reynolds
number describe a certain flow characteristics. The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook use the following values to define laminar and turbulent flow through a pipe.
𝑅𝑒 2,000 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤

2,000 𝑅𝑒 4,000 𝑈𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒
4,000 𝑅𝑒 12,000 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑅𝑒 12,000 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
(Note: to distinguish between velocity 𝑣 and kinematic viscosity 𝜈, kinematic viscosity will follow
with 𝜈 𝑛𝑢 for clarification. Be sure to do all unit conversions so that the Re is unitless.)
𝜈 𝑛𝑢 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚 /𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝜇 𝑚𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚/ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑠
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡
𝑣 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚/𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑡
If a non-circular tube or duct is used, use the following equation to find the diameter, to be used
in the Reynold’s Number calculations. This is called the hydraulic diameter, Dh.
4 ∗ 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐷
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
The wetted permitted is the perimeter of the tube that is in contact with the fluid. For a
rectangle, the wetted perimeter is 2*interior length + 2*interior width. For an open channel, the
wetted perimeter is 1*interior length + 2*height of fluid.
2.6.1 LAMINAR FLOW

The fully developed fluid flow can be characterized as either laminar or turbulent. The way the
fluid flows will determine how the calculations should be performed. Laminar flow is the smooth
movement of fluid, which is characterized by the Reynolds Number indicated above. Since the
fluid moves in a more predictable pattern, these flows are easier to calculate.
For laminar flow, the fully developed velocity profile in a tube or between flat plats can be found
with the following equation, where r is the location along the radius of the pipe or distance from
the center of the flow, R is the inner radius of the tube or the distance from the center of the
plates to the plate, v(r) is the velocity at the distance r, and vmax is the max velocity in the flow.
𝑟
𝑣 𝑟 𝑣 ∗ 1
𝑅
For the following conditions, the max velocities can be found as:
𝑣 2 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠, 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑣 1.5 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠, 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
The discussion of friction losses through pipes with laminar flow fluids are described in the
Incompressible Fluid topic.

2.6.2 TURBULENT FLOW

Turbulent flows, on the other hand, are erratic and have swirls in its flow pattern, causing the
instantaneous velocities to continuously vary. The discussion of friction losses through pipes
with laminar flow fluids are described in the Incompressible Fluid topic.
2.7 IDEAL GAS LAW

Fluid mechanics not only includes liquids but also includes gases. Gases are characterized as
less dense, more compressible and easier to flow than liquids. The ideal gas law can be broken
down into a few relationships between the properties of the ideal gas.
2.7.1 GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW

First, the ideal gases will have a direct relationship between its pressure and temperature. As
the pressure increases, the temperature increases. As the temperature increases, the pressure
will increase. This relationship is called, Gay-Lussac’s law.
𝑃 & 𝑇 → 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
The main assumption that ensures this relationship is that all other things are held the same,
like the volume of the gas. As the gas heats up in an enclosed volume, the gas molecules will
become more excited and will exert pressure on that fixed volume.
𝑃 𝑃
𝐼𝑓 𝑉 𝑉 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
Example: As an example, assume you have an ideal gas in a fixed volume container, at a
temperature of 40 °C and a pressure of 300 kPa. If the temperature is increased to 50 °C, then
what will be the new gas pressure? The main thing here is to convert your temperature to
absolute temperatures.
300 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑃
40° 273 °𝐾 50° 273 °𝐾
𝑃 309.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
2.7.2 CHARLES’ LAW

The next relationship is between volume and temperature. If the pressure is held constant and
the temperature increases, then the volume will also increase. This relationship is called,
Charles’s Law.
𝑉 & 𝑇 → 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

The main assumption that ensures this relationship is that all other things are held the same,
like the pressure of the gas. As the gas heats up in an expandable volume, the gas molecules
will become more excited and will expand its volume.
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑓 𝑃 𝑃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
2.7.3 BOYLE’S LAW

The pressure/temperature and volume/temperature relationships can be combined to the
following equation. Please remember to always convert your temperatures to absolute
temperatures. This relationship is called, Boyle’s Law.
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉
𝑇 𝑇
2.7.4 AVOGADRO’S LAW

Next, the relationship between volume and moles must be established. This relationship is
called, Avogadro’s Law. This law states that equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and
pressure will have the same number of molecules, typically measured in number of moles. If
the volume increases, then the number of moles will increase, based on the assumption that the
pressure and temperature remain constant.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑛 𝑛
2.7.5 GAS CONSTANT
The only additional component you need for the ideal gas law is the gas constant. The gas
constant is defined below and when multiplied by temperature and moles, you will get Joules or
ft-lbf which are units of work.
𝐽 𝑚 𝑃𝑎
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑅 8.314 𝑜𝑟 8.314
°𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙 °𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝐿 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑜𝑟 8.314 𝑜𝑟 8.314
°𝐾 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 °𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑈𝑆𝐶𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑅 1,545
°𝑅 𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.7.6 IDEAL GAS LAW

Combining all the previous laws and the gas constant will result in the ideal gas shown below.
The gas constant is multiplied by the temperature and moles, in order to get power on the right
hand side of the equation. On the left hand side of the equation you have a pressure multiplied

by a volume which is most commonly known as work. The SI unit of work is Joule (J). The SI
unit of power is Watt (W).
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤 → 𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑇
3.0 FLUID STATICS

The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook has a section on Fluid Statics, which shows
several equations. This section will provide more insight and detail into how to use the
equations on the PE exam.
3.1 PRESSURE DUE TO A FLUID

The first concept that you need to understand is that the static pressure at certain points within a
fluid will vary based on the height of the fluid above the point. Static pressure is the pressure
acting upon a body or point due to a fluid, when a fluid is at rest.
For example, in the figure below the pressure at point 5A will be greater than the pressure at
point 2A, which will be greater than the pressure at point 1A. Another concept that you need to
understand is that any container that is open to the atmosphere will have a pressure equal to
the atmospheric pressure at that location acting upon the open parts of the container. For
example, points 1A and 1B, will have a static pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure and if
the location of this container is at sea level, then that pressure will be equal to 14.7 psia. The
next concept that you need to understand is that all points at the same elevation will have the
same static pressure, for example, points 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A and 4B will all be at the same
static pressure. It may be easier to see how 2A, 3A, 4A and 4B at the same pressure, but
maybe not 2B and 3B. It appears that there is not that much fluid acting upon those points, but
you need to think about how 2B, 3B and 4B are all at the same pressure. If these points were
not at the same pressure then the fluid at point 4B would want to move towards point 3B, but
this is not the case because the fluid is at rest.
Lastly, you need to be able to calculate the pressure at each point based on the height of the
fluid acting upon that point. Do not forget to include the atmospheric pressure acting upon the
top of the fluid, if the container holding the fluid is open.

Figure 4: In this figure, all points at the same elevation have the same static pressure. Even
though points 2B and 3B do not appear to have the same amount of water acting upon those
points, they are at the same pressure as point 4 B. An easy way to think of this concept is that if
point 4B was at a higher pressure than point 3B, then the fluid would want to move from point
4B to point 3B, but since the fluid is at rest, then everything at that elevation must be at the
same static pressure.
First, you know that the pressure at the top of the container that is open to the surroundings is
equal to the atmospheric pressure.
𝑃 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖; 𝑃 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Next, the points 2 through 4, have 15 feet of fluid above these points. In order to calculate the
pressure at this point you must convert the weight of the fluid to a force per unit area.
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔 32.2
𝑠
𝑃 & , & , & 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜌 ∗ ∗ 15 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡;
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 32.2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠
If you make the assumption that the fluid is water, then you can calculate the pressure in terms
of pounds per square inch.
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜌 62.4
𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔 32.2
𝑠
𝑃 & , & , & 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 62.4 ∗ ∗ 15 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡;
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 32.2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑓 1 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 & , & , & 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 936 ∗ ;
𝑓𝑡 144 𝑖𝑛
𝑃 & , & , & 21.2 𝑝𝑠𝑖
You can then calculate the pressure at the bottom of the container through the same method.

𝑙𝑏𝑓 1 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 & 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 62.4 ∗ 45 ∗ ;
𝑓𝑡 144 𝑖𝑛
𝑃 & , & , & 34.2 𝑝𝑠𝑖
3.2 MANOMETERS
Manometers are used to measure pressures using a tube and a fluid. A fluid medium is placed
inside the tube, shown in green in the figure below. One end of the tube is exposed to a fluid of
known pressures, indicated as Fluid 3 in the figure below. Typically this fluid is air at
atmospheric pressure. The other end of the tube is exposed to the fluid being measured,
indicated as Fluid 1 in the figure below. The pressure differential between fluid 1 and 3 can be
calculated based on the fluid-medium height difference, using the fluid static principals
explained above.
Figure 5: Manometer used to measure fluid pressure
In the figure above, use the equation, ΔP=ρgh to calculate pressure changes from one point to
another. Starting from point A and traveling to point B of the tube. Using the density of fluid 1,
the pressure difference from point A to point B can be calculated.
𝑃 𝑃 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
Notice that the height at point B is lower than point A, so the pressure will be greater at point B
and therefore the pressure shall be added. Now, traveling up from point B to point C, the
pressure at point C can be found as the following.
𝑃 𝑃 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
If fluid 3 is air exposed to atmosphere, then fluid 3 and therefore point C and D have a pressure
of 14.7psia. The pressure at point A becomes the following.

𝑃 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝜌 𝑔ℎ 𝜌 𝑔ℎ
Manometers can have various configurations, but the principals behind the calculation are the
same. Start at one point and add or subtract the pressures based on the vertical height
difference of the fluid multiplied by the fluid density and gravity.
3.3 FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES

The following topic discusses how to find the resultant force due to the pressures of a fluid when
a flat plat is submerged. The first concept to understand is that the fluid creates a pressure
gradient along the plate, which linearly increases as the depth of the submergence, y increases.
See the figure below for an illustration of the pressure gradient along a flat plate.
Figure 6: Pressure gradient of fluid acting on a submerged surface
The pressure gradient
can be equated to a
single resultant force
acting on the plate.
The magnitude and
the location of this
resultant force, FR,
must be found. The
magnitude of
resultant force, FR,
the moment is taken
about a center of
rotation, 0. Since the
pressure from the
fluid is perpendicular
to the plate, so is the
resultant force. The
Figure 7: Solving for Resultant Force FR along Submerged Flat Plate derived equation for

the resultant force is as follows, where P0 is the pressure at the surface and yC is the distance
along the plate to the centroid of the area.
𝐹 𝑃 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝐴
If P0 is atmospheric pressure and the plate is exposed to atmosphere on both sides, then an
atmospheric force will be pushing back against FR and the equation becomes:
𝐹 , 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝐴
The position of the reactive force will be located at the center of pressure, and not the area
centroid. This is calculated as:
𝐼 ,
𝑦 𝑦
𝑃
𝑦 ∗𝐴
𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
For atmospheric pressure acting on both sides of the surface, P0=0, therefore,
𝐼,
𝑦 , 𝑦
𝑦 ∗𝐴
Where Ix,C is the area moment of inertia, taken about the centroid along x axis. Find the
simplified area moment of inertia equations for typical geometries in the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook under the Basic Engineering Practice Chapter.
3.4 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is defined as how a mass sits in a fluid, it either floats or it sinks. The buoyancy force
is the force equal to the weight of the volume of displaced fluid. The buoyancy force may be on
the exam, but most likely because of how important fluid density is in Thermal & Fluids and how
buoyancy force questions test your understanding of fluid density.
𝐵 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗ 𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵 𝑏𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒; 𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
9.81𝑚
𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑠
When an object is submerged, the buoyancy force is found through the above equation. Notice
that the object’s mass is not in this equation, thus when an object is submerged, the buoyancy
force is only dependent on the volume of the object and the density of the fluid.

Figure 8: This shows an object in a fluid, where the object’s weight is greater than the buoyancy
force. This causes the object to sink.
𝐵 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔
When the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the object, then the object will float.
Figure 9: This shows an object in a fluid, where the object’s weight is equal to the buoyancy
force. This causes the object to float.
𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔
When the buoyancy force is greater than the weight of the object, then the object will rise.
Figure 10: This shows an object in a fluid, where the object’s weight is greater than the
buoyancy force. This causes the object to rise, until it reaches equilibrium, where the object will
float.

𝐵 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔 𝜌 ∗𝑉 ∗𝑔
4.0 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

The HVAC & Refrigeration PE exam focuses only on incompressible fluids and primarily covers
pressure drop & friction loss through ducts and pipes. This discussion on friction loss is
included in the Systems & Components section. This section will cover some basic Fluid
Mechanics topics under incompressible fluids, besides friction loss.
You do not need to study compressible fluids, since this topic is not regularly covered in practice
in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. The Thermal & Fluids PE exam covers compressible fluids,
since compressed air is a common topic in the Thermal & Fluids field.
Incompressible fluids do not occur in the real world. Incompressible fluids were created to
describe a range of fluids, in order to make calculations simpler. The calculations are simpler
because incompressible fluids are assumed. An incompressible fluid is a fluid that does not
change in volume of the fluid due to external pressure. Most of the basic calculations done in
fluid mechanics are done assuming the fluid is incompressible. The approximation of
incompressibility is acceptable for most of the liquids as their compressibility is very low.
However, the compressibility of gases is high, so gases cannot be approximated as
incompressible fluids. The compressibility of an incompressible fluid is always zero.
4.1 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The fundamental equation for incompressible, steady flow fluids, is Bernoulli’s equation, which
essentially says that the energy will be conserved between two points in a system. The fluid
energy will either be present as pressure, kinetic, or potential energy. The total energy in state
1 will equal the energy in state 2 plus any losses due to friction in the fluid.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Figure 11: Illustration of Bernoulli’s Principle. Energy in state 1 is conserved in state 2 in the
form of pressure, kinetic, or potential energy after any losses due to friction.

This equation and its principles are the basis of many equations used in this chapter. The full
equation is written out as follows. The exam and this book will focus on the English units (IP)
version.
𝑃 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝑆𝐼
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃𝑔 𝑣 𝑃𝑔 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝐼𝑃
Notice that the IP version requires the gravitational constant conversion factor, gc, in order to
convert lbf in the pressure units (lbf/in2) to lbm in the density units (lbm/ft3). Since g=32.2 ft/s2
and gc=32.2 (lbm/lbf)*(ft/s2), the g term essentially cancels out to P/ρ.
𝑃 𝑣 𝑃 𝑣
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ , 𝐼𝑃, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜌 2𝑔 𝜌 2𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑖𝑛 , 𝜌 𝑙𝑏𝑚/𝑓𝑡
However, for completeness the gc values will be written out in this book.
4.2 FRICTION LOSS: DARCY WEISBACH

Friction loss in a fluid system, the hf term in the Bernoulli’s equation, is found through the use of
either the Darcy Weisbach equation or the Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy Weisbach
equation is slightly more involved and will be explained below, starting with the equation. The
Hazen-Williams equation is explained in an upcoming topic.
𝑓𝐿𝑣
ℎ 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2𝐷𝑔
𝑓𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ; 𝑓 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ,
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 32.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
For laminar flow through a circular tube, the friction factor is simply found as 64 divided by the
Reynolds number.
64
𝑓 ,
𝑅𝑒
For turbulent flow, the calculations require a few more steps and are discussed below. During
the exam, in order to quickly complete a friction loss question using the Darcy Weisbach
Equation, know where all the necessary tables, graphs, and equations are in the NCEES
Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.

4.2.1 INNER DIAMETER TABLES OF COMMON PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES

The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook has the following tables.
 Schedule 40/80 steel [Pipe sizes to 30"]

 Type K, L, and M copper tubing [Pipe sizes to 6"]
 Schedule 40/80 PVC [Pipe sizes to 30"].
4.2.2 FLOW UNIT CONVERSIONS.

In the HVAC field, volumetric flow rates are typically given in GPM and need to be converted to
cubic feet per second for use in the Darcy Weisbach equation.
1 FT
Multiply GPM by to get .
448.83 sec
Once the volumetric flow rate is converted to cubic feet per second, then simply divide the value
by the inner area of the pipe to find the velocity of the fluid through the pipe.
Exam Tip: To simplify the entire process and skip a couple calculation steps, memorize the
following conversion from volumetric flow of water in GPM to velocity in fps, based on the inner
pipe diameter in inches.
𝑓𝑡 0.409 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀
𝑣
𝑠 𝐷 𝑖𝑛
4.2.3 INNER AREA TABLE OF COMMON PIPE MATERIALS AND SIZES.

Review the pipe inner area tables in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
 schedule 40/80 steel [Pipe sizes to 30"]
 Type K, L, and M copper tubing [Pipe sizes to 6"]
 Schedule 40/80 PVC [Pipe sizes to 30"].
Either use the quick equation above, or provide inner areas in ft2 for ease in finding the
velocities through the pipes.
4.2.4 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY TABLES OF COMMON FLUIDS AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

The kinematic viscosity is used to find the Reynolds number.
Water Kinematic Viscosity

Temperature [F] [ft^2/s]
32 1.924 x 10-5
40 1.664 x 10-5

50 1.407 x 10-5
60 1.210 x 10-5
70 1.052 x 10-5
90 0.823 x 10-5
100 0.738 x 10-5
120 0.607 x 10-5
140 0.511 x 10-5
180 0.383 x 10-5
212 0.317 x 10-5
4.2.5 PIPE ROUGHNESS

Collect pipe roughness factors 𝜀 for common pipe materials, steel, PVC, copper, etc. These
values are listed in the Moody diagram in the NCEES Mechanical PE References Handbook.
Material Roughness (ft)

Steel .0009833
PVC .000005
Copper .000005
Select the roughness factor based on the pipe material, then find the relative roughness factor
by dividing the internal diameter of the pipe. Make sure the roughness factor, 𝜀, and the inner
diameter, D, are in the same units.
𝜀
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷
4.2.6 MOODY DIAGRAM.
The Moody diagram uses the (1) relative roughness factor and (2) Reynold’s number to
determine the friction factor for turbulent flow.
Find the friction factor by locating the intersection of the vertical Reynold’s number line shown in
black and the Relative Roughness factor curves shown in red. Be careful when reading the
logarithmic curves; careless errors can occur here. The 106 line is associated with 1x106. The
next vertical line to the right is 2x106 = 2,000,000 and so forth.

Figure 12: Step 1: Find relative roughness factor, Step 2: Find the intersection of Reynolds
number and relative roughness factor. Step 3: Read corresponding friction factor.
Now, that all the variables of the Darcy Weisbach equation have been determined, simply plug
in the variables into the equation to determine the friction head.
𝑓𝐿𝑣
2𝐷𝑔
4.2.7 FITTINGS
Friction losses at fittings, valves, entrances, and exits can be calculated through two methods,
equivalent length and friction coefficients.
Equivalent Length:
The equivalent length method uses the length of straight pipe that has the equivalent pressure
drop as a fitting. This length is added to the total pipe length, L, in the above Darcy Weisbach
equation. Either the equivalent length will be given to you, or it can be found in the tables
located in the Hydraulics, Fluids, and Pipe Flow Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE
References Handbook. Be sure to practice using the tables in the given format and know how
the equivalent length factors are applied for fitting types other than 90 degree elbows.

Friction Coefficient
The second method is to use the friction coefficient, K-factor, for specific fitting types, entrances,
and exits. Again, the K-factor will either be given to you or can be found in the NCEES
Mechanical PE References Handbook.
𝑣
ℎ , 𝐾∗
2𝑔
The losses due to fittings is added to the losses at the secondary side of Bernoulli’s Equation.
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ ,
4.3 FRICTION LOSS: HAZEN-WILLIAMS EQUATION

The Hazen-Williams equation is a simplified pressure drop equation that is used in the civil
engineering and some mechanical engineering fields. This equation is not accurate for laminar
flow and for extremely turbulent flow. The equation is an empirical formulation, meaning that it
was created based on experiments and curve fit data. This makes this equation very useful for
the typical velocities of 2 to 10 feet per second, because this is the range for which the data fit
best.
The equation is a function of the hydraulic diameter, the material roughness coefficient and the
flow rate. The roughness coefficients for various materials can be found in the Hydraulics,
Fluids and Pipe Flow Chapter in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
.
10.4 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀
ℎ
𝐶 . 𝐷 .
𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 ; 𝐺𝑃𝑀 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ;
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶 𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑒𝑛 𝑊𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝐷 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
As mentioned in the previous topics, the hydraulic diameter is found by taking the cross
sectional area of flow and divided it by the wetted perimeter.
Figure 13: Calculating hydraulic diameter used for non-circular piping.

4𝐴
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷
𝑃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎; 𝑃 𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
4∗ 𝑤∗ℎ 2𝑤ℎ
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 𝐷
2𝑤 2ℎ 𝑤 ℎ
The hydraulic radius is not one-half the hydraulic diameter, it is actually 1/4 the hydraulic
diameter.
𝐴
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑅
𝑃
𝑤∗ℎ 1 𝑤ℎ
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 𝑅 ∗
2𝑤 2ℎ 2 𝑤 ℎ
The fittings, valves, entrances/exits, equipment, miscellaneous components, etc. should be

converted to equivalent lengths and added to the straight run of piping. This total length can
then be multiplied by the pressure drop per foot of pipe to calculate to total pressure drop in the
system.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿 ∗ℎ
Finally, the total pressure drop is plugged into the hf value of Bernoulli’s equation.
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ
4.3.1 FRICTION LOSS TABLES
The simplest method for calculating friction loss is using the friction loss per 100 feet of piping
tables. These tables are based on the Hazen-Williams equation and can be found in the
Hydraulics, Fluids, and Pipe Flow Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
These tables are commonly used in practice, since the velocities are typically in the suitable
range for the Hazen Williams equation. However, this method is limited to the available piping
types presented in the tables and sufficient data for equivalent lengths for the fittings and
miscellaneous components in the system.
The table provides the friction loss based on the flow rate and pipe size. Each table is based on
a specific pipe material and corresponding Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient, C-value.
Simply calculate the total equivalent length of piping in your system, then lookup the friction loss
in terms of ft/100 ft of pipe in the tables and multiply it by the total length to calculate the overall
pressure drop in the system.

𝑥 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿 ∗
100 𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑛, 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠, 𝑒𝑡𝑐;
𝑥 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 100𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
Additional discussion on pressure drops through piping is provided in the Systems and
Components section of this book.
4.4 LIFT
The lift force acts in a direction that is perpendicular to the relative flow. Lift is created due to
the difference in pressure on opposite sides of the object. This is because of the difference in
velocity between the fluid as it passes over the top versus the bottom of the object. If the
velocity is faster on the top of the object, this will result in a lower pressure and vice versa, if the
velocity is slow on the bottom of the object, this will result in a higher pressure. The net
pressure effect will then point upwards.
𝑣
𝐹 𝐶 ∗𝜌∗𝐴∗
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡; 𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦;
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
The coefficient of lift is dependent on many factors, like angle of attack and the shape of the
body. The derivation of this coefficient does not seem applicable to the majority of those
practicing in the Thermal & Fluids field and it is assumed that this coefficient will be given in
these types of problems.
4.5 DRAG
As a body moves through a fluid (air or water), there are resistive forces that act upon the body,
similar to friction. There are two types of drag, surface drag and form drag. Surface drag
depends on the smoothness of the force, the friction factor. Form drag depends on the shape of
the object as in its aerodynamic shape.
𝑣
𝐹 𝐶 ∗𝜌∗𝐴∗
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔; 𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦;
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Similar to the coefficient of lift, the coefficient of drag is dependent on many factors and it is
assumed that this coefficient will be given in these types of problems.
4.6 PITOT TUBE

The next concepts that you need to know for the PE exam are the concepts governing the pitot
tube. There are two equations presented in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook,
the first one is based on Bernouli’s Equation. The variation of Bernouli’s equation that you need
to know for the HVAC PE Exam is that the sum of the static pressure, velocity pressure and
elevation pressure within a duct or pipe is constant throughout the pipe or duct.
𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝑃 , 𝑔 1
𝑣 𝑧 𝑣 𝑧 𝐼𝑃
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑧 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
The units of pressure must be consistent when answering the exam problems. In the HVAC
field, you primarily need to be concerned with fluid pressure in units of feet head and air
pressure in units of inches water gauge.
For the purposes of the pitot tube, the elevation pressure is assumed to be the same. The
elevation pressure is the pressure that changes as the pipe or duct moves up or down. In terms
of energy, this is the potential energy.
Static pressure is the pressure that is acting against the outer walls of the pipe or duct. If the
flow were to be completely blocked by a valve or damper, then all the pressure would turn into
static pressure. If you were to imagine a pressure vessel, the pressure of the fluid within the
vessel acting upon the walls would be the static pressure.
Velocity pressure is the pressure that propels the fluid forward, in the direction of flow within the
pipe or duct. The equivalent energy is the kinetic energy.
A pitot tube will measure two pressures, the static pressure and the total pressure (static and
velocity pressure). The total pressure is called stagnation pressure in the NCEES Mechanical
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Measuring Total Pressure: A pitot tube will create a location of zero velocity, which will
convert the total pressure to just static pressure. The pitot tube is angled directly towards the
flow. This static pressure is then measured with a method similar to the manometer.

Measuring Static Pressure: A pitot tube will create a location where it does not measure
velocity pressure. The pitot tube does this by creating a location where the pressure measuring
component is angled perpendicular to the flow rate. This pressure is then measured with a
method similar to the manometer.
The difference between total pressure (stagnation pressure) and static pressure is equal to
velocity pressure.
Figure 14: This figure explains the pitot tube concept graphically. It is important to note that in
practice, there most likely will not be two separate tubes. The pitot tube device will be one
singular device with two measurement tubes within that one device. One tube will measure
static pressure and the other tube will measure the stagnation pressure (total pressure).
Just to reiterate again, when the pitot tube is measuring static pressure, the velocity pressure
still exists, but the pitot tube cannot pick up the velocity pressure.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 → 𝑃 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
When the pitot tube is measuring total pressure aka stagnation pressure, it is measuring both
velocity pressure and static pressure.
𝑃 𝑔 𝑃 𝑔 1
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜌 𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
Now, you can use those two readings to calculate velocity. Simply subtract the static pressure
from the total pressure (stagnation pressure) reading.

Figure 15: This figure shows graphically how a pitot tube works. In practice, the pitot tube will
look like a single device. One part measures the total pressure and the other part measures the
static pressure. As you can see on the left side of the pitot tube, it is measuring total pressure,
so it acts upon the measuring fluid by a greater amount. The right side of the pitot tube
measures the static pressure, which will be less than the total pressure. The difference is equal
to the velocity pressure.
This is the equation that governs the pitot tube.
𝑃 𝑔 𝑃 𝑔 1
𝑣
𝜌 𝜌 2
Rearrange the variables, to solve for velocity.
𝑃 𝑃
𝑣 2𝑔
𝜌
Now, it is just a matter of dimensional analysis to correctly apply this equation, given the various
pressure measurements that could arise in a PE exam problem. For example, in English units,
the pressure could be given in pounds per square inch. You will also need the density of air or
the gas in question, which can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook or
will be given in the problem.
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑃 2.0 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝜌 0.075 → 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 →
𝑓𝑡
Remember that pressure is given in terms of pound-force and must be converted to pound-
mass with the gravitational constant.
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡

2 ∗𝑔 2 ∗𝑔
𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠
𝑣 2 ∗ 𝑖𝑛 2∗
𝜌 0.075 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑓𝑡

𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
2 ∗ 32.2 ∗ 144 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠 𝑓𝑡
𝑣 2∗ 247,296
0.075 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠
𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
𝑣 497
𝑠
The same process can be done with other units like inches water gauge (in. wg) and Pascals
(Pa).
4.7 VENTURI METERS

In the HVAC field, pitot tubes are primarily used to measure air velocity in ducts. Venturi
meters are used to measure the velocity of liquids like chilled water, condenser water, domestic
water, etc. A Venturi meter operates based on Bernoulli's Theorem. The Venturi meter is
shaped with two different areas that are used to change the velocity of the fluid within the pipe.
As the velocity increases, the static pressure will decrease. So if you were to compare the
difference in static pressure at two points, that difference will be equal to the velocity pressure.
Figure 16: A Venturi meter is installed on a straight length of pipe. The meter consists of a
sharp change in area, which changes the velocity pressure and static pressure. The difference
between the static pressures at points 1 and 2, will lead to the velocity calculation.
First, start with Bernoulli’s Theorem, comparing points 1 and 2.
𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝑃, 𝑔 1
𝑣 𝑧 𝑣 𝑧
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑧 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
You most likely will not have a change in elevation between points 1 and 2, so you can remove
that component. The velocity components can be combined with the conservation of mass
formula. If you assume constant density, then conservation mass will simply become
conservation of flow rate.

𝐴 𝑣 𝐴 𝑣
Next, put Bernoulli’s Theorem in terms of v1.
𝐴 𝑣
𝑣
𝐴
𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝐴 𝑣
𝑣 𝑧 , 𝑧
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴
𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝐴 𝑣
𝑣
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴
1 𝐴 𝑃 , 𝑔 𝑃, 𝑔
𝑣 1
2 𝐴 𝜌 𝜌
𝑃, 𝑃,
𝜌 𝜌
𝑣 2𝑔
𝐴
1
𝐴
The Venturi meter is primarily used to determine liquid flow rate, so the velocity term will be
multiplied by the area. In addition, there will be some real-life adjustments that will need to be
made to the velocity value. This is accounted for by a coefficient of velocity value that is specific
to each Venturi meter at specific conditions. This value should be given to you on the exam and
if it isn’t then you can assume a value of 1.
𝑃, 𝑃,
𝜌 𝜌
𝑄 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔
𝐴
1
𝐴
This equation can also be rewritten in terms of v2 as opposed to v1.
𝐴 𝑣
𝑣
𝐴
𝑃, 𝑔 1 𝐴 𝑣 𝑃, 𝑔 1
𝑣
𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴 𝜌 𝑔 2𝑔
1 𝐴 𝑃 , 𝑔 𝑃, 𝑔
𝑣 1
2 𝐴 𝜌 𝜌

𝑃, 𝑃,
𝜌 𝜌
𝑣 2𝑔
𝐴
1
𝐴
The Venturi meter is primarily used to determine liquid flow rate, so the velocity term will be
multiplied by the area.
𝑃, 𝑃,
𝜌 𝜌
𝐴
1
𝐴
This equation can be rewritten in the same format as shown in the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook.
𝑃, 𝑃,
𝜌 𝜌
𝐴
1
𝐴


5.1 PROBLEM 1 - REYNOLDS NUMBER
A fluid has is traveling at a velocity of 8 ft/sec through a 6” pipe. The fluid has a density of 60
lb/ft3 and has a kinematic viscosity of 1.5 x 10-5 ft2/sec. What is the Reynolds number?
The Reynolds number is most nearly,
(a) 270,000
(b) 540,000
(c) 1,115,000
(d) 3,200,000
5.2 PROBLEM 2 - REYNOLDS NUMBER

A 3” Schedule 80 steel pipe has 100 GPM of 50 F water flowing through it. What is the
Reynolds number?
(a) 78,000
(b) 83,000
(c) 86,000
(d) 92,000

5.3 PROBLEM 3 – PITOT TUBE

A duct with air flowing at 0.075 lb/ft3 has a pitot tube connected to a manometer. The
manometer liquid has a density of 900 kg/m3. The pressure differential is measured as a height
of 4 centimeters. What is the velocity of air in the duct?
(a) 27 m/s
(b) 41 m/s
(c) 57 m/s
(d) 81 m/s
5.4 PROBLEM 4 – VENTURI METER

A Venturi meter has the following diameters, D1 = 200 mm and D2 = 100 mm. A manometer is
connected between the two locations. The manometer has a delta reading of 100 mm. The
density of the manometer liquid is 5,000 kg/m3. What is the volumetric flow rate of water
(density = 1,000 kg/m3) through the meter?
(a) 1.056
(b) 0.194
(c) 0.059
(d) 0.0254

6.0 SOLUTIONS
6.1 SOLUTION 1 - REYNOLDS NUMBER
A fluid has is traveling at a velocity of 8 ft/sec through a 6” pipe. The fluid has a density of 60
lb/ft3 and has a kinematic viscosity of 1.5 x 10-5 ft2/sec. What is the Reynolds number?
𝑉∗𝐷
𝑅𝑒
𝜐
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 ;𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝑣 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠𝑒𝑐 sec
𝑓𝑡 6 𝑖𝑛
8 ∗ 𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑒𝑐
12
𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒
𝑓𝑡
1.5 ∗ 10
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑅𝑒 266,667
The correct answer is (a) 266,667.
(a) 270,000
(b) 540,000
(c) 1,115,000
(d) 3,200,000
6.2 SOLUTION 2 - REYNOLDS NUMBER
Reynolds number?
For this equation use the Reynolds Number equation below:
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 ∗ 𝑑 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝜈
𝑠𝑒𝑐
First find the velocity, which requires the inner diameter of Schedule 80 pipe. Refer to your
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook to find the inner diameter.
𝐷 0.2417 𝑓𝑡
Next find the inner area, which is also shown in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook.

𝐴 0.04587 𝑓𝑡
Next convert GPM to ft^3.
1 FT
100 GPM ∗ 0.223 .
448.83 sec
Next find the velocity.
FT
0.223
V sec 4.86 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.04587 ft
Next find the kinematic viscosity for water at 50 F which is also found in the NCEES Mechanical
𝜈 .0000141 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
Plug the values in to the equation.
4.86 ∗ 0.2417
𝑅𝑒 83,343
. 0000141
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 83,000.
(a) 78,000
(b) 83,000
(c) 86,000
(d) 92,000
6.3 SOLUTION 3 – PITOT TUBE
A duct with air flowing at 0.075 lb/ft3 has a pitot tube connected to a manometer. The
manometer liquid has a density of 900 kg/m3. The pressure differential is measured as a height
of 4 centimeters. What is the velocity of air in the duct?
The first step is to convert the manometer liquid height to a pressure value.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 4 𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 900 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 𝑚 353.16 353.16 𝑃𝑎
𝑚 𝑠 100 𝑚 𝑠
The pressure determined by the manometer is the differential pressure, which corresponds to
the velocity pressure. The velocity pressure equation does not have the gravity constant,
because you are in SI units.

𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 353.16 𝑃𝑎
2
But first, we need to convert the density of air to SI units.
𝑙𝑏 0.453592 𝑘𝑔 35.3147 𝑓𝑡 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 0.075 ∗ ∗ 1.2
𝑓𝑡 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 2 ∗ 353.16 ∗ 588 ∗ 24.3
𝑚 𝑠 1.2 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑠
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 27 m/s.
(a) 27 m/s
(b) 41 m/s
(c) 57 m/s
(d) 81 m/s
6.4 SOLUTION 4 – VENTURI METER

A Venturi meter has the following diameters, D1 = 200 mm and D2 = 100 mm. A manometer is
connected between the two locations. The manometer has a delta reading of 100 mm. The
density of the manometer liquid is 5,000 kg/m3. What is the volumetric flow rate of water
(density = 1,000 kg/m3) through the meter?
Since, no coefficient was given, you can assume the value is equal to 1. But first, you need to
calculate the pressure difference.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 100 𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 5,000 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 𝑚 4,905 4,905 𝑃𝑎
𝑚 𝑠 1000 𝑚 𝑠
Since, you are using SI units, you don’t need the gravity term, but you should do dimensional
analysis to confirm.
⃓ 𝑘𝑔
⃓ 4,905
⃓
⃓ 𝑚 𝑠
⃓ 1,000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑄 𝐶 𝐴 ⃓
⃓ 2
⃓
⃓ 𝐴
1
⎷ 𝐴

4.905 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑄 𝐶 𝐴 2
𝐴
1
𝐴
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 0.10 𝑚
𝐴 0.00785 𝑚
4 4
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 0.2 𝑚
𝐴 0.0314 𝑚
4 4
4.905 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑄 1 ∗ 0.00785 𝑚 2
1
1
16
𝑄 1 ∗ 0.00785 𝑚 10.464 𝑚 /𝑠
𝑚
𝑄 0.0254
𝑠
𝒎𝟑
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟒 .
𝒔
(a) 1.056
(b) 0.194
(c) 0.059
(d) 0.0254

I
A
Incompressible ꞏ 17
absolute pressure ꞏ 7
K
B
kinematic viscosity ꞏ 4
Kinematic Viscosity ꞏ 5, 19
Bernoulli’s Equation ꞏ 17
Buoyancy ꞏ 15
L
C
Laminar Flow ꞏ 8
Lift ꞏ 24
centipoises ꞏ 4
Compressible Fluids ꞏ 11
M
D
Manometer ꞏ 13
Moody Diagram ꞏ 20
Darcy Weisbach ꞏ 18
Density ꞏ 4
Drag ꞏ 24
P
Dynamic Viscosity ꞏ 4
pipe roughness factors, ε ꞏ 20

E Pitot Tube ꞏ 25, 27
Pressure ꞏ 7
Equivalent Length Method ꞏ 21
R
F
Rankine ꞏ 6
Reynolds Number ꞏ 7, 9, 33, 34, 35
Fahrenheit ꞏ 6
Fluid Pressure ꞏ 11
Fluid Properties ꞏ 3
Fluid Statics ꞏ 11
S
Friction Coefficient, K-factor ꞏ 22
Specific Gravity ꞏ 6
Friction Loss Tables ꞏ 23
Specific Volume ꞏ 4
Stagnation Pressure ꞏ 26
G Submerged Surface ꞏ 14
gauge pressure ꞏ 7
Gravitational Constant ꞏ 4
T
Temperature ꞏ 6
H Turbulent Flow ꞏ 9
Hazen-Williams Equation ꞏ 22
V
Venturi Meter ꞏ 28
Hydraulic Diameter ꞏ 22
Viscosity ꞏ 4
Hydraulic Radius ꞏ 23

7 - Energy Mass Balance

Evaporation | Condensation | Dehumidification | Mixing
HVAC Textbook
Section 7.0 – Principles Energy/Mass Balance

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Conservation of Mass ........................................................................................................ 3
3.0 Conservation of Energy ...................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Turbines, Pumps & Compressors: .................................................................................. 4
3.2 Boilers, Condensers, Evaporators: ................................................................................. 4
3.3 Heat exchangers ............................................................................................................ 5
3.4 Mixing ............................................................................................................................. 5
4.0 Evaporation ........................................................................................................................ 5
4.1 Latent heat of evaporation .............................................................................................. 5
4.2 Convert liquid to vapor .................................................................................................... 6
5.0 Condensation ..................................................................................................................... 6
6.0 Dehumidification & Humidification ...................................................................................... 6
7.0 Mixing ................................................................................................................................. 7
7.1 Gas-gas mixing mass balance ....................................................................................... 8
7.2 Liquid-liquid mixing mass balance ................................................................................ 10
8.1 Problem 1 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 11
8.2 Problem 2 – Dehumidifier ............................................................................................. 11
8.3 Problem 3 – Air Mixtures .............................................................................................. 12
8.7 Problem 4 – Condensation ........................................................................................... 12
9.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 13
9.1 Solution 1 - Humidifier .................................................................................................. 13
9.2 Solution 2 - Dehumidifier .............................................................................................. 14
9.3 Solution 3 – Air Mixtures ............................................................................................... 14
9.4 Solution 4 – Condensation ........................................................................................... 14
Energy/Mass Balance - 1 www.engproguides.com

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Energy/Mass Balance accounts for approximately 4‐6 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration
Mechanical PE exam.
This section focuses on the energy and mass balance equations that govern various HVAC and
Refrigeration processes. These processes include evaporation, condensation and mixing. The
important concept to understand is that in each process, energy and mass of the fluid is
conserved, even if the fluid is changing from gas to liquid or liquid to gas.
Energy/Mass Balance
4-6 questions
Evaporation Condensation Dehumidification & Mixing

Humidification

2.0 CONSERVATION OF MASS

Conservation of mass is a law in nature and states that mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, when transfers of states or changes in phases occur in a system, a mass balance
equation can be created to solve for the unknown properties in a system or cycle.
Essentially, the equations are derived from the law that
mass mass
Similarly the flow of mass entering the system will be equal to the flow leaving the system, like
in a condenser or a boiler.
Figure 1: This figure shows one pound of steam entering a condenser and leaving as one
pound of water.
Figure 2: This figure shows one pound of water entering a boiler and leaving as one pound of
steam.

3.0 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Conservation of energy is a law in nature and states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Therefore, when transfers of states or changes in phases occur in a system, an
energy balance equation can be created to solve for the unknown properties in a system or
cycle.
Essentially, the equations are derived from the law that
energy energy
This equation is used throughout the exam just in different forms. The following shows
examples of energy balances on various pieces of equipment.
3.1 TURBINES, PUMPS & COMPRESSORS:

Turbines, pumps and compressors change the amount of energy of the incoming fluid by
changing the pressure of the fluid. Pumps and compressors increase the pressure of the fluid,
while turbines reduce the pressure of the fluid. In a pump and compressor, energy is
transferred from a power source to the fluid. In a turbine, energy is transferred from a fluid to
provide a power source. In both cases, this power source is called Work. Essentially work is
transferred to or from these pieces of equipment.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 , 𝑚 ∗ ℎ ℎ
𝑚 ∗ ℎ ℎ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
3.2 BOILERS, CONDENSERS, EVAPORATORS:
Boilers, condensers and evaporators are pieces of equipment where a phase change in a fluid
occurs. In boilers and evaporators, liquid is changed to gas and in condensers, gas is changed
to liquid. In boilers and evaporators, energy is added into the system by the boiler or evaporator
in order to heat the liquid to gas. In condensers, heat is removed from the system by the
condenser in order to change the gas to a liquid. The energy balance equations governing
these pieces of equipment take into account the phase change of the fluids.
𝑄 / 𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ℎ
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ℎ

3.3 HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one fluid to the other. Heat exchangers can be
used to transfer heat from one hot liquid to a cold liquid, a hot air stream to a cold air stream,
from air to liquid or from liquid to air. Since there is no phase change, the energy balance
equation is only based on the mass flow rate of both fluids, the temperatures of these fluids and
the heat capacity of both fluids.
𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
3.4 MIXING
In feedwater heaters or in tanks, two fluids may be mixed together. The energy balance on
these types of systems involves calculating the total energy of the fluids entering the system,
which will equal the energy of the mixed fluid. A few equations shown below highlight this
relationship. This mixing energy balance can be applied to both air and liquid. Similarly to
boilers, condensers and evaporators, if a phase change occurs, then the energy change due to
the phase change must be taken into account.
𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗𝑇 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗𝑇 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗𝑇
𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ℎ
4.0 EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a change in state from liquid to a gas. The phase change occurs when there is
enough heat or when the pressure is low enough for the liquid to convert to gas.
During the evaporative process the mass of the water at initial liquid state will equal to the mass
of the evaporated gas at final gaseous state.
4.1 LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION

The latent heat of evaporation is the heat required to change a unit mass of liquid to a unit mass
of vapor or gas, at the same temperature and pressure.
You should memorize the latent heat of evaporation, Hfg, for water as 970 , for standard
conditions. On the P-h diagram or steam tables, this is equal to the difference in the enthalpy at
saturated vapor and saturated liquid, for a given pressure/temperature.
Latent Heat of Evaporation: H h h

The process of converting water to steam is discussed further in the Thermodynamics section,
but for this section you should understand that as water is changed to steam or a gas or any
other closed system transition that mass and energy is conserved.
4.2 CONVERT LIQUID TO VAPOR

One mass balance equation involves converting the flow rate of water to steam. For example, if
50 GPM of water at atmospheric pressure is converted to steam, then what will be the mass
flow rate of the steam (lbs/hr)? Just by conservation of mass, you should know that the mass
flow rate of the water will equal the mass flow rate of air.
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏m

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 50 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∗ 60 ∗ 62.4
𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏m
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 25,027
ℎ𝑟
𝑙𝑏m
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 25,027
ℎ𝑟
5.0 CONDENSATION
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. The molecules in the gaseous state lose sufficient
energy in order to turn into a liquid or when the pressure is high enough for the gas to be
converted to a liquid.
During the condensation process the mass of the gas will equal the mass of the condensed
liquid. The equations for condensation are the same as evaporation but in reverse.
6.0 DEHUMIDIFICATION & HUMIDIFICATION

The process of dehumidification and humidification is the process of either adding or removing
moisture from air.
Dehumidification is the process of removing moisture from air and can be referred to as latent
cooling. Humidification is the process of adding moisture to air and can be referred to as latent
heating. These terms are explained more in the Psychrometrics section. In this Mass Balance
section, the governing equations follow the conservation of the mass of water. The rate of
change in the moisture in air is equal to the mass flow rate of air multiplied by the change in
moisture in the air. The change in moisture content of the air is given as the difference in
specific humidity of the air at the entering and leaving conditions of the humidifier or
dehumidifier. This change of the mass flow rate of the moisture in the air must equal to the
mass flow rate of water added by the humidifier or removed by the dehumidifier.

𝑚 𝑚 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦;
𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟; 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐻20 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Figure 3: These figures show a humidifier and a dehumidifier. The mass flow rate of water into
and out of the equipment must equal the moisture gain or loss in/from the air.
7.0 MIXING
A common skill is determining the output conditions of the mixture of two fluid streams, which
could be liquid-liquid, liquid-gas or gas-gas. Since mass balance does not depend on the phase
of the fluid, then the mass balance equations will still apply.
𝑀 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 ,
𝑀 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 ,
𝑀 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 ,

The important concept to first understand is that the output conditions of the mixed fluid stream
will be most similar to the fluid stream that has the most mass flow rate.
The second concept is that when two liquids or two gases mix together, then the resulting mixed
gas or liquid mass flow rate is equal to the sum of both entering liquids/gases.
If there is a gas and a liquid entering a device, then it is more difficult to determine the mixed
gas and liquid flow rate leaving the device, because some of the gas may condense or some of
the liquid may evaporate.
7.1 GAS-GAS MIXING MASS BALANCE

One example of a gas-gas mixing mass balance type problem is when two airstreams are mixed
together. These types of problems follow the lever rule, which was introduced in the
Psychrometrics section.
Figure 4: Illustration of lever rule. The mass flow rate of fluid A is greater than fluid B. When
fluid A mixes with fluid B, the mixed property (e.g. temperature, enthalpy, phase) will be plotted
along a straight line between fluid A and B, and closer to the property of fluid A.
Essentially, if the properties of two fluids, mixed together, are linearly related based on their
mass flow rate or molar fraction, then the lever rule applies. When graphed, the mixed property
will be somewhere along a straight line between the two fluids, located closer to the fluid with
the larger mass flow rate.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 ∗ %𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 ∗ %𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
Recall the Psychrometric example. The dry bulb, enthalpy, and humidity ratios of air vary
linearly when mixed. If 2,000 lbm dry air of 80F DB/65F WB is mixed with 100 lbm dry air of
50F DB/45F WB, then the resulting temperature will be located equally in between 80F DB

and 50F DB. The resulting temperature will be 65F DB. Using the density to convert to
volumetric flow rates, these relationships can be rewritten in terms of cubic feet per minute
(CFM).
If instead, 3,000 CFM of 80F DB is mixed with 1,000 CFM of 50F DB, then the resulting
temperature will be 72.5 F DB, corresponding to the location on the graph indicated by 75% of
the total mixture is from 80 F DB air.
Refer to the following graph for more information.
Figure 5: Mixing of two airstreams
Once an understanding of the graph is shown, then the following equations can be used.
Dry bulb equation (sensible energy balance).
𝑇 , 𝑇, ∗% 𝑇 , ∗%
𝑇, ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑇 , ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑇 ,
𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐹𝑀
Humidity Ratio Mixing Equation (mass balance of moisture and latent energy balance).
𝑊 𝑊 ∗% 𝑊 ∗%
𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑊

Enthalpy Mixing Equation (total energy balance).
ℎ ℎ , ∗% ℎ ∗%
ℎ ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ℎ ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
7.2 LIQUID-LIQUID MIXING MASS BALANCE

Liquid-liquid mixing mass balance equations also follow the lever rule and are similar to the gas-
gas mixing mass balance section.


8.1 PROBLEM 1 - HUMIDIFIER
Background: An evaporative humidifier works by blowing air over a wet medium, evaporating
the water in the medium into the air, thereby increasing the humidity ratio of the air. This will
reduce the dry bulb temperature of the air since the air lost heat to evaporate the water in the
medium. For the purposes of this problem, this effect will not be taken into account.
1,000 CFM of air at 75F DB/20% relative humidity passes through a humidifier with 8,000 Btu/h
of latent heat, assume that the humidifier is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?
(a) 70F DB/22.4% Relative Humidity
(b) 72F DB/33.2% Relative Humidity
(c) 75F DB/29.3% Relative Humidity
(d) 75F DB/35.1% Relative Humidity
8.2 PROBLEM 2 – DEHUMIDIFIER

Background: A desiccant dehumidifier most often has a silica gel medium, which absorbs
moisture from air as it is passed over the medium. For the purposes of this problem, it is
assumed that the dry bulb temperature is not affected and the dehumidifier only provides latent
cooling (dehumidification).
1,000 CFM of air at 80F DB/72F WB passes through a de-humidifier with 10,000 Btu/h of
latent heat, assume that the de-humidifier is 100% effective. What is the resulting state of air?
(a) 80F DB/.009 lbm H20/lbm dry air
(b) 80F DB/.011 lbm H20/lbm dry air
(c) 80F DB/.013 lbm H20/lbm dry air
(d) 80F DB/.015 lbm H20/lbm dry air

8.3 PROBLEM 3 – AIR MIXTURES

2,000 CFM return air at 78F DB/54% rel hum is mixed with 1,000 CFM outside air at 88F
DB/70% rel hum, what is the resulting state of air?
(a) 80.1F DB/70% Relative Humidity
(b) 81.3F DB/61% Relative Humidity
(c) 83.6F DB/60% Relative Humidity
(d) 85.0F DB/55% Relative Humidity
8.7 PROBLEM 4 – CONDENSATION

Background: 2,000 CFM of air at 78 F DB/55 % Rel. Hum passes through a cooling coil with
an apparatus dew point of 53 F. The resulting discharge air temperature from the coil is 55 F
DB/ 54 F WB. What is the total amount of condensate produced?
(a) 0.05 GPM
(b) 0.62 GPM
(c) 0.77 GPM
(d) 0.91 GPM

9.0 SOLUTIONS
9.1 SOLUTION 1 - HUMIDIFIER
Since the humidifier only provides latent heat, the following equation can be used.
𝑄 4,770 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
8,000 𝑄 4,770 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 1000
∆𝑊 .0017; W .0037
W .0017 .0037 .0054
Dry bulb temperature does not change, 75F DB/.0054 lbm H20/lbm dry air.
From psychrometric chart, 75F DB/29.3% rel. hum.

9.2 SOLUTION 2 - DEHUMIDIFIER

Since the de-humidifier only provides latent cooling, the following equation can be used.
𝑄 4,770 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
10,000 𝑄 4,770 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 1000
∆𝑊 .0021; W .0151
W .0151 .0021 .013
Dry bulb temperature does not change, 80F DB/.013 lbm H20/lbm dry air.
9.3 SOLUTION 3 – AIR MIXTURES

1,000 CFM of 88F DB/70% Relative Humidity; 2,000 CFM of 78F DB/54% Relative Humidity
88 , ∗ 1,000 78 , ∗ 2,000
T ,
1,000 2,000
244,000
T , 81.3 F DB
3,000
Use the psychrometric chart to find the relative humidity.
9.4 SOLUTION 4 – CONDENSATION
In order to determine the amount of condensate produced, the change in humidity ratio must
first be determined.
∆𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 .0113 .0087
∆𝑊 .0026
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20

. 0026 ∗ 2,000 𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 0.075 0.39
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20 𝑓𝑡 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠

0.39 ∗ ∗ 0.05
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 62.4 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

A
G
Air Mixtures ꞏ 14
Gas-gas mixing ꞏ 8
B
H
Boilers ꞏ 4
Heat exchangers ꞏ 5
Humidification ꞏ 6
C Humidifier ꞏ 13
compressors ꞏ 4
Condensation ꞏ 6, 14 L
condensers ꞏ 4
Conservation of Energy ꞏ 4 Latent heat of evaporation ꞏ 5
Conservation of Mass ꞏ 3 Liquid-liquid mixing ꞏ 10
D M
Dehumidification ꞏ 6 Mixing ꞏ 5, 7
Dehumidifier ꞏ 14
P
E
Pumps ꞏ 4
Evaporation ꞏ 5
evaporators ꞏ 4
T
F Turbines ꞏ 4
feedwater heaters ꞏ 5

8 - Heating & Cooling Loads

Envelope | Fenestration | People | Lighting | Miscellaneous | Ventilation
HVAC Textbook
Section 8.0 – Application Heating & Cooling Loads

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.0 Cooling Load Calculations ................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Thermal Mass & Time Lag Factor .................................................................................. 4
2.2 Uncertainty ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Roof & Wall ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Skylight & Window .......................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Conductive Loads .................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Solar Radiation Loads ............................................................................................. 7
2.5 People ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Lighting ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Miscellaneous Equipment ............................................................................................. 11
2.7.1 Motors ................................................................................................................... 11
2.7.2 Appliances/Kitchen Equipment .............................................................................. 14
2.8 Ducts, Pipes & Equipment Surfaces ............................................................................. 15
2.9 Infiltration ...................................................................................................................... 15
2.8.1 Factors Affecting Infiltration ................................................................................... 16
2.10 Ventilation Air ............................................................................................................... 18
3.0 Heating Load Calculations ............................................................................................... 19
3.1 Envelope Loads ............................................................................................................ 20
3.2 Ventilation Loads .......................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Indoor Conditions ......................................................................................................... 20
4.1 Problem 1 - Calculate Heat Load Through Wall ........................................................... 21
4.2 Problem 2 - Calculating Heat Load From People ......................................................... 21
4.3 Problem 3 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors ......................................................... 22
4.4 Problem 4 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors ......................................................... 22
4.5 Problem 5 - Calculating Heat Load From Windows ...................................................... 23
4.6 Problem 6 – Cooling Load Calculation ......................................................................... 23
4.7 Problem 7 – Cooling Load Calculations ....................................................................... 24
4.8 Problem 8 – Cooling Load Calculation ......................................................................... 24
Heating/Cooling Loads - 1 www.engproguides.com

5.0 Solutions ............................................................................................................................... 25

5.1 Solution 1 - Calculate Heat Load Through Wall ........................................................... 25
5.2 Solution 2 - Calculating Heat Load From People ......................................................... 25
5.3 Solution 3 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors .......................................................... 26
5.4 Solution 4 - Calculating Heat Load From Motors .......................................................... 26
5.5 Solution 5 - Calculating Heat Load From Windows ...................................................... 27
5.6 Solution 6 – Cooling Load Calculation .......................................................................... 28
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Calculating heating and cooling loads is one of the first skills that a practicing HVAC engineer
learns on the job. A cooling and heating load calculation serves as the basis for the selection of
all key HVAC equipment like, cooling/heating coils, pumps, cooling towers, chillers, etc.
On the PE exam you should be able to complete a cooling and heating load calculation. This
involves understanding the key aspects that make up the cooling and heating loads. The following
are the loads from external sources, roof, wall, skylight and windows. Internal loads include
people, lighting and miscellaneous equipment. The final two loads are from ventilation and
infiltration. Each of these loads will be discussed in detail in this section.
Heating & Cooling Loads
7-11 questions
Cooling Loads Heating Loads
• Roof/wall • Roof/wall
• Skylight/window • Skylight/window
• People • Ventilation/infiltration
• Lighting
• Miscellaneous
equipment
• Ventilation/infiltration

2.0 COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

Cooling load calculations are typically one of the first calculations completed by a HVAC &
Refrigeration engineer. These calculations serve as the basis for determining air conditioning
equipment sizes. In order to determine the mechanical equipment sizes, the engineer must first
determine what heat is being transferred into the building. The summation of the heat gained by
the building will determine the size of the air conditioning equipment.
The various heat gains and losses into a building can be characterized as either external or
internal loads. External loads include the conduction and radiation heat loads transferred through
roofs, walls, skylights and windows. In addition, outside air can be brought into a building through
ventilation requirements or infiltration, which will cause a cooling load upon the system. Internal
loads include heat loads from people, lighting and miscellaneous equipment like computers,
televisions, motors, etc.
Figure 1: Various heat gains in a building
External Internal
Roofs/Walls – Conduction Lights
Roofs/Walls – Solar Radiation People
Skylights/Windows – Conduction Miscellaneous Equipment
Skylights/Windows – Solar Radiation
Ventilation/Infiltration

The various heat gains can also be organized into sensible and latent heat gains. Sensible heat
gains are those characterized by only a change in temperature and no change in state. Latent
heat gains are those characterized by moisture gains. These individual heat gains are discussed
in the following sections.
Sensible Latent
Roofs/Walls – Conduction Moisture from Ventilation and Infiltration
Roofs/Walls – Solar Radiation Moisture from People
Skylights/Windows – Conduction Moisture from Miscellaneous Equipment
Lights
People
Miscellaneous Equipment
2.1 THERMAL MASS & TIME LAG FACTOR

When completing load calculations it is important to understand the term, time lag factor. When
the sun shines upon a wall early in the morning, although the wall does experience a heat load,
the amount of heat load transferred into the building at that instant is minimal. It takes a certain
amount of time for the heat to be conducted through the wall. This time lag is due to the thermal
mass of the wall. Thermal mass is also known as heat capacity and is defined as the ability of a
material to absorb heat.
2.2 UNCERTAINTY
Calculating heat gains and determining cooling loads has a very high degree of uncertainty. This
is because of the many assumptions that must be made, like occupant loads, activity level of
occupants, occupancy schedules, outdoor weather conditions, equipment schedules, etc. The
engineer should understand that the following calculations are not the most accurate methods to
calculate cooling load and are only shown to highlight concepts that could be tested on the P.E.
Exam.
There are multiple methods used to calculate cooling load calculations like the Radiant Time
Series, Total Equivalent Time Difference and the CLTD/SCL/CLF methods, which are discussed
in ASHRAE Fundamentals. The CLTD/SCL/CLF method is shown in this section because it is
the method that can be tested without a computer and in a relatively short period of time (4-hours,
6 minutes per problem). The radiant time series method is shown for the fenestration calculation,
since it is the more recent calculation method and is also what is provided in the NCEES
Mechanical PE Handbook. However, SCL is also included for its simplicity.

2.3 ROOF & WALL

The heat gain through a roof and wall for cooling load calculations is incorrectly simplified to
the equation shown below. The equation shows that the heat load is a function of the area of
heat transfer, the overall heat transfer coefficient of the roof or wall assembly and the difference
in temperature between the indoors and the outdoors. Although this equation applies for heating
load, as discussed in the Heating Load Calculations topic, this equation must be adjusted for
cooling load calculations.
𝑄 𝑈∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Figure 2: Roof and/or wall heat load – Incorrect for cooling load calculations
The equation previously shown is incorrect for cooling load calculations. The radiation
from the sun onto the building and the time it takes for the heat to transmit through the materials
must be taken into account. In order to take these two factors into account, the engineer should
use the Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD). These values can be found in the
ASHRAE Fundamentals 1997 edition and older. These tables are organized by latitude, roof or
wall type, month and wall facing orientation direction. In addition, the CLTD is organized by the
hour of the day. It is the opinion of the author that these values should be given to you as part of
the problem, should this type of problem arise on the exam. It is only important to understand
what CLTD is and how to use it when given it in a problem. The simplified and incorrect equation
is revised to the following equation for calculating heat loads through roof and wall assemblies.
𝑄 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
It is also important to note that the CLTD is still a simplified approach to determining the heat load
due to roofs and walls. In actuality the heat load due to the roofs/walls will also be dependent on

many other conditions like the indoor conditions and the heat radiated from the inner wall/roof to
the indoor space.
Figure 3: Calculating heat gain through roof or wall with CLTD – Correct
2.4 SKYLIGHT & WINDOW

The heat gains from the skylights and windows, also known as fenestration, can be split into (2)
types of loads, conductive and radiation loads.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Note that solar radiation load is only accounted for in cooling load calculations and omitted in
heating load calculations.
2.4.1 CONDUCTIVE LOADS

The conductive loads for skylights and windows use the same formula as the one used for roofs
and walls, except that the indoor and outdoor temperature difference can be used since there is
a minimal low time lag factor through the glass. The U-value includes the interior and exterior
surface film coefficients.
𝑄 , 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇
One important factor to be aware of is the variation of heat transfer rates along the window,
caused by the window frame. Overall U-factor values for various frame types can be found in the
fenestration tables of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. If the overall U-factor
with the frame must be calculated, use the conduction relationship for materials in parallel.

𝑈 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴 𝑈 𝐴
𝑈 ,
𝐴 ,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑈 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝑈 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝑈 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
In the above equation, there are three different areas of heat transfer rates. The center of glass,
Ucenter, uses the properties of the glass. The edge of glass, Uedge, takes into account the heat from
the frame that is conductively transferred to the outer edge of the glass. This value based on the
frame and glass type. Finally, the frame material will have its own heat transfer rate.
Figure 4: The overall U-value calculation for fenestration includes the frame, glass, and outer
edge of the glass in parallel. The frame will affect the heat transfer rate through the outer edge
of the glass.
2.4.2 SOLAR RADIATION LOADS

The radiant time series method is used to calculate the solar radiation, i.e. solar transmission
loads through a window or skylight. Normally the radiant time series method can be lengthy, but
if enough variables are provided for you in the problem, the calculation can be simplified. The
solar radiation is calculated by multiplying the area of the window or skylight by the total incident
irradiance (Et) , the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), and the indoor solar attenuating factor
(IAC), which is used if there is interior shading. The IAC is optional, and may be excluded if it is
not indicated in the problem.
𝑄 , 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐼𝐴𝐶
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒/𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔;
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐸 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ; 𝐼𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
ℎ 𝑓𝑡
The SHGC, Et, and IAC all vary based on the solar incident angle, θ, which is the angle that the
sun is hitting the window or skylight. The solar incident angle varies by building orientation,
latitude of the earth, the day, and the time. Thus, the SHGC, Et, and IAC be unique for each wall
direction, location, and time, and must be given.

The solar heat gain coefficient is the fraction of the solar radiation that is let through the window
as heat. A lower SHGC indicates that the glass allows less solar heat gain into the building,
typically that is due to better tinting or a low-e coating. Shading coefficient (SC) is an older term,
equal to 1.15*SHGC. In practice, either value is provided by the window manufacturer.
The incident irradiance is the solar radiation per unit area that hits the window. The incident
irradiation values are typically provided in tables based on the time, day, latitude, and wall
direction or solar incident angle. The total incident radiation is equal to the radiation due to the
solar beam, normal to the surface, the diffuse solar radiation that is created by the diffusion in the
atmosphere, and the solar radiation reflected by the ground.
Figure 5: Total incident radiation on a surface is equal to the solar beam normal to the surface,
the diffuse radiation, and the radiation reflected from the ground.
Finally, if applicable, the indoor solar attenuating factor is based on the type of interior shading
used, such as curtains. These values are found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook tables
and would therefore would also have to be given to you during the exam.
Previous Versions:
Older versions of the solar radiation equation are the SCL and SHGF equations. The following is
provided for your reference and to prevent confusion with other sources. Both methods are
based on tabulated data for solar loads through glass at various angles. In the SCL method, the
cooling load factor is integrated into the solar cooling load.
𝑄 , 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐶 ∗ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐸
𝑄 , 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐶 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐹 ∗ 𝐶𝐿𝐹 𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝐶 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 1.15 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 ; 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ;
ℎ 𝑓𝑡

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ; 𝐶𝐿𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
ℎ 𝑓𝑡
The notice that these methods use of the shading coefficient (SC), in lieu of the solar heat gain
coefficient (SHGC). The shading coefficient is the ratio of the specific window or skylight's solar
transmission compared to 1/8" clear glass and is typically specific to the glass manufacturer. The
SCL is given in the ASHRAE 1997 Fundamentals Handbook and is similar to the CLTD. The SCL
method supersedes the SHGF method, which is not much used. The SHGF is given in the
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, prior to the 1993 version. SCL and SHGF are organized
similarly by skylight/window, orientation, month, latitude and hour.
The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) rates glass and certifies the SHGC and U-
Factor. Additional values like Visible Transmittance, Air Leakage and Condensation Resistance
are also tested and certified.
2.5 PEOPLE
The heat loads from a person depend on the activity level of the person. ASHRAE has tabulated
heat, loads both sensible and latent heat gains, from people based on their activity levels, refer
to the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook and ASHRAE Fundamentals. The loads
from people can be calculated using these heat gain values, the number of people and the cooling
load factor. The cooling load factor (CLF) takes into account the time lag caused by the radiant
portion of the sensible load that is first transmitted to the furniture, flooring, etc, before it is added
to the heat gain in the space. If CLF is not given it should be assumed to be 1.0.
𝑄 𝑄 , 𝑄 ,
Sensible loads:
𝑄 , # 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺 ∗ 𝐶𝐿𝐹
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑆𝐻𝐺 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟
𝐶𝐿𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Latent loads:
𝑄 , # 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝐿𝐻𝐺
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛, 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝑟
2.6 LIGHTING
The heat load from lighting in a building is found by summing up the number of lights of each type

and wattage, then converting the watts to Btu/hr, multiplying this number by the usage factor and
the special allowance factor.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 3.412
𝑄 #𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 ∗ ∗ ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹 ∗𝐹
ℎ 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝐹 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟;
𝐹 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Lighting Power, W: The wattage of the light is based on the manufacturer reported value for the
lamps in the lighting fixture, without taking into account the ballast.
Usage Factor, Fu: The lighting use factor is the ratio of the time the lights will be in use. This
factor is typically 1.0 for most applications like offices, classrooms, stores, hospitals, etc. The
usage factor may vary for a movie theater or inactive storage space.
Special Allowance, FSA: The special allowance factor takes into account the heat from ballasts.
This factor is typically 1.2 for fluorescent lights and 1.0 for incandescent lights due to the lack of
ballasts in incandescent lights.
Space Fraction, FSF: Finally, the space fraction is the fraction of the total heat from the lights that
is transmitted to the space. Lights located at the ceiling may have a percentage of its heat
transmitted into the plenum and not into the space. This means that the air conditioning system,
if the return is ducted, will not see the percentage of the heat that is transmitted to the plenum. If
the plenum is used as a return, then the air conditioning will see the total heat from the lighting.
For example, the space fraction for a hung fluorescent light (non-ceiling) will be 1.0, because the
light is completely in the space. On the other hand a ceiling recessed light could have a space
fraction of 0.5, meaning that 50% of its heat is transmitted to the plenum and the other 50% is
transmitted to the space.
Figure 6: Lighting types - space fraction

Example: A room contains 10 ballasts. Each ballast holds 2 lights, each consuming 25 W of
power. The usage factor is 1.0, the special allowance factor is 1.1, and the space fraction is 0.8.
What is the heat gain from the lighting to the space?
𝐵𝑡𝑢
25 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 2 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 3.412 ℎ𝑟
𝑄 10 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1.0 ∗ 1.1 ∗ 0.8 1,501 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2.7 MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

Miscellaneous equipment includes any other equipment that contribute to the heat gain in the
space, including motors, computers, televisions, appliances, and kitchen equipment. The heat
gains from miscellaneous equipment are described in the following sections.
2.7.1 MOTORS
The heat gain from a motor powered equipment is made up of the heat from the motor and the
heat from the equipment that the motor is connected to. The actual contribution of heat from the
motor or equipment will depend on whether it is located in the space to be cooled.
Note that the following calculations are a slightly different approach than the motor calculation
methods used in the Basic Engineering Practice chapter. Where the Basic Engineering Practice
derives the motor power requirements based on the flow and pressure requirements, the
following calculations start with the standard motor horsepower rating and incorporates usage
and load factors to calculate the average heat dissipation. During the exam, use the approach
that is most suitable, based on the information given in the question. The main concept is
understanding where the heat will be distributed based on the location of the motor and
equipment.
The total heat is found by the equation below.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡/𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡/𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃 𝜂
The heat gain from the motor itself is the heat due to efficiency losses at the motor.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 1 𝜂
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃 𝜂
The heat gain from the equipment is equal to the energy leaving the motor, which is defined by
the motor horsepower rating.

𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃
The derivation of these equations is described below.
Total Heat Gain
Each motor has a horsepower rating, which is the power that the motor can deliver to an
equipment. However, the actual power to the motor must be slightly greater to overcome the
efficiency losses in the motor. Typical efficiency losses may be found in ASHRAE Fundamentals
and the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
𝐻𝑃 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂
The total energy consumed at the motor is determined by how often the motor is operating, called
the usage factor (FU), and how large the actual load is compared to the power rating of the motor,
called the load factor (FL). If the motor is used continuously during occupied times, then the
usage factor will be 1.0. Otherwise, the usage factor will be the fraction of the time that it is used
during occupied times divided by the total time the space is occupied. The load factor of the motor
takes into account the fact that motors rarely run at its nominally rated capacity. For example, if
a 1 HP motor actually operates at 0.75 HP then the load factor will by 0.75.
𝐻𝑃 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
𝜂
𝐹 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝐹 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
The total energy consumed by the motor powered equipment is eventually converted to heat.
This total heat is distributed between the motor and the equipment. Convert the equation to heat
energy units in Btu/h.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡/𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃 𝜂
Figure 7: Heat Energy from Motor and Equipment

Motor Heat Gain
The motor heat gain is due to efficiency losses in the motor. To calculate the heat loss from a
motor, first find the total heat/energy (𝑄 ) delivered to the motor as described by the
previous equation. Then, calculate the heat released from the motor, caused by its efficiency
losses.
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝑄 𝑄 ∗ 1 𝜂
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 1 𝜂
⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃 𝜂
Example: A 10 HP motor with 80% efficiency is used to power a fan. This means 80% of the
total heat will be transferred to the fan where it will be used to move air. The remaining 20% of
the total heat will be lost to the space via the motor. Assume the usage and load factors are equal
to 1. The motor will generate 6363 Btuh of heat.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 10 ℎ𝑝
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ ∗ 1 0.80 ∗ 1 ∗ 1 6363 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
ℎ 𝐻𝑃 0.80
Equipment Heat Gain
The energy delivered to the equipment is used to produce work, such as moving fluid, but it will
eventually end up as heat. As previously discussed, the energy to the equipment is the energy
after motor efficiencies, which is based on the motor HP rating.
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝑄 𝑄 ∗ 𝜂
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
⇒ 𝑄 2545 ∗ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹
ℎ 𝐻𝑃
If the equipment is located in the space, then the heat loss will be eventually transferred to the
space. For example, if the fan is used to blow air in a space, then eventually the heat transferred
to move the air, will be lost as friction to the space. If the equipment is outside of the space, then
it is not added to the cooling load calculations.
Heat Gain to Space
The contribution of the motor or equipment heat to the cooling loads will ultimately be determined
by the location of the equipment and whether it is being cooled by the air conditioning system.
On the exam, the difficulty will be determining whether or not which situation applies.
• Situation 1: Both motor and equipment located in space. Thus you should include both
the motor and equipment heat loss (total heat loss).

• Situation 2: Motor not located in space and equipment located in space. Thus you should
include only the equipment heat loss in your cooling load calculations.
• Situation 3: Motor located in space and equipment not located in space. Thus you should
include only the motor heat loss in your cooling load calculations.
Figure 8: Heat gain to space is dependent on the location of the equipment.
2.7.2 APPLIANCES/KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

The next equation describes heat gain from everyday appliances like microwaves, toasters,
ranges, ovens, computers, printers, as well as commercial kitchen appliances, such as stoves,
refrigerators, and ovens. The input energy is found by researching the manufacturer's product
data or by referring to typical values reported in ASHRAE Fundamentals or the NCEES
Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. ASHRAE Fundamentals also has typical usage factors
and radiated heat fractions for typical equipment, which are used in the equation below.
Unhooded Appliance/Equipment:
𝑄 , 𝑞 ∗𝐹
𝑄 , 𝑞 , ∗𝐹
𝑞 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝐹 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Hooded Appliance/Equipment:
𝑄 , 𝑄
𝑄 , 𝑞 , ∗𝐹 ∗𝐹
𝐹 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
The main concept for this type of load is understanding the use of the radiation factor for hooded
appliances. A hooded appliance means there is a kitchen hood that is exhausting the air directly
above the appliance. In this situation, any convective and latent heat released from the appliance
will be transferred to the surrounding air, which is then exhausted from the space. This means

all convective and latent loads are removed and do not contribute to the cooling load calculations.
The only heat gains from the appliance will be due to radiated (sensible) loads, since this cannot
be exhausted. Thus, for hooded appliances, the fraction of the sensible load that is radiant, FR,
is multiplied by the input sensible load and the usage factor to determine to total heat gain.
2.8 DUCTS, PIPES & EQUIPMENT SURFACES

Heat gain in a space can also occur from ducts, pipes and equipment. These types of heat gain
will use the equations from the Heat Transfer section. You should use these equations when
surface temperatures and ambient temperatures are provided for ducts, pipes or equipment. The
heat gain in the space due to these three items will occur via convection and radiation. Thus in
order to solve these problems you need to be given the convection coefficient and/or radiation
coefficient. The convection coefficient is difficult to solve for but you can solve for the radiation
coefficient with the below equations.
𝑄 ℎ ∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇

ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉ ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉ ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡; ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ 𝜀∗𝜎∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇 / 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℉ ;
𝑇 𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℉ ; 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡
Additional tables for heat loss per foot of pipe are available in ASHRAE Fundamentals and the
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Condition Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook. The tables are based on specific ambient temperatures, inside pipe temperatures,
and pipe material (steel or copper tubing), with and without insulation
2.9 INFILTRATION
Infiltration is described as outside air that leaks into a building structure. These leaks could be
through the building construction or through entry doors. Infiltration heat gains are found by the
following equations. These equations are discussed more in the Psychrometrics Section.
The first equation is the total heat gains using enthalpy. In this equation, the volumetric flow rate
of the infiltration or ventilation air must be known. This value is converted and multiplied by the
difference in enthalpy between the outdoor air conditions and the indoor air conditions.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄 60 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏

𝑄 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
ℎ 𝑙𝑏
The following two equations split the total heat gain into the sensible and latent heat loads.
Sensible Heat Gains are calculated by multiplying the CFM of the infiltrated air by the difference
in the dry bulb temperatures of the indoor and outdoor air.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏
𝑄 60 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 0.24 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 ∗ ℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
ℎ
Latent Heat Gains are calculated by multiplying the CFM of infiltrated air by the difference in the
humidity ratio of the indoor air and the outdoor air.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
ℎ
𝑊 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑙𝑏𝑚 /𝑙𝑏𝑚 ]
2.8.1 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

The basic equations above assume that you are somehow able to quantify the amount of
infiltration that is leaking into the building. Typically there are factors assigned for construction
tightness that indicate the amount of CFM per external wall/roof areas that will allow you to
calculate the CFM infiltrating the building. These factors make assumptions on wind velocity and
pressure difference between the outside and inside of the building. For the purposes of the PE
exam, you should have an understanding on how the pressure difference and external wind
velocity affect the infiltration into the building.
The best source for infiltration on the PE exam is Chapter 16 Ventilation & Infiltration in ASHRAE
Fundamentals 2017. This chapter goes into detail on the various factors affecting natural
ventilation and infiltration. There are areas in the book where it only discusses natural ventilation,
but those areas also apply to infiltration.
Pressure Difference:
The first factor that affects infiltration is the pressure difference between indoors and outdoors.
Air will flow from a location of higher pressure to lower pressure. The calculations for pressure
are difficult to calculate because many assumptions about the environment need to be made. It
is most likely that the PE exam will give you the pressure difference, since it would take more than
6 minutes to solve for the pressure difference. Pressure difference would depend on the external
wind velocity, the internal air conditioning system, stack effect and the temperature difference

between indoors and outdoors. It is most likely that the below equation will be used to solve for
the infiltration CFM based on a given pressure difference and area.
2 ∗ ∆𝑃
𝑄 776 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴
𝜌
𝑄 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ; 𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔; 𝐶 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
∆𝑃 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑠 & 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑔
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓𝑡
The PE exam could give you the infiltration CFM and all the other values of the equation above
and then ask you to solve for pressure difference. The PE exam most likely won’t have both the
pressure difference and infiltration CFM as unknowns for these types of equations.
Wind Velocity:
The second factor that affects infiltration is the wind velocity. An increase in the wind on the
outside of a building will cause more air to infiltrate. ASHRAE Fundamentals indicates that the
amount of infiltration/natural ventilation is governed by the below equation.
𝑄 88 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑈
𝑄 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ; 𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝑈 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝐶 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 0.5 0.6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠, 0.25
0.35 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠
Stack Effect:
The last factor that affects infiltration is called the stack effect. This factor describes the situation
when there is a difference in the density of air at varying locations, which causes air to flow from
low density to high density. For example, hot air has a lower density than cold air. Hot air will
tend to rise above the cold air and cold air will sink below the hot air. In room air distribution, cold
air supply vents are placed at the ceiling such that the cold air sinks to where the occupants are
located and hot air supply vents are sometimes placed at the floor so the hot air can rise to the
occupants. The greater the height difference between the low density and high density air, the
greater the driving force and thus the greater the airflow rate. Imagine stretching a rubber band,
the greater the distance between the ends of the rubber band, the greater the driving force that
pulls the rubber band back together.
In tall buildings, the height difference between the warm indoor air and the cold outdoor air will
create a driving force that pulls cold outdoor air into the building. The equation that governs the
stack effect and infiltration is shown below

𝑓𝑡
2 ∗ 32 ∗ ∆𝐻 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 60 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑠
𝑇
𝑄 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ; 𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝐶 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔;
∆𝐻 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑁𝑃𝐿 𝑓𝑡
𝑇 ,𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 & 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅
The neutral pressure level (NPL) is difficult to calculate and will most likely be given to you on the
exam. The NPL is the height of a building where the indoor and outdoor pressures are equal.
2.10 VENTILATION AIR

Ventilation air is the air taken directly from the outside and used to displace the building air with
fresh air. The amount of fresh air required for each space type is determined by ASHRAE
Standard 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, which is discussed in Section 10 –
Supportive Knowledge. For example, a hospital will need more fresh air than an office space.
The main difference between infiltration and ventilation air is where it occurs in the building.
Infiltration air is first mixed with the space as it enters the building through cracks in each air
conditioned space. Ventilation air is directly ducted to the air conditioning unit and delivered to
the coil. Whatever air is added to the building will be removed, either by exhaust or exfiltration.
Typically, more ventilation air is provided than exhaust air to positively pressurize the building.
This limits the infiltration air into the building, thus providing a better level of space humidity and
temperature control. This is because the outside air will directly hit the cooling or heating coils
and can be conditioned to appropriate temperature and moisture levels before being supplied to
the space.
Figure 9: Ventilation and infiltration load calculations.

The ventilation load calculations are the same as the infiltration calculations. The simplified
equations based on standard conditions are shown below. Calculations for other outdoor air
conditions are provided in the Psychrometrics Section. It is important to note that although the
ventilation air is cooled down to supply air conditions, e.g. 55F/54F in the figure above, the actual
load from the ventilation air to the space will be determined by the space conditions, 75F, 50%RH
in the figure. This is because the cooler 55F air will be used to cool other heat loads in the space,
like the envelope or lighting.
𝑄 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ℎ ℎ
ℎ 𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
ℎ
3.0 HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS

Calculating heating loads are the reverse of calculating cooling loads. The main contributors of
heating loads are the envelope and ventilation loads that extract heat from a building. On the
other hand, internal loads such as lights, people, and miscellaneous loads, as well as external
solar radiation, add heat to the building. Even though these heat contributors will decrease the
amount of heating required from the heating system, the heating system needs to be sized in the
worst case scenario. This is because these loads cannot be relied on due to their intermittency.
Therefore, lights, people, miscellaneous loads, and solar radiation cannot typically be included in
the heating load calculations. A summary of the total heat load calculations is as follows.
𝑄 ,
𝑄 , 𝑄 , 𝑄 , 𝑄 ,
𝑄 𝑄
Heating Loads
Roofs/Walls – Conduction
Roofs/Walls – Solar Radiation
Skylights/Windows – Conduction
Lights
People
Miscellaneous Equipment

3.1 ENVELOPE LOADS

The skylight/window and roof/wall loads are the primary heating loads during the winter. During
the winter, heat is transferred from inside of a building to the cold outdoors through the external
walls, roofs, windows and skylights. The HVAC engineer must replace the heat lost through a
heating system. The heat load through the envelope is calculated for worst case conditions. Heat
gain from solar radiation loads cannot be incorporated, since these loads can be intermittent due
to cloud cover. Time lag due to building thermal mass is also omitted in heating load calculations.
Thus, the heating load through walls and roofs are calculated using the temperature difference
instead of the CLTD that is used in the cooling load calculations. (CLTD incorporates thermal
mass and solar radiation). The fenestration loads also only include conduction through the
windows and skylights. The envelope heating load equations are found below.
𝑄 / , 𝑄 𝑈∗𝐴∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑄 , 𝑄 𝑄
3.2 VENTILATION LOADS

Ventilation is also a large contributor of heating loads. Whereas outside air enters hot and humid
during summer conditions, outside air enters cool and dry during the winter. Cooling coils provide
sensible and latent cooling, dropping the temperatures low enough to cause the moisture in the
air to condense and remove the humidity from the air. Heating coils, however, only provide
sensible heating. If additional humidity is required due to the dry outside air conditions, latent
heating is provided by a humidifier, such as a steam humidifier. Additional discussion can be
found in the Psychrometrics Section of this book.
3.3 INDOOR CONDITIONS
The other difference between winter and summer conditions is the indoor air setpoint
temperatures. During the summer months, the space temperatures are usually maintained at
75°F, 50% relative humidity for comfort cooling. During winter months, the space temperatures
can be lower, around 70°F, 40% relative humidity. This is because the occupant is entering a
building from much cooler and dryer outdoor conditions, making the cooler indoor temperatures
appear more comfortable. Occupants also typically have warmer clothing on during the winter.
These setpoint temperatures are determined by studies for human comfort and are encountered
in ASHRAE Standard 55 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, which is
discussed in the Supportive Knowledge Section. During the exam, the temperature setpoints
required for the calculations will need to be given to you, since they can vary.


4.1 PROBLEM 1 - CALCULATE HEAT LOAD THROUGH WALL
An east facing exterior wall consists of 8” concrete (R-Value = 2.0), with 2” insulation (R-Value =
8.0) and 5/8” gypsum board (R-Value = 0.8). The wall has dimensions of 8’ height by 20’ long. If
the CLTD at peak load is 20 F, calculate the total heat load through the wall at peak load. The
indoor temperature is 75 F and the outdoor temperature is 87 F.
a) 125
b) 273
c) 321
d) 509
4.2 PROBLEM 2 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM PEOPLE

An office is maintained at space conditions of 75 °F and 50% RH. There are fifteen office workers
located in a 2,000 SF office building. Each worker has their own computer with flat screen. What
is the total heat load from the people to the space?
a) 1,750
b) 3,000
c) 3,750
d) 6,750

4.3 PROBLEM 3 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM MOTORS

There are 15 workers in a large air conditioned warehouse, which houses fruits and vegetables.
The workers drive (2) 10 HP electric golf carts throughout the warehouse. The motor has an
efficiency of 80% and the golf carts are only used 10% of the time, assume a 0.1 usage factor. In
addition, the full capacity of the motor is not used. Assume an 80% load factor. What is the heat
load from the golf carts alone?
a) 1,800
b) 2,500
c) 3,260
d) 5,100
4.4 PROBLEM 4 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM MOTORS

A 10 HP motor drives a new fan in an air conditioned warehouse. The motor is 80% efficient, but
the motor is located outside of the air conditioned space and its heat does not transfer to the
space. The motor is always running and has a usage factor of 1.0. The fan is located in the
conditioned space. What is the total heat gain to the space? The efficiency of the fan is 60%.
a) 10,200
b) 25,500
c) 30,000
d) 35,200

4.5 PROBLEM 5 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM WINDOWS

An existing clear glass window with an inefficient film and a shading coefficient of 0.9 is being
replaced by a new low-e glass with a shading coefficient of 0.6 and a transmissivity of 0.75. What
will be the percent reduction in solar heat gain by switching to the newer glass, assume an area
of 18 square feet and a SCL of 40 F.
a) 33%
b) 54%
c) 66%
d) 72%
4.6 PROBLEM 6 – COOLING LOAD CALCULATION

Background: A room has the following loads, 2,000 Btuh [lighting]; 2,000 Btuh [computer]; 6,000
Btuh [people - sensible]; 6,000 Btuh [walls/roof] and 6,000 Btuh [people – latent]. 800 CFM of air
leaves the coil at 55°F DB/53°F WB and enters the room. What will be the resulting space
conditions?
(a) 70.2°F DB/.0082 lb of water vapor/lb of dry air
(b) 71.4°F DB/.0097 lb of water vapor/lb of dry air
(c) 73.5°F DB/.0097 lb of water vapor/lb of dry air
(d) 75.2°F DB/.0141 lb of water vapor/lb of dry air

4.7 PROBLEM 7 – COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

Which of the following cooling load calculation methods is most likely not a simplified method?
(A) TETD/TA
(B) Radiant time series
(C) Heat balance
(D) CLTD/CLF
4.8 PROBLEM 8 – COOLING LOAD CALCULATION

The input power to a motor is 10 HP and the motor is used to power a fan that provides 10,000
CFM. The fan has an efficiency of 67% and the motor has an efficiency of 95%. Assume the
motor is running at full load (incoming 10 BHP electrical power to motor) and the motor and fan
are located in the air stream. What is the amount of heat added to the air flow directly at the fan
outlet?
(A) 3,100 Btu/h
(B) 7,900 Btu/h
(C) 9,300 Btu/h
(D) 10,800 Btu/h

5.0 SOLUTIONS
5.1 SOLUTION 1 - CALCULATE HEAT LOAD THROUGH WALL
An east facing exterior wall consists of 8” concrete (R-Value = 2.0), with 2” insulation (R-Value =
8.0) and 5/8” gypsum board (R-Value = 0.8). The wall has dimensions of 8’ height by 20’ long. If
the CLTD at peak load is 20 F, calculate the total heat load through the wall. The indoor
temperature is 75 F and the outdoor temperature is 87 F. Assume summer conditions.
First calculate the U-Value
1
𝑈
1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 .085
0.25 2 8 0.8 0.68 ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
Second calculate the area.
8 𝑋 20 160 𝑓𝑡
Third calculate the heat.
𝑄 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 0.085 ∗ 160 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 20℉
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 273
ℎ𝑟
5.2 SOLUTION 2 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM PEOPLE

An office is maintained at space conditions of 75 °F and 50% RH. There are fifteen office workers
located in a 2,000 SF office building. Each worker has their own computer with flat screen. What
is the total heat load from the people to the space?
The total load from each individual person depends on the person's activity level. Refer to
ASHRAE Fundamentals to find the total heat gain from an office worker.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
450
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

𝐵𝑡𝑢
450 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 15 ∗ ℎ𝑟 6,750
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑟
5.3 SOLUTION 3 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM MOTORS

There are 15 workers in a large air conditioned warehouse, which houses fruits and vegetables.
The workers drive (2) 10 HP electric golf carts throughout the warehouse. The motor has an
efficiency of 80% and the golf carts are only used 10% of the time, assume a 0.1 usage factor. In
addition, the full capacity of the motor is not used. Assume an 80% load factor. What is the heat
load from the golf carts alone?
The total heat load from the (2) golf carts can be found from the below equation:
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄 2545 ∗
𝐻𝑃 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 10 ℎ𝑝
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄 2 ∗ 2545 ∗ 63,625
𝐻𝑃 0.8
Since both the motor and equipment is located in the space, then both heat loads will need to be
included.
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∗ 1 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∗ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑄 63,625 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐹
𝑄 63,625 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 0.8
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 5,090 𝑝𝑒𝑟 2 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
ℎ𝑟
The correct answer is most nearly, (D)
5.4 SOLUTION 4 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM MOTORS

A 10 HP motor drives a new fan in an air conditioned warehouse. The motor is 80% efficient, but
the motor is located outside of the air conditioned space and its heat does not transfer to the
space. The motor is always running and has a usage factor of 1.0. The fan is located in the
conditioned space. What is the total heat gain to the space? The efficiency of the fan is 60%.

The total heat load from the motor can be found from the below equation:
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑃 𝐻𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄 2545 ∗
𝐻𝑃 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 10 ℎ𝑝
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄 2545 ∗ 31,812.50 𝐵𝑇𝑈𝐻
𝐻𝑃 0.8
Since the motor is located outside of the space and equipment is located in the space, then only
the equipment heat loss will need to be included.
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∗ 1 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∗ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑄 31,812.50 ∗ 0.8 25,450 𝐵𝑇𝑈𝐻
The correct answer is most nearly, (B).
5.5 SOLUTION 5 - CALCULATING HEAT LOAD FROM WINDOWS

An existing clear glass window with an inefficient film and a shading coefficient of 0.9 is being
replaced by a new low-e glass with a shading coefficient of 0.6 and a transmissivity of 0.75. What
will be the percent reduction in heat load by switching to the newer glass, assume an area of 18
square feet and a SCL of 40 F.
The equation governing solar heat gain from windows is as follows:
𝑄 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐶 ∗ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑄 𝐴 ∗ 0.9 ∗ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑄 𝐴 ∗ 0.6 ∗ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑄 𝑄
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 100
𝑄
0.9 0.6
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 100 33%
0.9

5.6 SOLUTION 6 – COOLING LOAD CALCULATION

The first step in solving this problem is to determine which of the cooling loads are sensible and
which are latent. Sensible loads in a building include: lighting, miscellaneous equipment
(computers, refrigerators, microwaves, etc.), wall/roof heat loads, solar heat gain through
windows and skylights and the heat load from people. Latent loads in a building include: moisture
release from people, moist air infiltration and some equipment although rarely.
Sensible Heat Gain = 2,000 2,000 6,000 6,000 16,000
Latent Heat Gain = 6,000
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 1.08 ∗ ∆𝑇 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀
ℎ
𝑄 1.08 ∗ 𝑇 55 ∗ 800 16,000
ℎ ℎ
𝑇 73.5℉ 𝐷𝐵
𝑄 4,770 ∗ ∆𝑊 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀; 𝑊 ?;𝑊 .0081
𝑄 4,770 ∗ 𝑊 .0081 ∗ 800 6,000
ℎ ℎ
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑊 .0097
The radiant time series method is a simplified method of the heat balance method. The heat
balance method solves the cooling load directly by balancing the heat on the outdoor face of a
space, indoor face of the space, wall conduction and the air in the space. The radiant time series
method simplifies the Heat Balance method by introducing various assumptions to account for
the time delay factor. The CLTD/CLF and TETD/TA methods are the older versions of the radiant
time series. CLTD/CLF stands for cooling load temperature difference and cooling load factor.
These assigned temperature differences and cooling load factors for various hours of the day,
accounted for the time delay factor. TETD/TA stands for total equivalent temperature difference
and time averaging method. This components similarly accounted for the time delay factor.
The time delay factor basically describes the principle that heat in a building can occur from either
convection or radiation. In convection, surfaces in the building heat up via conduction and
convection, but the heat is transferred to the air in the space via convection over the inner
surfaces. This heat transfer at the inner surface occurs instantaneously. In radiation, masses

within the building like the floor or furniture must be heated up via radiation and then must give
off that heat at a later time via convection. The heat transfer to the space will be delayed.
The heat balance method is the only method that does not simplify the cooling load calculation
process.
The correct answer is most nearly, (C) Heat balance.

In this problem, the heat added to the air flow is from the inefficiencies of the motor and the fan.
The motor may run at 10 BHP, but only 95% of that energy is transferred to the fan. The remaining
energy is transferred to the air stream as heat. Typically, the motor is located outside of the air
stream so this energy is not transferred to the air stream, however in this problem it states that
the motor is located in the air stream.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 10 𝐻𝑃 ∗ 1 0.95 0.5 𝐻𝑃
𝐵𝑡𝑢
2544.3
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 0.5 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ℎ 1,277 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ
1 𝐻𝑃
The fan will receive 9.5 BHP from the motor and will convert this energy into mechanical energy
(flow rate and static pressure). However, only 67% of the 9.5 BHP will be converted to mechanical
energy, the remaining energy will be transferred to the air stream via heat.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 9.5 𝐵𝐻𝑃 ∗ 1 0.67 3.14 𝐻𝑃
𝐵𝑡𝑢
2544.3 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 3.14 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ℎ 8,020
1 𝐻𝑃 ℎ
The total heat added to the airstream is the sum of the heat from the fan and the motor.

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 1,277 8,020 9,297
ℎ ℎ ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (C) 9,300 Btu/h.

M
C
Miscellaneous Equipment · 11
CLF · 4 Motor Equipment Heat Gain · 13
CLTD · 4, 5 Motor Heat Gain · 11, 13
Condensation Resistance · 9 Motor Heat Gain to Space · 13
conduction · 3 Motor Total Heat Gain · 12
Cooling Load · 3
Cooling Load Calculation · 28
Cooling Load Temperature Difference · 5 N
neutral pressure level · 18
D NFRC · 9
NPL · 18
Duct Heat Gain · 15
O
E
outside air · 3
Envelope Load - Heating · 20
Equipment Surface Heat Gain · 15
External loads · 3 P
People · 9
H Pipe Heat Gain · 15
Pressure Difference · 16
Heat Load From Motors · 26
Heat Load From People · 25
Heat Load From Windows · 27 R
Heat Load Through Wall · 25
Heating Loads · 19
Radiant Time Series · 4
Radiant Time Series Method · 7
radiation · 3
I
Infiltration · 15 S
Internal loads · 3
SCL · 4
Sensible Heat Gain · 4
K Sensible loads · 9
Skylights · 6
Kitchen Equipment · 14 Stack Effect · 17
Kitchen Equipment Hooded Appliance · 14
Kitchen Equipment Unhooded Appliance · 14
T
L Thermal Mass · 4
Time Lag Factor · 4
Latent Heat Gain · 4 Total Equivalent Time Difference · 4
Lighting · 9
Lighting Space Fraction · 10
Lighting Special Allowance Factor · 10 U
Lighting Usage Factor · 10
Uncertainty · 4

Window Conduction · 6
V
Window Edge of Glass · 7
Window Indoor Solar Attenuating Factor (IAC) · 7
Ventilation Air: Heating Load · 20
Window SCL method · 8
Ventilation Air Cooling Load · 18
Window Shading Coefficient (SC) · 8
Visible Transmittance · 9
Window SHGF method · 9
Window Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) · 7
Window Solar Incident Angle, θ · 7
W Window Solar Radiation · 7
Window Total Incident Irradiance (Et) · 7
Wind Velocity · 17 Windows · 6
Window Center of Glass · 7

9 - Equipment and Components

Cooling Towers/Fluid Coolers | Boilers/Furnaces | Heat Exchangers | Condensers/
Evaporators | Pumps/Compressors/Fans | Cooling/Heating Coils | Control System
Components | Refrigerants | Refrigeration Components
HVAC Textbook
Section 9.0 – Application Equipment & Components

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.0 Cooling Towers .................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Characterizing Cooling Towers ...................................................................................... 8
2.2 Cooling Tower Performance ......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Cooling Tower Water Loss and Make-up ..................................................................... 12
2.4 Cooling Tower Psychrometrics ..................................................................................... 13
2.5 Cooling Tower Heat Transfer ....................................................................................... 14
2.6 Nominal Cooling Tower Ton ......................................................................................... 14
3.0 Fluid Coolers .................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Evaporative Fluid Cooler .............................................................................................. 15
3.2 Dry Fluid Cooler ............................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Hybrid Fluid Cooler ....................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Adiabatic Fluid Cooler .................................................................................................. 17
4.0 Boilers & Furnaces ........................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Steam Boilers ............................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Types of Boilers ............................................................................................................ 19
4.3 Electric Boilers .............................................................................................................. 21
4.4 Boiler Energy Balance .................................................................................................. 21
4.5 Furnaces ....................................................................................................................... 22
4.5.1 Types of Furnaces ................................................................................................. 22
4.5.2 Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 22
4.6 Combustion .................................................................................................................. 23
4.6.1 Fuel ....................................................................................................................... 23
4.6.2 Air .......................................................................................................................... 24
4.6.3 Stoichiometry ......................................................................................................... 24
4.6.4 Air to Fuel Ratio ..................................................................................................... 25
4.6.5 Excess Air ............................................................................................................. 26
5.0 Heat Exchangers.............................................................................................................. 27
5.1 Types ............................................................................................................................ 28
5.1.2 Shell and Tube ...................................................................................................... 28
Equipment & Components - 1 www.engproguides.com

5.1.3 Plate and Frame ......................................................................................................... 29

5.2 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) ................................................................. 30
5.2.1 Correction Factor ................................................................................................... 31
5.3 NTU Method ................................................................................................................. 32
5.4 Heat Balance ................................................................................................................ 34
5.5 Fouling .......................................................................................................................... 34
6.0 Condensers & Evaporators .............................................................................................. 36
6.1 Chillers .......................................................................................................................... 36
6.1.1 Absorption Chiller .................................................................................................. 38
6.2 Variable Refrigerant Flow ............................................................................................. 42
6.3 Heat Pump .................................................................................................................... 43
6.5 Types of Condensers & Evaporators ............................................................................ 45
7.0 Pumps .............................................................................................................................. 45
7.1 Important Terms ........................................................................................................... 46
7.2 Types of Pumps ............................................................................................................ 46
7.3 Pump and System Curves ............................................................................................ 48
7.3.1 Pump Curve ................................................................................................................ 48
7.3.2 System Curve ........................................................................................................ 50
7.3.3 Operation Point ..................................................................................................... 51
7.4 Pump Affinity Laws ....................................................................................................... 52
7.4.1 Pump Similarity Laws ................................................................................................. 53
7.5 Pump with a Modulating Valve ..................................................................................... 53
7.6 Pump with a VFD .......................................................................................................... 54
7.7 Multiple Pumps ............................................................................................................. 55
7.7.1 Pumps in Parallel .................................................................................................. 55
7.7.2 Pumps in Series .................................................................................................... 57
8.0 Fans ................................................................................................................................. 59
8.1 Important Terms ........................................................................................................... 59
8.2 Types of Fans ............................................................................................................... 60
8.2.1 Axial Fans .............................................................................................................. 60
8.2.2 Propeller Fans ....................................................................................................... 60
8.2.3 Tube-Axial Fans .................................................................................................... 61
8.2.4 Centrifugal Fans .................................................................................................... 62

8.3 Fan Curves ................................................................................................................... 64

8.4 Fan Affinity Laws .......................................................................................................... 66
8.4.1 Fan Similarity Laws..................................................................................................... 66
8.5 Multiple Fans ................................................................................................................ 67
8.5.1 Fans in parallel ...................................................................................................... 67
8.5.2 Fans in series ........................................................................................................ 68
9.0 Compressors .................................................................................................................... 68
9.1 Compressor Types ....................................................................................................... 69
9.2 Chiller Compressor ....................................................................................................... 70
9.2 Compressor work ......................................................................................................... 70
9.3 Compressor efficiency .................................................................................................. 70
10.0 Cooling/Heating coils ....................................................................................................... 71
10.1 Cooling & Heating Coils ................................................................................................ 71
10.2 Cooling & Heating Coil Fluids ....................................................................................... 72
10.3 Cooling & Heating Coil Terms ...................................................................................... 73
10.4 Chilled Beams .............................................................................................................. 74
10.4.1 Types of Chilled Beams ........................................................................................ 76
10.4.2 Sizing a Chilled Beam ........................................................................................... 77
10.5 Steam Heating Coils ..................................................................................................... 78
10.6 Humidification & Dehumidification Systems ................................................................. 79
10.7 Humidifiers .................................................................................................................... 80
10.8 De-Humidifiers .............................................................................................................. 81
11.0 Control System Components ........................................................................................... 83
11.1 Control Valves .............................................................................................................. 83
11.1.1 Flow characteristics ............................................................................................... 85
11.1.2 Sizing for liquids .................................................................................................... 86
11.1.3 Sizing for gases ..................................................................................................... 87
11.1.4 Critical point........................................................................................................... 87
11.2 Control Dampers ............................................................................................................. 87
11.2.1 Damper Authority .................................................................................................. 88
12.0 Refrigerants...................................................................................................................... 90
12.1 Hydrocarbons ............................................................................................................... 91
12.2 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) ......................................................................................... 91

12.3 Hydroclurofluorocarbons (HCFCs) ............................................................................... 91

12.4 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) .......................................................................................... 91
12.5 Refrigerant Summary ................................................................................................... 91
13.0 Refrigerant Components .................................................................................................. 93
13.1 Expansion Valve ........................................................................................................... 94
13.2 Accumulator .................................................................................................................. 94
13.3 Filter.............................................................................................................................. 94
13.4 Oil Separator ................................................................................................................ 94
13.5 Hot Gas Bypass Valve .................................................................................................. 94
13.6 Receiver ....................................................................................................................... 95
13.7 Filter/Dryer .................................................................................................................... 95
13.8 Solenoid Valve .............................................................................................................. 95
13.8 Sight Glass ................................................................................................................... 95
14.1 Problem 1 – Fans ......................................................................................................... 96
14.3 Problem 2 – Fans ......................................................................................................... 96
14.3 Problem 3 – Coils ......................................................................................................... 97
14.4 Problem 4 – Coils ......................................................................................................... 97
14.5 Problem 5 – Humidifier ................................................................................................. 98
14.6 Problem 6 – Pumps ...................................................................................................... 98
14.7 Problem 7 – Cooling Towers ........................................................................................ 99
14.8 Problem 8 – Air Washer ............................................................................................... 99
14.9 Problem 9 – Absorption Chiller ................................................................................... 100
14.10 Problem 10 – Absorption Chiller ............................................................................. 100
14.11 Problem 11 – Cooling Tower .................................................................................. 101
14.12 Problem 12 – Refrigerants ...................................................................................... 101
15.0 Solutions ........................................................................................................................ 102
15.1 Solution 1 – Fans ........................................................................................................ 102
15.2 Solution 2 – Fans ........................................................................................................ 104
15.3 Solution 3 – Coils ........................................................................................................ 105
15.4 Solution 4 – Coils ........................................................................................................ 105
15.5 Solution 5 – Humidifier ............................................................................................... 106
15.6 Solution 6 – Pumps .................................................................................................... 106

15.7 Solution 7 – Cooling Towers ....................................................................................... 107

15.8 Solution 8 – Air Washer .............................................................................................. 107
15.9 Solution 9 – Absorption Chiller ................................................................................... 107
15.10 Solution 10 – Absorption Chiller .............................................................................. 108
15.11 Solution 11 – Cooling Tower ................................................................................... 108
15.12 Solution 12 – Refrigerants ...................................................................................... 109

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section of the exam guide book focuses on the Mechanical Equipment and Components
used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. This section accounts for approximately 16-24 questions
on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.
The equipment discussed in this section includes the most common pieces of equipment and
systems that are on the PE exam. The next section uses the equipment and components and
puts them together into various systems.
Air handling and distribution equipment: fans, dampers, cooling/heating coils and heat
exchangers.
Fluid handling and distribution equipment: pumps, cooling towers, fluid coolers, heat exchangers
and valves.
Refrigerant handling and distribution equipment: chillers, condensers, evaporators and

compressors.
Heating handling and distribution equipment: boilers and furnaces.
Equipment & Components

16-24 questions
Cooling Towers Boilers and Heat Exchangers Condensers/
and Fluid Coolers Furnaces Evaporators
Pumps Fans Compressors Cooling/Heating

Coils
Control System Refrigerants Refrigeration

Components Components

2.0 COOLING TOWERS

Cooling towers are mechanical pieces of equipment that function on the principle of evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling is the process by which a liquid is cooled to a lower temperature by
evaporating a small portion of the liquid into an airstream. Relatively dry air moves through a
falling liquid and as the air moves it picks up water vapor from the liquid, thereby increasing the
air’s moisture content. In order for the liquid to evaporate, the liquid needs a heat source to meet
the latent heat of vaporization. This heat source is the sensible heat loss from the remaining
liquid. The fluid running through the cooling tower is cooled either by direct or indirect contact
with the evaporation process. In this section, direct contact, also known as open circuit cooling
towers, is described. Indirect contact is discussed in the fluid cooler section at the end of this
topic.
An open circuit cooling tower consists of two fluid flows, the air flow and the water flow. The water
flow starts from the top of the cooling tower. Warm water is pumped to a series of nozzles. The
nozzles’ purpose is to break up the water into tiny droplets to increase the surface area of the
water that is in contact with the air stream. The droplets then fall through a fill material, which
also serves to break up the droplets further to increase the surface area of the water. As the
water moves downward it steadily decreases in temperature as heat is lost due to evaporation.
Finally, the water collects at the basin, where it is sucked out and distributed to its required
location.
The air flow starts at the bottom of the tower, where cold dry air is brought into the cooling tower
where it comes into contact with the water droplets. As the air moves upward through the tower
it picks up water vapor and slightly increases in temperature. Prior to exiting the cooling tower,
the air must travel through the drift eliminators, which is a series of baffles. The purpose of the
drift eliminators is to catch any suspended water droplets in the air stream and return them to the
fill.
Figure 1: Cooling tower schematic

2.1 CHARACTERIZING COOLING TOWERS

The following section provides information on the different types of cooling towers used in the
HVAC & Refrigeration field. This information is provided to give the engineer additional
background on cooling towers.
Mechanical vs. Natural Draft Cooling Towers:
There are two main categories of cooling towers: (1) Mechanical draft and (2) Natural draft
cooling towers. Natural draft cooling towers move air based on the difference in buoyancy of the
airstream inside and outside of the cooling tower. Mechanical draft cooling towers move air
through the cooling tower by means of a mechanical fan. In the HVAC & Refrigeration field,
mechanical draft cooling towers are the primary type of cooling tower.
Induced vs. Forced Draft Cooling Towers:
Induced and forced draft cooling towers are both mechanical draft type fans and differ by the
location of their fan. Forced draft fans blow air into the cooling tower and are located at the
airstream entrance into the cooling tower. Induced draft cooling towers on the other hand, have
the fans located at the exit of the airstream for the cooling tower and suck air into the cooling
tower.
Counter-flow vs. Cross-flow Cooling Towers:
Counter-flow and cross-flow cooling towers are characterized by the relationship between
the air flow and water flow. In a cross-flow tower the air and water flow are at 90 degrees to each
other. The water is falling downwards and the air is moving across from either left to right or right
to left. In a counter-flow tower, the air and water flows have directly opposing directions. The
water is falling downwards and the air is moving upwards.
Figure 2: Cross-flow schematic Figure 3: Counter-flow schematic
The following figure is a schematic of a forced mechanical draft, counter flow cooling tower. The
fans are located at the air inlets, near the bottom of the cooling tower. Also the air flow counters
the water flow as the water drops downward through the fill material.

Figure 4: Forced mechanical draft, counter flow cooling tower
The following figure is a schematic of a forced mechanical draft, cross flow cooling tower. Since
this cooling tower is forced draft, the fans are again located at the inlet of the cooling tower near
the bottom. The air flows counter or perpendicular to the water as the water falls downward
through the fill.
Figure 5: Forced mechanical draft, cross flow cooling tower Copyright © 2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
The following figure is a schematic of an induced mechanical draft, counter flow cooling tower.
The fan is located at the exit of the cooling tower and air is sucked or induced through the cooling
tower. This cooling tower is also a counter flow type, where air flows upward through the fill and
counters the downward moving water droplets.

Figure 6: Induced mechanical draft, counter-flow cooling tower
The following figure is a schematic of an induced mechanical draft, cross flow cooling tower.
Again the fan is located at the exit of the cooling tower. This cooling tower is a cross flow cooling
tower, where air flows perpendicular through the fill as it crosses the falling water droplets.
Figure 7: Induced mechanical draft, Cross-flow cooling tower
2.2 COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE

The professional engineer must be able to properly design and select a cooling tower to fit the
HVAC & Refrigeration application. Cooling towers are characterized by two terms the approach
and the range. The range of the cooling tower is the difference between the entering and exiting
temperatures of the cooling tower water.

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑇 , ℉ 𝑇 , ℉
The approach or approach to wet bulb is the temperature difference between the water out and
the wet bulb temperature of the air.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑇 , ℉ 𝑇 , ℉
The approach is important because it describes the level of performance of the cooling tower.
The smaller the approach of the cooling tower, the closer it is to reaching (or “approaching”) its
maximum possible heat transfer. A smaller approach means there is more heat transfer occurring
between the air and the water, which means it is better at cooling the water for given design
constraints. However, to accomplish this, a larger contact area and/or more airflow for cooling, is
needed, which translates to a larger cooling tower. The wet bulb temperature of the entering air
is the lowest the temperature of the exiting water can reach. If a cooling tower has a 0 degree
approach then the cooling tower is using all of the available heat exchange from the air to cool
the water. Typical approaches are in the range of ~10 °F.
Figure 8: approach, effectiveness and range
Approach also leads to another important term in determining the performance of cooling towers,
called effectiveness. Effectiveness is a term used to describe how effective the cooling tower is
at cooling the water or how close the actual temperature difference between the water
temperatures in and out is to the maximum temperature difference. The maximum temperature
difference that a cooling tower can produce is the difference between the water temperature in
and the air wet bulb temperature.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ

The range is important because when used in conjunction with the water flow rate, the capacity
of the cooling tower can be found. The capacity and the amount of cooling provided by the cooling
tower are found by multiplying the flow rate of the cooling water by the difference in temperature
at the inlet and outlet of the cooling tower, using the following equation, Q = mc∆T and for a
simplified equation to use during the test, follow the derivation below.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑚 ∗𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇 ℉
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉
Where, m mass flow rate and c het capacıty of water and ∆T the dıfference ın temperature.
Substituting volumetric flow rate [GPM] and density of water for mass flow rate, results in the
following equation.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑙 1.00 𝑏𝑡𝑢

𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 8.33 ∗ 60 ∗ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑔𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉
Simplifying the constants, results in the following equation.
𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 500 ∗ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑚𝑖𝑛
2.3 COOLING TOWER WATER LOSS AND MAKE-UP

In a cooling tower, water is lost due to multiple sources such as evaporation, drift and blow-down.
The first term, evaporation, is calculated through the following equation, where the assumption is
made that the total heat loss is due to the heat loss through evaporation.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑚 ∗𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇 ℉
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑚 ∗𝐻
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚
Btu
where H is equal to the latent heat of vaporization
lbm
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑚 ∗𝑐 ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑚 ∗𝐻
ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉ ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑡𝑢
500 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 500 ∗ 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 1,060
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑙
. 000943 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
With a 10°F difference between entering and existing temperature, the evaporation rate is
approximately 1% of the cooling tower flow rate.

The second water loss is due to drift. Drift is the amount of water that is carried out through the
airstream. Drift eliminators provided prior to the discharge are best described as a maze of baffles
that the air must travel through before exiting to atmosphere. The drift eliminator trap the water
droplets that get picked up by the exiting air and send the droplets back to the fill material. Typical
water loss due to drift is less than 0.2%.
The third major source of water loss is due to blow-down. Blow-down is required because as
water is evaporated it leaves behind the total dissolved solids (TDS), which increases the
concentration of the TDS in the water. In order to bring the concentration of the TDS back to
normal conditions so that it may be used safely with the equipment, the high concentrated TDS
water is drained regularly and this is what is referred to as blow-down. The water is then replaced
with fresh water and this is referred to as make-up water.
2.4 COOLING TOWER PSYCHROMETRICS

A cooling tower transfers heat from water to air. If you look at the psychrometrics of a cooling
tower it will behave similar to an air washer. The air enters dry and will leave near saturation.
The larger the difference in enthalpy between the air and water, the greater amount of heat
transfer that can occur.
Figure 9: The movement of the air entering and leaving the cooling tower. In actual conditions,
the air will not leave exactly at the 100% saturation point, but it will be along the path.

The previous figure shows air entering with a wet bulb temperature of 63°F. The condenser water
enters at 85°F and leaves at 73°F. The driving force for the air is the difference in humidity ratio
between the entering air and the entering condenser water temperature.
On the water side, the condenser water cannot leave at a temperature below the wet bulb of the
entering air. The driving force is the difference between the entering water temperature and the
entering air wet bulb. The approach is the difference in wet bulb temperature of the entering air
and the leaving water temperature. A small approach indicates a very efficient cooling tower and
a larger approach indicates a less efficient cooling tower.
2.5 COOLING TOWER HEAT TRANSFER

A cooling tower transfers heat from the condenser water droplets to the air. Heat transfer occurs
at the interface between water and air.
Ratio of condenser water (Liquid) to air (Gas). Optimal ratio is 1.5 liquid mass to 1.0 air mass flow
rate.
2. Increasing airflow: Causes L/G ratio to decrease. Causes driving force to increase. Increases
heat transfer.
2. Decreasing airflow: Causes L/G ratio to increase. Causes driving force to decrease. Decreases
heat transfer.
2.6 NOMINAL COOLING TOWER TON

A nominal cooling tower ton is equal to the amount of energy required to cool 3 gallons per minute
of water from 95°F to 85°F at a 78°F entering air wet-bulb temperature. This results in 15,000
Btu/h per nominal cooling tower ton. The origin of the 15,000 Btu/h cooling tower ton, as compared
to the 12,000 Btu/h evaporator ton, is based on the assumption that at typical air-conditioning
conditions, for every 12,000 Btu/h of heat picked up in the evaporator, the cooling tower must
dissipate an additional 3000 Btu/h of compressor heat.
3.0 FLUID COOLERS

Fluid coolers have the same purpose as the cooling tower, which is to cool a process liquid. Fluid
coolers are closed system coolers that separate the process liquid from the cooling medium with
a coil. There are two main types of fluid coolers: dry and evaporative. The evaporative type uses
the same evaporative cooling principles as the cooling tower, while the dry type uses air to cool
the fluid. Other types are hybrid and adiabatic.

3.1 EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLER

The evaporative fluid cooler, also known as a closed circuit cooling tower, is very similar to the
open circuit cooling tower that was described in the previous section. The main difference is the
contact method between the fluid being cooled and the evaporation. An open circuit cooling tower
employs direct contact heat exchange between the process water and the ambient air. An
evaporative fluid cooler uses a coil to completely separate the fluid being cooled from the
evaporative fluid.
Figure 10: Induced draft, counter-flow evaporative fluid cooler. A fluid cooler is a closed circuit
cooling tower that uses a coil to completely separate the process fluid.
In the evaporative fluid cooler, a secondary loop provides the evaporative cooling water, which
cools the surface of the coil pipes. The coil pipe barrier creates additional heat transfer resistance
between the process water and the evaporative water, thereby lowering the overall heat transfer
rate of the fluid cooler when compared to an open circuit cooling tower. For this reason,
evaporative fluid coolers are typically larger in size to produce similar heat transfer rates. The
advantage is that this pipe barrier prevents contaminants from entering the process fluid, reducing
fouling and maintenance over time.
As with the open circuit cooling tower, the fluid coolers can have similar configurations based on
the fluid flow and the fan location.

Figure 11: Different fluid cooler configurations. Left – Counter-flow forced draft fluid cooler;
Right – Cross-flow induced draft fluid cooler
3.2 DRY FLUID COOLER

Dry type fluid coolers use air to cool the process fluid. Dry type fluid coolers save water, but use
more energy, since the latent heat transfer is not available.
3.3 HYBRID FLUID COOLER

A hybrid fluid cooler uses both dry and evaporative cooling. The system operates in dry mode
when less cooling is required and switches to evaporative mode when larger capacities are
required. This gives the advantage of reducing the footprint, by having the evaporative cooling
capacities, but also reduces water consumption when in dry mode.
Figure 12: Hybrid fluid cooler with dry and evaporative cooling modes.

3.4 ADIABATIC FLUID COOLER

Finally, adiabatic fluid coolers use a combination of dry cooling with wetted pads. The wetted
pads adiabatically cool the ambient air before it reaches the coils. On the psychrometric chart,
adiabatic cooling follows the constant enthalpy line up and to the left. The adiabatic fluid cooler
does not provide as much cooling as an evaporative cooler, but the wetted pads take advantage
of evaporative pre-cooling of the incoming air with much less water. Adiabatic fluid coolers
typically operate in dry mode until additional capacity require the wetted pads for pre-cooling.
Figure 13: Adiabatic Fluid Coolers use wetted pads to adiabatically cool the ambient air before it
reaches the coils.
4.0 BOILERS & FURNACES
4.1 STEAM BOILERS
Steam boilers are mechanical pieces of equipment designed to convert water in liquid form to
steam through the combustion of a fuel source like natural gas. There are many different types
of boilers but most are characterized by pressure and heat exchanger type.
Low pressure boilers operate below 15 PSI, high pressure boilers operate above 150 PSI and
medium pressure boilers operate in between 15 and 150 PSI. The different types of heat
exchangers describe the location of the fuel and the water. Water tube boilers have water in
tubes, with the hot combustion gases around the tubes, while fire tube boilers have combustion
gases flowing through tubes that are submerged in water.
It is important for the engineer to understand the three different systems that comprise a boiler
system, the (1) Feed-water System, (2) Combustion System and (3) Steam System.
(1) The feed-water system describes the incoming fluid water to the boiler. It consists of a feed-
water pump, water softeners to remove minerals that can damage boilers and de-aerators to

remove oxygen. Feed-water is provided by a mixture of the water supply and condensate return.
The important part of the feed water system is to be able to determine the entering enthalpy of
the feed water, depending on the pressure and temperature of the incoming water. As discussed
in the Thermodynamics section, water in the sub-cooled region has enthalpy values that are a
function of temperature.
(2) The combustion system describes the fuel portion of the boiler. The combustion system
consists of oxygen supply (typically provided by a fan or air that is naturally induced), an ignition,
a fuel supply and piping. It is important to be able to determine the total heat supplied by the fuel.
Total heat is shown as “Q” is a function of the mass flow rate of the fuel, the higher heating value
(HHV) of the fuel and the boiler efficiency. The HHV can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook. Boiler efficiencies are a function of the losses and efficiencies in the
system.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 ∗ 𝜀
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻𝐻𝑉 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
ℎ𝑟
𝜀 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
(3) The steam system is the output portion of the boiler. It consists of the outgoing steam piping
to the steam consuming pieces of equipment, which in the HVAC & Refrigeration field are steam
heating coils for air distribution and steam heating coils for water distribution. The output of the
boiler is either saturated steam or a super-heated steam and the values for this steam output can
be determined from the saturated steam tables or the super-heated steam tables.
Efficiency of a boiler is found by dividing the output energy by the input energy. The output is
found by determining the change in enthalpy between the feed-water and the super-heated
steam. The input is determined by the mass flow rate of the fuel and the higher heating value of
the fuel.
𝑚 ∗ 𝐻 , 𝐻 ,
𝜀
𝑚 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉
This efficiency often referred to as the fuel-to-steam efficiency and is a true measure of the boiler
input to output efficiency. There are other efficiencies that are out of the realm of this book, like
the thermal efficiency and combustion efficiency. These items are more representative of the
Thermal & Fluids topic.

4.2 TYPES OF BOILERS

There are three main types of fuel boilers used in industry: firetube, watertube, and condensing.
Firetube and watertube are non-condensing type boilers and have been around much longer than
condensing boilers. Condensing boilers extract additional heat from the flue gases to provide
higher efficiencies than the non-condensing type.
Firetube boilers: In a firetube boiler or shell boiler, the products of combustion are contained
within boiler tubes. Similar to a shell and tube heat exchanger, the water is passed over the tubes
within a shell. Heat is transferred from the products of combustion to the water and the water is
converted to steam.
Figure 14: Firetube boiler. The combustion products travel within the tubes and the water
travels outside, within the shell.
Watertube boilers: In a watertube boiler, the products of combustion are within the shell and the
water is kept within small tubes. These types of boilers have a higher steam pressure, due to the
smaller tubes.
Figure 15: Watertube boiler. The water travels in the tubes and the combustion products are
on the outside, within the shell. This type of boiler is suitable for higher pressure steam.
Non-Condensing Boiler: The firetube and watertube boilers are non-condensing types, which
means the fuel is combusted and leaves the boiler as flue gas. The flue gas is the exhaust from
the combustion process and is very hot, around 250-400°F. The exhaust duct material must be

rated for these temperatures. Since the flue temperatures are so high, the moisture in the exhaust
will not condense. Non-condensing boilers have efficiencies around 80-85%.
Figure 16: Fuel enters a non-condensing boiler, heats the incoming feedwater, and leaves as
high temperature flue gas.
Condensing Boilers: Condensing boilers extract additional heat from the flue gas to heat the
water and gain efficiencies. As the flue temperature drops to preheat the incoming feedwater,
the moisture in the combustion exhaust will condense out, hence the name condensing boiler.
The flue will leave the boiler at around 120-140°F. With the additional heat recovery, the efficiency
increases to around 90-98%.
Figure 17: Condensing boilers use the heat in the flue exhaust to provide additional heat to the
incoming feedwater before it is exhausted. The lower flue temperatures will cause the moisture
in the flue to condense out.

4.3 ELECTRIC BOILERS

If you have an electric boiler on an exam, the main concept to understand is that all the electrical
energy flows through the water and is converted to steam or in some cases hot water. These
types of problems are solved with a simple unit conversion.
3412𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑄 𝑘𝑊 ∗ 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑘𝑊
𝑄 , → 𝑚 ∗ 𝐻 , 𝐻 ,
𝑄 , → 𝑚 ∗𝑐 ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
4.4 BOILER ENERGY BALANCE

Boilers in its simplest form are heat exchangers. The heat from combustion transfers to the water
by increasing its temperature and then by vaporizing the water to steam. This heat exchange is
governed by the energy balance equation. For the exam, you should be familiar with the simplified
energy equations for steam.
The first energy equation is for the increase in temperature of water, when you are given water in
GPM.
𝑄 𝑚
∗ 𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1.00
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉
∆𝑇 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℉
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑓𝑡 62.4 𝑙𝑏 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1.00 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑄 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇
The second simplified energy equation is for the vaporization of water, when you are given water
in GPM.
∗ℎ 𝑄 𝑚
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑓𝑡 62.4 𝑙𝑏 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

1 ∗ ∗ ∗
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑄 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ℎ

4.5 FURNACES
Furnaces are mechanical pieces of equipment used for space heating. Furnaces consist of a
burner with a combustion air intake, fuel intake and an igniter. The hot combustion flames are
routed through a heat exchanger, where heat is exchanged to the cold air as it is blown across
the heat exchanger coils. Warm air is then blown to the space and the combustion gases/products
exit the furnace through an exhaust vent pipe.
Figure 18: Non-condensing furnace produces warm air from combustion gas.
The fuel that is most commonly used is natural gas. Furnaces can be used in both residential
and commercial situations.
4.5.1 TYPES OF FURNACES
The two main types of furnaces are condensing and non-condensing furnaces, similar to the
condensing and non-condensing boilers. The traditional non-condensing furnace operates in the
initial description of a furnace. These furnaces can have efficiencies in the range of 80% to 85%
AFUE. A condensing furnace takes the combustion products that were initially routed to the
exhaust vent and passes them through another heat exchanger. This extracts more heat to the
air and cools the combustion products to a temperature where water begins to condense out of
the air. Because of the water, this second heat exchanger is made of a corrosive resistive
material. A condensing furnace can have efficiencies in the range of 90% to 98% AFUE.
4.5.2 EFFICIENCY
The annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) is the term used by manufacturers to rate the annual
efficiency of their furnaces. It describes the ratio of the amount of useful heat out of the furnace
compared to the amount of fuel input to the furnace. This efficiency rating is regulated by the

Department of Energy (DOE) and is used to take into account the constant on/off operation and
seasonal effects on the furnace. The DOE requires that all furnaces have efficiencies greater
than 78% AFUE.
Steady state efficiencies are also provided by the manufacturer and indicate the best efficiency
of the furnace when operated at peak conditions.
4.6 COMBUSTION
Combustion is more of a Thermal & Fluids topic, but for the purposes of the HVAC & Refrigeration
exam you should be familiar with the basics of the combustion process, since it is used in furnaces
and certain boiler types. Combustion is the process by which the fuel is oxidized and as a result
releases heat. The process also releases water and carbon dioxide.
The equation for combustion is as follows:
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑂 𝐻 𝑂
When you substitute the basic formula for a hydrocarbon fuel and air, then the resulting equation
is as follows.
𝐴∗𝐶 𝐻 𝐵∗ 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶 ∗ 𝐶𝑂 𝐷∗𝐻 𝑂
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 & 𝐷 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4.6.1 FUEL
Fuel is simply any material that can be burned to release heat. But the most common fuels in the
HVAC & Refrigeration application are the hydrocarbon fuels. This category includes fuels like
coal, gasoline and natural gas. These fuels power the power plants and cars in the United States
of America. The fuels are a combination of carbon and hydrogen.
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝐶 𝐻
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
For example, these are the formulas for gasoline, diesel and methane.
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐶 𝐻 ; 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝐶 𝐻 ; 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐶𝐻
Heating Value:
The amount of thermal energy that is available in a fuel is characterized by its heating value. The
heating value for gaseous fuel is typically given as the heat per unit volume (Btu/ft3) under
standard temperatures and pressures. The heating value for liquid fuel is typically represented

as the heat per volume (Btu/gal) or per unit mass (Btu/lbm), under standard temperatures and
pressures. The various terms can be converted between each other using the specific volume of
the fuel. The heating values for typical fuel types are provided in the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook and ASHRAE Fundamentals. The useable energy released from the fuel
is calculated using the equation originally discussed under the Steam Boilers topic.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄 𝑚 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝐻𝑉 ∗𝜀
ℎ ℎ 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑓𝑡 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄 𝑉 ∗ ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝐻𝑉 ∗𝜀
ℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ 𝑓𝑡
There are two types of heating values for each fuel type: higher heating value (HHV) and lower
heating value (LHV).
Higher Heating Value:
Higher heating value includes the heat from the combustion process and the latent heat of
vaporization in the water. In other words, if the fuel were to combust at 77°F, the HHV is the heat
released during the combustion process plus the heat to cool and condense the water vapor in
the combustion product back down to 77°F. This is also known as the gross heating value.
Lower Heating Value:
Lower heating value is the net heating value, or the heat from the combustion process without the
latent heat of vaporization from the resulting water. The latent heat is exhausted before it can be
put to use. As an example, a non-condensing boiler will use the lower heating value, while a
condensing boiler will use the higher heating value.
4.6.2 AIR
Air is about 21% oxygen (by volume) and 78% nitrogen and about 1% other gases. The PE exam
may ask you to calculate the amount of air used in a combustion process and air should take into
account both oxygen and nitrogen.
𝐴𝑖𝑟 21%𝑂 79%𝑁
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑂 3.76𝑁
4.6.3 STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry of chemical reactions means that chemical species react in exact proportions. The
proportions that react are governed by the specific fuel’s combustion equation. When completing
these types of problems, remember that the proportions that are in the equations are based on

moles and not weight. If a problem gives you weights, you need to first convert the weight to
moles before you can use the stoichiometry equations.
In order to convert weight to moles you need the molecular weight, so ensure you know how to
find the periodic table quickly in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. Here are some
of the common molecular weights used in the combustion equations.
Element Molecular Weight (g)

Carbon [C] 12
Nitrogen [N] 14
Oxygen [O] 16
Sulfur [S] 16
Hydrogen [H] 1
There are two basic principles to understand with the stoichiometric questions you encountered
on the exam, first there is a conservation of elements. The quantity of elements on the left hand
side must equal the quantity of elements on the right side for each type of element.
Propane:
𝐶 𝐻 5 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 3𝐶𝑂 4𝐻 𝑂 18.8𝑁
Element Left Side Right Side Equal?

C 3 3 Yes
H 8 4*2 Yes
O 5*2 6+4 Yes
N 5*3.76 18.8 Yes
The second principle is that mass must be conserved. The amount of fuel and air entering the
combustion chamber must equal the mass of the products released from the combustion
chamber. This will be discussed in the air to fuel ratio section.
4.6.4 AIR TO FUEL RATIO

Mass will always be conserved in a combustion reaction. For example, if there is 1 lb of fuel and
20 lbs of air added to a combustion chamber, then the total weight of the products will be 21 lbs.
The air to fuel ratio is important because it describes the minimum amount of air which will allow
the complete combustion of fuel. There are two important ratios used in the exam, the theoretical
air to fuel ratio and the actual air to fuel ratio.
The theoretical air to fuel ratio is solely dependent on the stoichiometry. The actual air to fuel
ratio is what is done in practice.

For example, in the propane equation the theoretical air to fuel ratio will be as follows.
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 →
𝐶 𝐻 5 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 3𝐶𝑂 4𝐻 𝑂 18.8𝑁

𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶 𝐻 → 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 ∗ 12 8∗ 1 44
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝐴𝑖𝑟 5 𝑂 3.76𝑁 → 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 5 ∗ 2 ∗ 16 5 ∗ 3.76 ∗ 2 ∗ 14 686.4
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
686.4
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 15.6 𝑡𝑜 1
44
The actual air to fuel ratio is something that is determined in practice. An exam question may ask
you to derive the actual air to fuel ratio based on the mass of the products or the exam may give
you air to fuel ratio and ask you to derive the products.
4.6.5 EXCESS AIR

There is a minimum amount of air that supplies sufficient O2 for the complete combustion of the
fuel, which is called the theoretical air. However, theoretical air is difficult to achieve in practice
and as such excess air is always supplied to the combustion process.
Excess air is equal
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟
% 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑖𝑟 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟
Excess air can be solved with the following quick equation for use when analyzing the output of
the flue gas. The flue gas is the gas that exits the combustion process. A flue gas analyzer is
used to measure the percent oxygen, percent carbon monoxide, percent carbon dioxide and the
percentage of other products within a sample of the flue gas. With these values you can
determine the % excess air.
𝐶𝑂
100 ∗ 𝑂
% 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑖𝑟 2
𝐶𝑂
0.264 ∗ 𝑁 𝑂
2
The equation above is based on the values of oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen in percent
by volume format. There are other equations that can be found in 2017 ASHRAE Fundamentals,
Chapter 28 Combustion and Fuels and also the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.

5.0 HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are mechanical devices designed to exchange or transfer heat from a hot fluid
to a cold fluid. Heat exchangers are used heavily throughout the HVAC & Refrigeration field. For
example, a condenser or evaporator in a chiller is simply a heat exchanger. A cooling or heating
coil is a heat exchanger that transfers heat from one fluid to another fluid. A chilled water air
handling unit transfers heat from hot air to chilled water.
There are many different types of heat exchangers that are briefly discussed in the Refrigeration
Section, but for exam purposes it is more important to understand the two classifications of heat
exchangers, (1) parallel flow and (2) counter-flow heat exchangers. These two classifications
describe the relationship between the direction of flow of the cold and hot fluids.
(1) Parallel flow heat exchanger: This heat exchanger has both the cold and hot fluids entering
at the same end of the heat exchanger. At the beginning of the heat exchanger there is a large
difference between the cold and hot fluids and at the end of the heat exchange the difference
between cold and hot is reduced, refer to the figures below.
Figure 19: Parallel flow heat exchanger
(2) Counter-flow heat exchanger: The counter-flow heat exchanger is opposite of the parallel flow
heat exchanger. The cold and hot fluids enter at opposite ends. The figure below shows the
counter-flow heat exchanger, notice the opposing directional arrows.
Figure 20: Counter-flow heat exchanger

5.1 TYPES
The two main types of heat exchangers are shell and tube and plate and frame. This was
introduced in the evaporator topic under the Thermodynamics section of this book. The type of
heat exchanger selected for a particular application, as well as its features are based on criteria
such as effectiveness, space requirements, fluid content, operating temperatures and pressures,
temperature differentials, pressure drop, and cost. Both heat exchangers can also be provided
with double wall construction, which is used when cross contamination between fluids is a
concern. Of course, the additional layer of material will reduce the heat transfer rate between the
fluids. There are many configurations that these heat exchangers can be constructed, but the
basics are discussed here.
5.1.2 SHELL AND TUBE

The shell and tube heat exchanger carries one fluid within the tubes and the other fluid in the
shell. There are multiple small tubes that run within the shell. The heat exchange between the
two fluids occurs at the tube wall, thus more tubes with smaller diameters means more surface
area available for heat transfer. A shell and tube heat exchanger is characterized by its overall
diameter, length, number of passes, and the shape of the tubes and headers.
The pass is the number of times that a fluid travels within the heat exchanger. Both the shell and
the tube may have pass counts. Adding passes increases the heat transfer surface area and
contact time between the fluids, but affect the equipment size and cost. The simplest shell and
tube heat exchanger is the 1 shell pass – 1 tube pass heat exchanger as shown below.
Figure 21: Single Pass Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger. The fluid in the shell travels around the
baffles for prolonged contact with the tubes. The header is the area where the tube fluids are
combined. This particular configuration is a counter flow heat exchanger.
Another common configuration is the u-bend shell and tube heat exchanger which is a 1 shell
pass – 2 tube pass heat exchanger, where the tubes travel as a through the shell once, makes a
U-turn at the end, and travels back to through the shell a second time.

Figure 22: U-bend shell and tube heat exchanger.
An example of a 2 shell pass – 4 tube pass shell and tube heat exchanger is shown below. The
shell fluid travels across the length of the heat exchanger twice and the tube fluid travels across
the heat exchanger four times.
Figure 23: 2 shell pass – 4 tube pass heat exchanger
Shell and tube heat exchangers can typically operate at higher fluid pressures than plate and
frame heat exchangers. The tubes also have larger passage space than the plate, which is better
suited for fluids that may have dissolved solids that can cause clogging. This also allows for a
lower pressure drop across the equipment. The disadvantage is that the shell and tube requires
more floor area because of its design and the maintenance access to pull out the tubes.
The shell is typically constructed of steel, while the tubes are constructed of copper. Other options
are available depending on the fluid requirements, such as corrosion resistance.
5.1.3 PLATE AND FRAME

The plate and frame heat exchanger is a more compact design made up of two end cover frame
plates and corrugated plate packs all compressed together. The two fluids flow within alternating
metal plates, allowing for more surface area and better heat transfer coefficients and smaller
approach than the shell and tube design. Other advantages of the plate and frame heat
exchanger is its smaller footprint and maintainability since the plates can be easily separated.
Typically plate and frame heat exchangers cost less, especially when stainless steel or other

higher grade materials are used. Disadvantages include operating temperature and pressure
limitations. The corrugated plate design also increases the turbulence of the fluid, which results
in higher pressure drop across the equipment.
Figure 24: Single pass plate and frame heat exchanger.
The frame plates are typically constructed of carbon steel and the plate packs are stainless steel.
Like the shell and tube heat exchanger, the plate and frame can also be characterized by the
number of passes it has. Below is an example of a 2 pass plate and frame heat exchanger, where
there are two distinct flow header sections.
Figure 25: Two pass plate and frame heat exchanger.
5.2 LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD)

In heat exchangers that do not have a phase change, heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the
cold fluid through the temperature difference between the cold and hot. However, in a heat
exchanger as shown in the previous figures, the temperature difference between the cold and hot
fluids is not always constant and depends on the location in the heat exchanger. Thus the log
mean temperature difference is used. The LMTD describes the logarithmic average temperature
difference between the cold and hot fluid through a generic heat exchanger (counter or parallel).

LMTD cannot be used for heat exchangers with a phase change like a boiler or condenser. The
equation for LMTD is shown below.
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
∆𝑇
ln
∆𝑇
∆𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐴
∆𝑇 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐵
The LMTD is then used to calculate the total heat exchanged by the heat exchanger through the
following equation. The U-value is the heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger which is
given by the heat exchanger manufacturer. The Area value is the total area where heat exchange
occurs, which is also given by the heat exchanger manufacturer.
𝑄 𝑈 ∗𝐴 ∗ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 ;𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑡
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ °𝐹
Refer to the fouling topic under the Condenser and Evaporator section of this chapter, as well as
the Heat Transfer chapter of this book for discussions on how to calculate the heat transfer
coefficient for heat exchangers.
5.2.1 CORRECTION FACTOR
An LMTD correction factor may be applied, for more complicated heat exchanger geometries,
other than the single pass parallel and counter flow types. Such heat exchangers include multi-
pass shell and tube and cross-flow types. The correction factor will have to be given to you as a
value or via a lookup graph, otherwise you may assume this is equal to 1.
𝑄 𝑈 ∗𝐴 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 1 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦

Figure 26: More complicated heat exchanger configurations will have an LMTD correction
factor, F<1. A simplified example of a cross-flow heat exchanger is shown on the left. A 2 shell,
6 tube (2-6) pass shell and tube heat exchanger is shown on the right.
5.3 NTU METHOD

The number of transfer units (NTU) method is used to calculate the heat transfer rate through a
heat exchanger when the outlet fluid temperatures, and thus the LMTD, is unknown. The NTU is
first used to calculate the heat exchanger’s effectiveness, which is then used to solve for the heat
transfer rate.
STEP 1: To perform the NTU method, start by finding the NTU with the following relationship
between the heat exchanger surface area, heat transfer coefficient, and minimum heat capacity
rate. The heat capacity rate is the fluid’s mass flow rate, 𝑚 , multiplied by the specific heat
capacity, 𝑐 . The hot fluid and the cold fluid of the heat exchanger each has a heat capacity rate.
The minimum heat capacity rate is the smaller value of the two.
𝐴∗𝑈
𝑁𝑇𝑈
𝐶
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑡/𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
ℎ ∗ °𝐹
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑡 ; 𝑈 𝑎𝑣𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ ∗ 𝑓𝑡 ∗ °𝐹
STEP 2: Find the effectiveness based on the NTU and the type of heat exchanger. This can
either be found with an effectiveness equation or an effectiveness-NTU graph. The relationships
are specific to each heat exchanger type, so they will either be provided in the NCEES Mechanical
PE Reference Handbook or given to you in the question.
A key term you will need for finding the effectiveness is the heat capacity ratio, Cr. This is the
ratio of the minimum and maximum heat capacity rates. Where Cmin was calculated above, Cmax
will be the heat capacity rate of the other fluid.

𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
As an example, the effectiveness for a simple parallel flow, tube in tube heat exchanger is found
below.
∗
1 𝑒
𝜀
1 𝐶
An example of an 𝜀-NTU curve for a multi pass plate and frame heat exchanger is shown below.
Figure 27: Effectiveness-NTU Curve of a heat exchanger
STEP 3: The effectiveness is used to find the heat transfer rate through the heat exchanger. The
effectiveness, 𝜀, is defined as the fraction of the maximum possible heat transfer that is actually
transferred in the heat exchanger.
𝑄 𝜀∗𝑄
Heat transfer for a fluid at constant pressure, i.e. liquid, is defined by the generic equation.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇
The maximum possible heat transfer is based on fluid with the smallest heat capacity rate, 𝐶
𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 , and the max possible temperature gain in the fluid. In other words, heat cannot be
transferred faster than the fluid with the smallest heat capacity rate. Also, the maximum possible
temperature gain is the cold fluid reaching the temperature of the hot fluid, or Thot,in – Tcold,in.
Therefore the maximum heat transfer rate based on two incoming fluids is found below.
𝑄 𝐶 ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑡/𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
ℎ ∗ °𝐹

STEP 4: Sometimes you may be asked to solve for the leaving temperatures. This can be done
by balancing the heat equations. The actual heat transfer rate can alternatively be found with the
hot fluid and the cold fluid. If the actual heat transfer rate was solved from the previous steps,
then it can be plugged into these equations to solve for the unknown temperature.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
5.4 HEAT BALANCE

Often times in the HVAC & Refrigeration field, a heat balance is conducted on a heat exchanger
to show that a balance of heat loss from the hot fluid is shown as a heat gain to the cold fluid. For
example, cooling coils are heat exchangers that transfer heat from air to water. The heat balance
governing this heat transfer would be as shown below. This uses the same concept as the
previous equation. Recall that the equation only applies if there is no phase change, i.e. only
sensible heat gain/loss in the air.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
If there is a phase change, then the following equation can be used. Heat balances are discussed
further in the Refrigeration Section, Mechanical Systems and the Psychrometrics section. Heat
balances are integral to the HVAC & Refrigeration field, but luckily the equations governing heat
balance are fairly simple.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
5.5 FOULING
Heat exchangers, including condensers, evaporators, heating and cooling coils, all discussed in
the following sections, are subject to fouling over time. Fouling is the increased resistance to heat
transfer due to sediment buildup, corrosive products and/or biological growth. You should be able
to calculate how fouling can alter the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. The best resource for
this skill is located in ASHRAE HVAC Systems & Equipment, Chapter 39 Condensers and this
skill is briefly discussed below.
The first step is to create an equation that governs the heat transfer without fouling. For
condensers and evaporators there will be heat transfer due to convection on both the refrigerant
and water side. This is due to the moving water and refrigerant. There will also be heat transfer
due to conduction between the refrigerant, tube walls and the water. These three terms can be
combined to find the overall heat transfer coefficient without fouling.
1
𝑈
1 1 𝑡
ℎ ℎ 𝑘

𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ. 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉
As time goes on, fouling will occur that will affect the overall heat transfer coefficient. In order to
properly size your condenser, evaporator or coil, you need to take into account some fouling by
incorporating a fouling factor. The typical fouling factor, in accordance with ASHRAE HVAC
℉
Systems & Equipment, Chapter 39 Condensers is 0.00025 . By including the fouling factor
in the overall heat transfer coefficient calculation, it will lower the resulting U value. This means
a greater temperature difference and/or a greater area of heat transfer is required to create the
same amount of heat transfer.
𝑄 𝑈 ↓ ∗ 𝐴 ↑ ∗ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 ↑
The U-value equation with fouling factor is revised to below. If fouling factor is separated by the
interior and exterior of the heat exchanger wall, then simply add the Rfouling values in the
℉
denominator. Typically, the 0.00025 value is inclusive of both.
1
𝑈 , 1 1 𝑡
𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
ℎ ℎ 𝑘
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 ℉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
Tube Equation:
The equation above is for flat surfaces and is an estimation for the overall heat transfer coefficient
of heat exchangers. However, compressors, evaporators, and coils are typically tube shaped.
The more complete equation for a tube heat exchanger uses the cylinder (piping) equation. The
overall area is included as U*A below, since the surface areas change with the radius.
2𝜋𝐿
𝑈𝐴 , 𝑟
ln 𝑹𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈,𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈,𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑟 1 1
𝑘 𝑟 ℎ 𝑟 ℎ 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑄 𝑈𝐴 , 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

Figure 28: Heat transfer through heat exchanger tubes with fouling factor in interior and exterior.
6.0 CONDENSERS & EVAPORATORS

Refer to thermodynamics section for a background of condensers and evaporators and its role in
the vapor-compression cycle.
There are three main equipment types that operate based on the vapor-compression cycle:
chillers, variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems, and heat pumps.
6.1 CHILLERS
The entire vapor compression cycle is contained within the chiller. The chiller essentially transfers
heat from the evaporator to the condenser through the use of a refrigerant and the refrigeration
cycle.
Figure 29: Vapor Compression Cycle is contained inside a Chiller
The evaporator within the chiller is used to cool water. This water, known as chilled water, is then
distributed to air handlers throughout the building. Chilled water is typically supplied to the

distribution system at 44oF (CHWS) and returned at 58oF (CHWR) for a 14oF differential
temperature. (45oF chilled water supply and 55oF return is also commonly seen.)
Heat is rejected from the condenser within the chiller to a heat sink. There are two main mediums
that are used to reject the heat from the compressor: air and water, which gives way to the two
main chilled water system types: Air Cooled Chiller and Water Cooled Chiller. The air cooled
system contains fans within the chiller. The fans are used to blow ambient air over the condenser.
The water cooled system uses a cooling tower and evaporative cooling principles to transfer the
heat from the condenser using water, known in the system as condenser water. Refer to the
beginning of this section for a discussion on cooling towers.
Figure 30: Left – Air cooled chiller; Right – Water cooled chiller
Air cooled chillers have lower capital investment costs because the system is contained within
one equipment. They also do not require additional costs to supply and treat the water at the
cooling tower. However, as cooling plants get larger, water cooled systems tend to have greater
overall energy savings. As a general rule of thumb, air cooled systems are typically selected for
cooling load requirements under 300 tons and water cooled systems are selected for loads over
300 tons.
Efficiencies: Chillers typically have a COP ranging from 2.5 – 7, with air cooled being on the
lower end and water cooled on the higher end. Since the chiller is hardly operating at full 100%
load, chiller manufacturers also provide a part load efficiency rating. The ratings are tested and
calculated per the Air-Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) standards and
reported as IPLV or NPLV. The integrated part load value (IPLV) is a part load efficiency rating
at standard operating conditions, for example, chilled water supplied at 44°F and given outdoor
temperatures. This allows the engineer to compare equipment operation at the same conditions.
The Non-Standard Part Load Value (NPLV) is a similar part load efficiency rating, but at non-
standard conditions, typically more comparable to the intended design conditions. After the chiller

is tested at 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% capacity, the IPLV and NPLV is calculated with the
following AHRI formula.
𝐼𝑃𝐿𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑃𝐿𝑉 𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝑅 0.01 ∗ 100%𝐿 0.42 ∗ 75%𝐿 0.45 ∗ 50%𝐿 0.12 ∗ 25%𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 %𝐿 𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝑅 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
This formula is not provided in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook, but is presented
to illustrate how these part load efficiencies are calculated.
6.1.1 ABSORPTION CHILLER

A less commonly used and more complicated refrigeration cycle is the absorption cycle.
Absorption cycles are an older technology with much lower COP’s than the vapor compression
cycle. Absorption COP’s for the simplest single effect system is typically around 0.7, while a
double effect cycle has COP’s of approximately 1.1 to 1.5. For this reason, absorption chillers
are more commonly used in heat recovery processes because of its ability to use waste heat to
generate cooling. It is unlikely that the exam will go into much detail on absorption chillers, but
the simplest version, the single-effect absorption chiller, is introduced here.
The absorption refrigeration cycle can be related to the vapor-compression cycle with the
following partial figure. The main difference is that the compressor is replaced with an
absorber/generator that uses a heat source to create the pressure differential in the cycle. The
particular cycle below represents part of the water/lithium bromide absorption chiller, which uses
water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorber.
Figure 31: Shown above is a partial figure of a water/lithium bromide absorption cycle, where
the refrigerant is water. It is similar to a vapor compression cycle, except that the compressor is

replaced with a generator/absorber and a heat source. Water acts as the refrigerant, similar to
any other refrigerant as shown in the condenser. Hot water vapor enters the condenser and is
condensed to a warm liquid. Then the warm, liquid is sent to the throttling valve or expansion
valve, where the water is expanded to a lower pressure. This causes a significant drop in
temperature. Finally, the cold liquid water is sent to the evaporator where it is used to cool
chilled water or air that can be used for air conditioning. The difficult part that you need to
understand is how the generator/absorber increases the pressure of the water.
The partial cycle above is converted to the absorption cycle layout shown below, which shows
the evaporator and condenser heat exchangers held at different pressures. Water vapor exists
in the condenser (1) and as it cools over the condenser coil, it condenses into a liquid (2). The
liquid water flows through a pipe out of the top shell, then reaches a throttling or an expansion
valve (3) that reduces the pressure and temperature of the liquid water after the valve (4). Finally,
the cold water is sprayed over the evaporator coil (5), which cools the chilled water or any other
fluid (6) that will be distributed for cooling to the building. After hitting the evaporator coil, the cool
liquid water absorbs its heat and turns into cool water vapor (7).
Figure 32: Partial water/lithium bromide absorption cycle in a two shell design. Water acts as
the refrigerant and flows between the condenser and the evaporator shells. The shell that holds
the condenser coil is held at 1.06psia and the shell that holds the evaporator is held at 0.12psia.

The remaining portion of the absorption cycle, is shown in the figure below. This section replaces
the compressor in a vapor compression cycle. Instead of a compressor, the absorption cycle
uses the chemical reactions between lithium bromide and water to change the pressure of the
water vapor. Lithium bromide (LiBr) is a salt that absorbs water.
Figure 33: Absorber/Generator portion of the absorption chiller cycle. This portion of the cycle
replaces the compressor in the vapor-compression cycle. The lithium bromide solution assists
in carrying the refrigerant (water) from the evaporator back up to the condenser.
In this process the LiBr-Water solution is first sprayed over a heat exchanger coil (8), which cools
the solution and enables the attraction of water to LiBr. (This heat exchanger coil rejects the heat
from the absorber and the condenser to either a cooling tower or an air source cooling system.)
Just as table salt is able to absorb moisture from the air, so is the lithium bromide able to attract
the water. The water vapor molecules from the evaporator are pulled towards the lithium bromide
in the absorber (9). The water is now entrained in the lithium bromide solution and is pumped up
to the generator portion of the absorption chiller (10). The pump will also increase the pressure
of the LiBr-Water solution. The purpose of the generator is to remove the refrigerant, i.e. the
water, from the lithium bromide solution and allow the water to continue the cycle. To separate
the water, heat is added to the generator section of the shell (11). This heat source can be hot
water or steam and often times is waste heat from another mechanical process. By heating the
solution, water is evaporated (1), then is cooled by the condenser and the cycle repeats. The
LiBr solution now has less water and becomes more concentrated with LiBr.

Figure 34: The absorption/generator portion of the absorption chiller cycle is added to the figure.
Notice how the concentration of the lithium bromide changes between the absorber and the
generator. In the absorber, water is attracted to the lithium bromide and “absorbed” into the
solution, which reduces the concentration of the LiBr. The solution is then pumped from the
absorber to the generator. Heat is then added to the generator to separate the water out of the
solution and the cycle repeats. The cooling tower (or an air source cooling system) is used to
cool the lithium bromide solution in the absorber and to condense the water vapor in the
condenser.
Finally, two additional components are added for increased overall performance of the cycle. The
first is a heat exchanger between the lithium bromide leaving and entering the absorber. This
allows the lithium bromide solution to be pre-cooled before it enters the absorber and pre-heated
before it enters the generator. Second is the excess water loop in the evaporator section. Some

liquid water that wasn’t evaporated is sent back to be sprayed over the evaporator again. The
final water/lithium bromide single stage absorption chiller cycle is shown below.
Figure 35: This figure shows the complete Water/Lithium Bromide absorption chiller cycle. The
heat exchanger between the lithium bromide loop and the excess water loop at the evaporator
are added to increase the overall performance of the cycle.
6.2 VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW

A variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system is a direct expansion (DX) system, meaning the
refrigerant is used to directly cool the air, unlike a chiller which uses chilled water as the medium.
In the VRF system, the equipment is split between the Condensing Unit and the Fan Coil Unit.
The condensing unit contains the compressor, condenser, and expansion valve, while the fan coil
unit contains the evaporator and a fan. Refrigerant is distributed between the condensing unit

and fan coil unit (FCU). The refrigerant is supplied to the FCU as liquid and returns as gas. The
air flow at the fan remains constant, while the refrigerant flow varies to maintain the temperature
in the space.
Like the chiller, the condenser within the VRF system can be cooled with either an air cooled or
a water cooled system.
VRF systems are generally more efficient than chilled water systems, but are higher in initial cost.
The distribution of refrigerant requires much less space than ductwork to distribute air, but the
VRF system requires much more fan coils and thus overall inventory of equipment. Due to the
lacking economy of scale, VRF systems are favored in buildings with cooling loads below 150
tons.
Figure 36: Variable Refrigerant Flow Diagram
6.3 HEAT PUMP
A heat pump uses the same vapor compression cycle, except its objective is to heat instead of
cool. The heat pump uses the condenser to heat a space (or water) and the evaporator grabs
heat from the exterior. Using the refrigeration cycle, the heat pump is able to produce heat at 3
to 4 times the efficiency of an electric heating coil, i.e. the COP is around 3 and 4. The heat
source is either from the ambient air, known as an air source heat pump, from water, known as
water source heat pump, or from the ground, known as ground source heat pump. Ground source
heat pumps are less common due to its high costs. Air source heat pumps are much more
common, but are less reliable in the winter as the heat sink becomes cooler.

Figure 37: Heat Pump Vapor Compression Cycle
Heat pumps are also commonly integrated within the VRF system, allowing the units to switch
between heating and cooling. A four way valve, called the reversing valve, will redirect the
refrigerant flow to swap the outdoor and indoor coils between condenser and evaporator modes,
effectively switching the indoor unit between a heating and cooling coil.
Figure 38: The VRF is set to heat pump, heating mode. The four way reversing valve directs
the refrigerant to flow from the compressor to the indoor coil, setting the indoor coil acts as the
condenser and the outdoor coil as the evaporator.

Figure 39: The reversing valve is switched to reverse the refrigerant flow and the VRF is set to
cooling mode. The indoor unit acts as the evaporator.
6.5 TYPES OF CONDENSERS & EVAPORATORS

The various types of condensers and evaporators are discussed in the Thermodynamics Section
but if you need more background on the various types of condensers and evaporators then you
should refer to the following reference. You should read through these sections to increase your
knowledge, to help better answer the experience type problems in the exam.
Condensers: ASHRAE HVAC Systems & Equipment, Chapter 39 Condensers
The same construction types used for condensers can be used for evaporators.
7.0 PUMPS
There are two main characteristics that an HVAC engineer needs to select a pump. You will need
the desired flow rate and the total dynamic head or the pressure that the flow rate must operate.
The flow rate is determined by the cooling, heating or process requirements. For example a
chilled water pump’s flow rate would be determined by the required chilled water to the air
handlers. The pressure is the friction loss and elevation loss that the pump must overcome to
properly deliver the required flow rate at the desired pressure.

7.1 IMPORTANT TERMS

Mechanical Horsepower (MHP): Mechanical horsepower is the measure of the power produced
by the pump. Mechanical horsepower is a function of the fluid flow rate measured in gallons per
minute (GPM) and the pressure (H) measured in feet of head (ft hd). The term “ft” is
representative of the pressure due to a foot of water.
𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ 𝐻 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑑 ∗ 𝑆𝐺
𝑀𝐻𝑃
3,956
Brake Horsepower (BHP): Brake horsepower is the measure of the power output of the motor to
turn the fan. BHP is a function of the pump efficiency and the mechanical horsepower.
1
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑀𝐻𝑃 ∗
𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
(Standard) Motor Horsepower (HP): Motor horsepower is the size of the motor. Motors come in
standard sizes. [1, 1.5, 2, 3, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, etc] The horsepower is selected
by rounding up to nearest motor size. In the P.E. exam, if the question explicitly asks for the
motor horsepower in standard size then select a standard size from the Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. If the question
does not ask for standard motor size, then simply proceed to the following step with the BHP.
*𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑃 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐵𝐻𝑃
*𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐻𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Electrical Power (P): The electrical power rating is the electrical input power to turn the motor
and overcome any motor friction losses. The electrical power in typically in terms of watts and is
calculated with the equation below.
1 746𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ℎ𝑝
Calculations for the electrical voltage and current delivered to the motor can be found in the Basic
Engineering Practice chapter of this book. Review the Basic Engineering Practice section for
additional information for motor ratings and calculations.
7.2 TYPES OF PUMPS

There are three main types of pumps, centrifugal, rotary and reciprocating pumps. Rotary and
reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pumps. This guide will not cover positive
displacement and reciprocating pumps in detail because they are not typically used for condenser
water pumps.

Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pumps used for condenser water applications.
The following information is tailored to centrifugal pumps and should not be applied freely to
positive displacement pumps.
Centrifugal pumps operate on the principle of "centrifugal force", which is the conversion of
rotational kinetic energy imparted by rotating impellers onto the liquid to produce a flow rate
(kinetic energy) at a certain pressure (pressure energy). Fluid enters the pump at the center or
eye of the impeller. The rotating impellers then push the fluid to the outer edges, imparting a flow
rate and pressure.
There are two main types of centrifugal pumps, in-line and end-suction. These two types are
discussed below.
Figure 40: This figure shows a cut-away of an end-suction centrifugal pump. In a centrifugal
pump, the impeller rotates, which pushes the fluid to the outer edges of the volute. The volute
directs the fluid to the discharge. This centrifugal pump is an end suction type, because the
suction and discharge are at 90 degrees to each other. (1) Fluid flows into the center of the
impeller, (2) as the impeller rotates, (3) the centrifugal force pushes fluid to the edges (4) until
the fluid travels out the pump discharge.
Figure 41: (1) Fluid flows into the center of the impeller, (2) as the impeller rotates,(3) the
centrifugal force pushes the fluid to the edges (4) until the fluid travels out the pump discharge.

Within each centrifugal pump type (end suction & in-line) are horizontal and vertical type pumps,
which are characterized by the orientation of the pump shaft as either horizontal or vertical. In
addition, pumps can be further classified by the number of stages that the fluid proceeds through.
Finally the last classification is how the pump is connected to the motor. Pumps can be long-
coupled where the pump is connected to the motor by a flexible coupling or they can be close-
coupled where the connection between the pump and motor is through a rigid coupling. The table
below is a summary of the most common condenser water pump types.
Centrifugal Pump Type Description

A split coupled pump has two shafts (motor
Horizontal, End Suction, Split Coupled: and pump shafts) connected by a coupler.
Sometimes the coupler can be flexible.
There is a single shaft between the motor
Horizontal, End Suction, Close Coupled
and pump.
Similar to the end-suction, split coupled,
Horizontal, In-Line, Split Coupled:
except the suction and discharge are
arranged in-line to one another.
Similar to the end-suction, close coupled,
Horizontal, In-Line, Close Coupled: except the suction and discharge are
arranged in-line to one another.
The same four types of pumps also can be found with a vertical arrangement.
Another type of pump that is used for larger flow rates is the split case type. This centrifugal pump
type has two chambers (split case) as opposed to the single chamber for end suction and in-line
pumps.
7.3 PUMP AND SYSTEM CURVES
There are two curves that are needed for a pump selection: the pump curve and system curve.
The pump curve is unique to the pump itself and the system curve is based on the piping system
that the pump will be connected to. When the two curves are overlaid, their intersection will
indicate the operation point of the pump.
7.3.1 PUMP CURVE

Pump curves are created by the manufacturers of the pumps through a series of tests and
describe the operating performance for a specific impeller diameter and pump type. The curve
plots the corresponding flow rates at varying pressure.

Figure 42: Pump Curves
In practice, HVAC engineers will use a pump selection tool, which makes it very easy to select
pumps, but you should also know how to select pumps via the pump curves. A pump curve shows
the pressure and flow rate relationship for a pump operating at various speeds or impeller
diameters. If a pump speed is selected (1,200, 1,800 or 3,600) for a pump, then the pump curve
graph will show multiple pump curves at various impeller diameters. If an impeller diameter is
selected, then the pump curve graph will show multiple pump curves at various speeds. The
following figure shows a specific pump speed, with multiple pump curves at various impeller
diameters.
The graph also shows curves of pump horsepower in blue. These curves are created by
calculating the horsepower based on the pressure, flow rate and pump/motor efficiency at a point.
The efficiency curves shown on the figure are found based on a series of tests of the actual pump.

Figure 43: This sample pump curve shows the operating conditions for a pump at a specific
pump speed. The red curves show the operating points for this pump at various impeller
diameters. The red curves show the pressure that can be provided at various flow rates. The
intersection of the red curve and the blue horsepower curve shows the horsepower required at a
certain operating point. The intersection of the red curve and the green efficiency curves show
the efficiency at a certain operating point
7.3.2 SYSTEM CURVE
The system includes the pipes, fittings, valves, and equipment that the fluid will travel through.
The system curve graphs the pressure drops through the system at various flow rates. We will
start by discussing a simple system, where there is no elevation gain, Δz, between the initial and
final points or system pressurization.
During design, the HVAC engineer will calculate the pressure drop that the pump must overcome
at the design flow rate. Once a single pressure and the flow rate is known, an estimated pressure
at any other flow rate can be calculated with the following relationship.
𝑃 𝐺𝑃𝑀
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝, 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑧
𝑃 𝐺𝑃𝑀
This relationship comes from the Darcy Weisbach equations, where the pressure is related closely
to the square of the velocity. Since we are plotting a system, the diameter and fluid density do
not change, so the pressure is also related to the square of the flow rate.

Using the relationship above, given pressure P1 at flow rate GPM1, we can estimate the pressure
P2 along the various flow rates, GPM2 and plot them, as shown in the following graph. This same
relationship also applies for fan systems.
Figure 44: Plotting the system curve for a closed loop system with no additional static. The
pressure is related to the square of the flow rate.
If, however, the pump is connected to an open loop system and the fluid must also overcome an
elevation gain, or a pressurized closed loop system, then the entire curve shifts up by this amount
of static pressure. Static pressure is the pressure not affected by the fluid velocity.
Figure 45: Generic system curve. The curve is shifted upward by the static pressure in the
system.
7.3.3 OPERATION POINT

Finally, the point where the pump curve and the system curve intersects is the operation point.
This intuitively makes sense since the system and pump curves are set. Whatever flow rate the
pump produces will result in a pressure drop based on the system. Therefore, a pump is selected
where the intersection between the two curves will be as close as possible to the design
conditions.

Figure 46: The operation point is found at the intersection of the system and pump curves.
7.4 PUMP AFFINITY LAWS

It is often necessary to determine how a pump will operate under differing operating conditions.
The operating conditions of a pump that can most readily be changed are the impeller diameter
and the rotational speed of the pump. In order to predict how a centrifugal pump will behave prior
to changing the speed or the impeller diameter, the engineer can use the affinity laws shown
below. These relationships affect the centrifugal pump curve and not the system curve.
The first set of affinity laws is that the flow rate (Q) is directly proportional to the size of the
diameter of the pump impeller (D) and/or the rotational speed (N) of the pump.
𝑄 𝐷
; 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑄 𝐷
𝑄 𝑁
; 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑄 𝑁
The second affinity law is that the total head (H) is directly proportional to the square of the size
of the diameter of the pump impeller (D) and/or the square of the rotational speed (N) of the
pump.
𝐻 𝐷
𝐻 𝐷
𝐻 𝑁
𝐻 𝑁
The third affinity law is that the power (BHP) is directly proportional to the cube of the size of the
diameter of the pump impeller (D) and/or the cube of the rotational speed (N) of the pump.
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷

𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑁
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑁
7.4.1 PUMP SIMILARITY LAWS

You may come across these formulas, if you encounter a question that compares two similar
pumps. These formulas are called the similarity laws. These laws compare similar pumps within
the same series of pumps. The previous formulas compared the original condition and new
condition of the same pump. These formulas compare two similar pumps, with different
diameters. In order to best understand what is meant by same series of pumps, visit a
manufacturer’s website and you will see various pump series that have varying sizes within the
same series. Within a series of pumps, a pump with “x” diameter impeller and “y” diameter volute
can be compared to another pump in the same series of pumps, but with “2x” diameter impeller
and “2y” diameter volute. The second pump is similar but has twice the diameter of the first pump.
𝑄 𝐷 𝑁
=
𝑄 𝐷 𝑁
𝐻 𝐷 𝑁
=
𝐻 𝐷 𝑁
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
=
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
𝑄 .
𝐷 𝐻
=
𝑄 𝐷 𝐻
𝑁 .
𝐷 𝐻
=
𝑁 𝐷 𝐻
𝐵𝐻𝑃 .
𝐷 𝐻 𝜌
=
𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝐷 𝐻 𝜌
𝑁 𝐷 𝑄
=
𝑁 𝐷 𝑄
𝐻 𝐷 𝑄
=
𝐻 𝐷 𝑄
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
=
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑁 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝐻 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
7.5 PUMP WITH A MODULATING VALVE

A pump with a modulating valve will change the system resistance curve but it will not change the
pump curve. The decrease and increase of system pressure as the modulating valve opens and
closes, respectively, causes the system curve to change as shown in the figure below.

Figure 47: The system curve stretches right and left as the modulating valve opens and closes,
causing a decrease and increase in overall system pressure drop.
7.6 PUMP WITH A VFD

The variable frequency drive (VFD) will vary the input power frequency, which will vary the
rotational speed of the pump impeller. The pump normally operates at 60 Hz in America, 50 Hz
in other countries. The 60 Hz electrical power speed will correspond to a rotational speed of
1,200, 1,800 and 3,600 RPM for the typical pumps. Sometimes the pump manufacturer will
indicate a speed slightly below 1,200, 1,800 or 3,600. This is because the motor is an induction
motor as opposed to a synchronous motor. This means that electrically the rotation will be 1,200,
1,800 or 3,600 RPM, but the shaft will lag slightly behind this rotation.
When a variable frequency drive changes the 60 HZ power to another frequency like 50 Hz, the
rotational speed will also change by the same ratio.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 → 60 𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 40 𝐻𝑧
40 𝐻𝑧
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 → 1,750 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑥 1,167 𝑅𝑃𝑀
60 𝐻𝑧
The shift in the pump curve due to speed adjustments from a VFD is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 48: Pump curves of varying rotational speeds are parallel to each other.
When you choose the pump speed, you must first ensure that the pump manufacturer has that
speed available. Lower pump speeds are preferred because the increased number of rotations
will cause increased wear and tear. Bearings lifetimes are rated based on number of rotations,
so if the rotations are reduced, then the bearings should have a longer life. This is true of all
rotating objects.
7.7 MULTIPLE PUMPS

There are two ways multiple pumps can be arranged, (1) Parallel and (2) Series.
7.7.1 PUMPS IN PARALLEL
Pumps arranged in parallel will produce flow that is equal to the sum of the flow of each individual
pump at every pressure point.
Figure 49: Pumps in parallel
On the pump curve, two pumps in parallel are graphed by selecting a pressure point, then adding
the flow of each pump at that pressure point. See an example in the figure below. At 100 feet

head, one pump produces 100 GPM, so 2 identical pumps will produce 200 GPM at 100 feet
head. The operating point of each of the pumps in parallel has half the total flow and the same
pressure rating.
Figure 50: Two pumps operating in parallel. The flow rate of each pump is added and the
pressure of each pump is the same.
Single vs Double Pump Operation Point:
Take another scenario where two pumps of equal size are installed in parallel, but one pump is
turned off. Then what is the operation point of one pump on versus two pumps on? The new
operation point will not simply be half the flow rate, but will depend on where the pump curve
intersects the system curve. The single pump verses two pump operation point will vary as shown
below.

Figure 51: This figure shows the pump curve of a single pump on the left in red and two
identical pumps operating in parallel on the right in red. The operation point for one pump on or
two pumps on will vary along the system curve.
Realize that the system curve does not change when there is one or two pumps. The system
curve is dependent on the piping system and how it behaves with various flow rates. Therefore,
the system curve is not affected by pumps in parallel, but the intersection of the system curve with
one pump curve or two pumps in parallel will change.
7.7.2 PUMPS IN SERIES

Pumps arranged in series will produce a pressure that is equal to the sum of the pressure of each
individual pump at every flow rate point. In other words, the pressures are added and the flow
rate remains the same. In the figure below, the flow leaving pump 1 must equal the flow entering
pump 2, but as fluid enters each pump, pressure is added to the system.
Figure 52: Pumps in series

The pump curve of pumps in series is found by going to a flow rate, then adding the pressure of
each pump at that flow rate point. At 200 GPM, one pump produces 50 feet of head, so two
identical pumps will produce 200 GPM at 100 feet head.
Figure 53: Two pumps operating in series. The pressure of each pump is added and the flow
rate is the same.
Single vs Double Pump Operation Point:
Similar to the pumps in parallel, if one of the two pumps in series were turned off, then the
operation point of a single pump be where the single pump curve intersects the system curve.
The operation point of a single pump on verses two pumps on is shown in the figure below. Again,
the system curve does not change when there is one or two pumps, but the intersection of one
pump curve and two pumps in parallel will change.

Figure 54: This figure shows the pump curve of a single pump on the bottom in red. The other
pump curve occurs when two identical pumps are arranged in series.
8.0 FANS
Fans are provided in HVAC & Refrigeration systems to distribute conditioned air, to provide
ventilation, or to exhaust unwanted air. Many of the fan relationships are similar to the pump
relationships.
8.1 IMPORTANT TERMS

Mechanical Horsepower (MHP): Mechanical horsepower is the measure of the power produced
by the fan. Mechanical horsepower is a function of the air flow rate measured in cubic feet per
minute (CFM) and the total static pressure (TSP) measured in inches water gauge (in. wg). The
term “in. wg” is representative of the pressure due to an inch of water column.
𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑇𝑆𝑃 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔

𝑀𝐻𝑃
6,356
Brake Horsepower (BHP): Brake horsepower is the measure of the power output of the motor to
turn the fan. BHP is a function of the pump efficiency and the mechanical horsepower.
1
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑀𝐻𝑃 ∗
𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

(Standard) Motor Horsepower (HP): Motor horsepower is the size of the motor. Motors come in
standard sizes. [1, 1.5, 2, 3, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, etc] The horsepower is selected
by rounding up to nearest motor size. In the P.E. exam, if the question explicitly asks for the
motor horsepower in standard size then select a standard size from the Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning Chapter of the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. If the question
does not ask for standard motor size, then simply proceed to the following step with the BHP.
*𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑃 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐵𝐻𝑃
*𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐻𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Electrical Power (P): The electrical power rating is the electrical input power to turn the motor
and overcome any motor friction losses. The electrical power in typically in terms of watts and is
calculated with the equation below.
1 746𝑊
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝐻𝑃 ∗ ∗
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ℎ𝑝
Calculations for the electrical voltage and current delivered to the motor can be found in the Basic
Engineering Practice chapter of this book. Review the Basic Engineering Practice section for
additional information for motor ratings and calculations.
Velocity Pressure (VP): Velocity pressure is defined as the pressure caused solely by moving
air.
𝐹𝑃𝑀
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔
4005
Static Pressure (SP): Static pressure is the pressure caused solely by compression, the outward
force on a duct.
Total Pressure (TSP): Total static pressure is the sum of the velocity pressure and the static
pressure at any point.
8.2 TYPES OF FANS
8.2.1 AXIAL FANS

Axial fans consist of a fan shaft with fan blades attached around the shaft. Air travels along the
axis of the fan and is blown out. These fans are not as common in the residential and commercial
HVAC & Refrigeration fields and are more common in industrial ventilation type situations. Within
the family of axial fans there are also different types of fans, like the propeller, tube axial and vane
axial fans.
8.2.2 PROPELLER FANS

Propeller type axial fans consist of a propeller fan in fan housing. This fan, similar to all axial type
fans is only suitable for lower pressures.
Figure 55: Axial Fans - Propeller
8.2.3 TUBE-AXIAL FANS

The tube axial fan consists of a propeller fan placed in a tube. This type of fan is more efficient
than the propeller fan and can handle higher pressures.
Figure 56: Axial Fans – Tube Axial
Vane Axial: The vane axial fan is a variation on the tube axial fan in which inlet vanes are provided
on the fan to straighten the air and to increase the efficiency of the fan.
Figure 57: Axial Fans – Vane Axial

8.2.4 CENTRIFUGAL FANS

Centrifugal fans consist of a fan wheel, with blades (impellers) along the circumference of the
wheel. Air enters the center of the fan wheel. The centrifugal force due to the spinning of the fan
wheel causes the air to increase in speed and creates a suction pressure at the inlet of the fan
wheel. The air then flows out the edges of the fan wheel and follows the fan housing to the air
outlet. These fans are the most common in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. The different types
of centrifugal fans are defined by the shape of the fan wheel impellers, relative to the axis rotation.
Figure 58: Centrifugal Fans
Forward Curved: Forward curved centrifugal fans have fan blades that are angled forward in the
direction of the fan rotation. These fans are commonly used for lower pressures and are the least
efficient of the centrifugal fans.
Figure 59: Forward curved centrifugal fan
Backward inclined: Backward inclined centrifugal fans have fan wheel impellers that are angled
backwards relative to the fan rotation direction. These fans are more efficient than the forward
curved fans and are more commonly used at higher pressure

Figure 60: Backward inclined centrifugal fan
Airfoil: Airfoil fans are defined by the airfoil type fan blades, they resemble jet engine blades.
These fans are the most efficient and can handle high pressures.
Figure 61: Airfoil centrifugal fan
Radial: Radial fans are have impeller blades extending perpendicularly out from the center of the
fan. These fans produce higher pressures than the other fan designs. It is mostly used in
industrial applications and not so much in the HVAC field.
Figure 62: Radial centrifugal fan
For various fan configurations and curves by fan type, review the NCEES Mechanical PE
Reference Handbook and ASHRAE Systems and Equipment.

8.3 FAN CURVES

The fan curve is a graph depicting the various points that the fan can operate. The curve displays
the amount of airflow (CFM) that the fan will provide at a given total static pressure. Fans should
be selected to operate at the stable region. The stable region is the area on the fan curve where
there is a single flow rate (CFM) value for each pressure value. In the unstable region, a pressure
value can have multiple CFM values, which will cause the fan system to surge. The stable region
also has very little change in CFM for large changes in total pressure.
Figure 63: Fan curve
The second curve that works in conjunction with the fan curve is the system resistance curve.
Similar to the pump system curve, this curve is the summation of all the friction losses in the
ducting system at varying CFM's. Typically, the friction losses are summed up at the design CFM
values, then this design point is connected to the 0,0 point by an upward sloping square
polynomial curve, as shown below [green]. If for example, the ducting system has a closed
damper or dirty filter, this will cause the curve to shift to the left [red]. If a damper is opened or
the dirty filter is cleaned then the curve will shift to the right [blue].
Figure 64: System resistance curve

Combining the system curve with the selected fan curve, determines the operating point of the
fan system, indicated in the figure below in green. Following the vertical line down determines
the CFM and the horizontal line from that point indicates the operating total pressure. During
system operation as dampers close, the system curve shifts toward the left in red. This movement
decreases the amount of CFM delivered by the fan. The opposite occurs as dampers open in the
system, the amount of CFM delivered by the fan increases.
Figure 65: Fan design operating point
It has been shown that the amount of CFM blown by a fan can be changed by shifting the system
resistance curve. However, the volumetric flow rate can also be changed by changing the speed
of the fan, which shifts the fan curve. Increasing the speed of the fan causes the fan curve to shift
to the right. Decreasing the speed of the fan causes the fan curve to shift to the left.
Figure 66: Fan speed effect on cfm and tp

8.4 FAN AFFINITY LAWS

Often times a fan’s speed or impeller diameter will be changed. If the fan is a centrifugal fan, then
the change in performance of the fan can be predicted quickly through the affinity laws.
If the impeller diameter is held constant and the speed of the fan is changed, then flow rate varies
directly with the speed, available pressure varies with the square of the speed and the power use
varies with the cube of the speed.
𝐶𝐴𝑆𝐸 1: 𝐷 𝐷
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑃 𝑃
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝐵𝐻𝑃
𝑅𝑃𝑀
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐶𝐹𝑀 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑃 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
8.4.1 FAN SIMILARITY LAWS

You may come across these formulas, if you encounter a question that compares two similar fans.
These formulas are called the similarity laws. These laws compare similar fans within the same
series of fans. The previous formulas compared the original condition and new condition of the
same fan. These formulas compare two similar fans, with different diameters. In order to best
understand what is meant by same series of fans, visit a manufacturer’s website and you will see
various fan series that have varying sizes within the same series. Within a series of fans, a fan
with “x” diameter wheel and “y” diameter casing can be compared to another fan in the same
series of fans, but with “2x” diameter wheel and “2y” diameter casing. The second pump is similar
but has twice the diameter of the first fan.
Fan Law 1: This fan law shows how changes in diameter, fan speed and air density will affect
the flow rate, pressure and power (BHP). This is the most commonly used fan law and is very
similar to the pump affinity laws, except for the effect of the diameter.
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑫𝟏 𝟑
𝑵𝟏
𝑸𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝑵𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
𝑷𝟐 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟐 𝐷 𝑁 𝜌
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑁 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑃 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Fan Law 2: This fan law shows how changes in diameter, pressure and air density will affect the
flow rate, speed and power (BHP). This is not used as often. You can use this if you have an
existing fan and are wondering what the effects will be if you decide that you need a new pressure
value than the one your currently have.
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑫𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 .𝟓 𝝆𝟐 .𝟓
𝑸𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝝆𝟏
𝑵𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑃 . 𝜌 .
𝑵𝟐 𝐷 𝑃 𝜌
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑃 . 𝜌 .
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟐 𝐷 𝑃 𝜌
Fan Law 3: This fan law shows how changes in diameter, flow rate and air density will affect the
pressure, speed and power (BHP). This is not used as often. You can use this if you have an
existing fan and are wondering what the effects will be if you decide that you need a new flow rate
value than the one your currently have.
𝑵𝟏 = 𝑫𝟐 𝟑
𝑸𝟏
𝑵𝟐 𝑫𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑯𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
𝑯𝟐 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟏 = 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
𝑩𝑯𝑷𝟐 𝐷 𝑄 𝜌
8.5 MULTIPLE FANS
There will be times when fans are run in conjunction with each other. It is important for the
engineer to understand how the performance is affected depending on the different arrangements
of multiple fans.
8.5.1 FANS IN PARALLEL

A parallel arrangement of fans is characterized by the same pressure increase across each fan
and the total flow is the sum of flows through each individual fan. In the figure below, the total
flow is shown as x1 + x2 + x3, where xn is the flow through fan “n”. The resulting total pressure is
equal to each individual fan pressure, since they are all the same.

Figure 67: Fans in parallel
The fan curve will adjust similar to pumps in parallel and the operation point will occur at the
intersection between the fan and system curve.
8.5.2 FANS IN SERIES

Fans in series are characterized by the same flow across each fan and the total pressure increase
is the sum of the pressure increase through each individual fan. In the figure below, the total flow
is shown simply as y, which is constant throughout each fan. The resulting total pressure is equal
to the sum of each fan’s individual pressure increase, y1 + y2 + y3, where yn is the resulting fan
pressure increase at fan “n”.
Figure 68: Fans in series
The fan curve will adjust similar to pumps in series and the operation point will occur at the
intersection between the fan and system curve.
9.0 COMPRESSORS
Refer to the Thermodynamic section for compressor principles.

9.1 COMPRESSOR TYPES

The engineer should be knowledgeable of the 5 different types of compressors and their
advantages and disadvantages, in order to determine when they should be used. The five types
of compressors are centrifugal, scroll, reciprocating, screw and rotary. A brief overview of the
different types of compressors is shown below.
• Rotary: The rotary type compressor compresses refrigerant gas through positive
displacement. Positive displacement simply means that the pressure of the gas is
increased by reducing the volume.
• Scroll: Similar to the rotary type compressor, the scroll compressor uses positive
displacement to increase the pressure of the gas.
• Screw: The screw compressor consists of two interlocking screws. The gas moves
through the screw from the beginning thread to the end thread, increasing the
pressure as it moves to the discharge side.
• Reciprocating: A reciprocating compressor compresses gas through positive
displacement. A piston type movement compresses gas as it enters the cylinder.
• Centrifugal: Centrifugal compressors are not like positive displacement
compressors, these compressors rely on a rotating impeller to use its centrifugal
force to move the gas to the outside diameter of the rotating impeller, which
increases the velocity of the gas. The increased velocity is then translated into
increased pressure.
Figure 69: Compressor Types
Another distinction between compressors is made between hermetic, semi-hermetic and open
drive compressors. Hermetic is most often recognized when used in the phrase “hermetic seal”,
which means airtight.

Hermetic: A hermetic compressor is airtight. The compressor and motor are located in a welded
container, so no refrigerant can escape. Since the motor is located in the same enclosure as the
compressor, the compressor needs to account for the motor heat.
Open Drive: An open drive compressor indicates that the compressor and refrigerant are located
in an enclosure and out of the enclosure is a shaft connecting it to a motor. The motor is outside
of the enclosure and the heat is lost to the space and not to compressor.
Semi-Hermetic: A semi-hermetic is similar to a hermetic compressor, except the motor and

compressor are located in a mechanically sealed container, which can be opened without cutting
into the enclosure unlike the hermetic compressor.
9.2 CHILLER COMPRESSOR

For chillers, the compressor type is selected based on factors that include the cooling capacity,
cost, maintenance, and efficiency. Chiller compressor availability by typical size is summarized
in the table below. Scroll compressors are more commonly used for smaller air cooled chillers
and centrifugal compressors are used for larger water cooled chillers.
Compressor Type Typical Range (Cooling Tons)

Reciprocating 10 - 60
Scroll 10 - 400
Rotary Screw 70 - 500
Centrifugal 125 - 10,000
9.2 COMPRESSOR WORK

Calculations for compressor work are defined in the Thermodynamics section.
9.3 COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
Compressor efficiencies in the refrigeration cycle are found by comparing the actual compressor
work to the ideal process. The work from an ideal compressor is isentropic, but an actual
compressor will have some additional heat gain and thus a larger enthalpy increase. The
efficiency is calculated from the equation below. Since the mass flow rate entering and leaving
the compressor does not change, it cancels out. Review the Thermodynamics chapter of this
book for additional background on compressor calculations.
𝑊 ℎ , ℎ
𝜂 %
𝑊 ℎ ℎ

Figure 70: Ideal vs Actual Compressor Work on Refrigerant P-h Diagram
10.0 COOLING/HEATING COILS

10.1 COOLING & HEATING COILS
In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, cooling and heating coils are used to exchange heat between
air and a heat exchange fluid. A heat exchange fluid is transmitted through the coil and as air is
passed over the coil, the air is either heated or cooled. Coils consist of a metal box framing, which
holds a series of copper or aluminum tubes in staggered rows and columns.
Figure 71: Cooling Coil (left) and Heating Coil (right)

The amount of heat that is transferred is related to the amount of surface area that contacts the
air. In order to increase surface area, the size of the tubes may be decreased and more tubes
can be provided, the number of rows increased or the amount of fins per inch can be increased.
Aluminum or copper fins are provided on each tube to increase the amount of surface area. Coils
are rated by the height of the fins and the number of fins per inch. For coils in contact with high
moisture content or that are exposed to a corrosive environment, copper is typically used.
Aluminum coils and fins are cheaper. For salt laden air, the coils are typically coated. Of course
this reduces some heat transfer effectiveness, so special coating is specified to minimize the
resistance losses.
Figure 72: Cooling and heating coils use fins and multiple rows of tubes to increase the heat
transfer surface area.
10.2 COOLING & HEATING COIL FLUIDS

There are several different types of heat exchange fluids used in cooling/heating coils.
Refrigerant: Hot refrigerant gas or cool refrigerant liquid can be used in a coil to provide either
heating or cooling. In a heating-coil, cool air is passed over a coil containing hot gas. Heat is
exchanged to the cool air, which warms the air. The heat lost by the refrigerant gas causes it to
condense to a liquid. In a cooling-coil, warm air is passed over a coil containing cool refrigerant
liquid. Heat is exchanged to the cool refrigerant liquid, causing it to evaporate. The warm air
loses heat, thereby decreasing the air temperature.
Water: Chilled water or hot water can be used in a coil to provide either heating or cooling. The
air temperature is either raised or lowered as heat is transferred to raise or lower the temperature
of the chilled or hot water.
Steam: Steam can be provided to a coil to provide heating. Steam enters the coil and as the air
passes over the coil its air temperature increases. As the steam loses heat, it condenses to its
liquid form.

10.3 COOLING & HEATING COIL TERMS

It is important to be able to understand the following terms, (1a) Apparatus Dew Point or (1b)
Effective Surface Temperature and the (2) Bypass Factor.
1. Apparatus Dew Point (ADP) or Effective Surface Temperature is the temperature at which
all air would be cooled to if the cooling coil was 100% effective. The ADP must be located on the
saturation curve, refer to the psychrometric chart below. The ADP, leaving coil conditions and
the entering coil conditions are located on the same line.
Figure 73: Apparatus dew point
How close the leaving coil condition is to the apparatus dew point is a function of the bypass
factor.
(2) The bypass factor describes the percentage of air that is not cooled to the ADP. The air that
is bypassed remains unchanged from the entering coil conditions. The bypass factor is a function
of the airflow, number of rows, surface temperature, number of fins per inch, height of fins and
many other construction attributes of coils. The use of the bypass factor in calculations is

important. The bypass factor can be found through the use of (a) enthalpy, (b) dry bulb
temperature or (c) humidity ratio.
ℎ ℎ
𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
ℎ ℎ
where h is equal to the enthalpy
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
where T is equal to the dry bulb temperature
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
where W is equal to the humidity ratio
(3) The contact factor describes the percentage of air that is cooled to the ADP. This is the
remaining percentage of the incoming air. Therefore, contact factor plus bypass factor is 100%,
or in terms of fractions, contact factor plus bypass factor equals 1.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1 𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
As an example, the contact factor for enthalpy is calculated below. Dry bulb temperature and
humidity ratio are calculated in a similar manner. Observe these ratios on the psychrometric chart
to better visualize these relationships.
ℎ ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
ℎ ℎ
10.4 CHILLED BEAMS

The previously discussed cooling coils are located outside of the space. Air is blown over the
cooling coils and that cold air is sent to the spaces via ducts. Both sensible and latent cooling are
provided at the cooling coils. Latent cooling is provided by removing moisture from the incoming
air via condensation. Sensible cooling is provided by lowering the dry bulb temperature of the air.
In a chilled beam system, the chilled beam is located inside the space and is used to provide
sensible cooling. A chilled beam is basically a heat exchanger located directly in the space where
the cooling is required. In order to remove latent heat, fresh air must be cooled with a traditional
cooling coil system.

Figure 74: This figure shows the traditional cooling system, with cooling coil, fan, and air ducted
to the space.
Figure 75: This figure shows chilled beam system. Chilled water is sent to a cooling coil and a
chilled beam. The cooling coil is used to cool and remove latent heat from incoming fresh air.
The chilled beam is used to remove sensible loads.

10.4.1 TYPES OF CHILLED BEAMS

There are two types of chilled beams, (1) Active and (2) Passive chilled beams.
Active Chilled Beam: An active chilled beam is supplied with fresh air from the main cooling
coil. The fresh air enters the chilled beam via nozzles that increase the velocity and create low
static pressure. This low pressure induces the airflow from the room. Warm air rises up to the
cooling coils of the chilled beam. The room air, also called secondary air, is cooled and then falls
off to the sides to provide sensible cooling to the room.
The active chilled beam is designed with a coil surface temperature that is greater than the dew
point of the room air. This ensures that no condensation occurs on the chilled beam.
Figure 76: This figure shows an active chilled beam diagram. Primary air is blown from the air
handling unit into the chilled beam plenum area. The primary air is increased in velocity
pressure as it passes through nozzles. Meanwhile, warm room air rises up through the chilled
beam coils and is cooled. The high velocity primary air will induce the cool secondary air to exit
out the exterior pathways back to the space.
Passive Chilled Beam: A passive chilled beam is NOT supplied with fresh air from the main
cooling coil. Warm air rises up to the cooling coils of the chilled beam via natural convection. The
room air, also called secondary air, is cooled, then falls off to the sides to provide sensible cooling
to the room. Fresh air is provided via a separate ducting system and diffusers to provide some
sensible, but mostly latent cooling to the space.
The passive chilled beam is designed with a coil surface temperature that is greater than the dew
point of the room air. This ensures that no condensation occurs on the chilled beam.

Figure 77: This figure shows a passive chilled beam diagram. Warm air rises due to natural
convection. The warm air is cooled via the chilled beam’s coils and then falls out the sides back
to the space.
10.4.2 SIZING A CHILLED BEAM

A chilled beam is first sized by calculating the fresh air and latent loads. For example, assume
there are 8,000 Btu/h sensible loads and 2,000 Btu/h latent loads in a space. The space is
designed to be maintained at 75 F DB, 50% RH. The incoming fresh air is 87 F DB, 70% RH.
The leaving air from the fresh air coil is 55 F DB, 50 F WB. With this information, you can calculate
the fresh air CFM and the latent cooling provided by the fresh air.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 85 𝐹 𝐷𝐵, 70% 𝑅𝐻 → ℎ 40.48 ;𝑊 0.0183
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 75 𝐹 𝐷𝐵, 50% 𝑅𝐻 → ℎ 28.15 ;𝑊 0.0093 ;
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 55 𝐹 𝐷𝐵, 50 𝐹 𝑊𝐵 → ℎ 20.27 ;𝑊 0.0065
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
The difference between enthalpy of the entering fresh air and leaving coil air will help you to size
the fresh air cooling coil. However, you are looking for the latent cooling provided by the leaving
coil air to the space, so you need the difference between the leaving coil air and room air humidity
ratios to find the latent cooling provided. Since you know that the latent cooling required is 2000
Btu/h, you can calculate the CFM required. You can assume a density of 0.075 lb/ft3 to use the
quick equations.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑄 2,000 4,840 ∗ 𝑋 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 0.0093 0.0065
ℎ 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑋 148 𝐶𝐹𝑀
Now that the latent load in the space has been satisfied, the sensible load needs to be satisfied
with the chilled beam. First, take the credit of the sensible cooling provided from the ventilation
load.

𝑄 1.1 ∗ 148 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 75 55
𝑄 3,256 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ
The remaining sensible load must be satisfied by the chilled beam.

𝑄 𝑄 8,000 3,256 4,744
ℎ ℎ ℎ
The chilled beam must have a surface temperature that is at least 1°F above the dew point of the
space dew point. The dew point of air at 75°F DB, 50% RH is 55°F. So, the chilled beam must
have a surface temperature of 56°F. There is no airflow (CFM) sizing required for a chilled beam.
The only sizing required is (1) the sensible load, which was just calculated and (2) the surface
temperature. Finally, with this information you go to a chilled beam manufacturer and determine
the physical beam size required that can meet these conditions. The following figure graphically
shows the overall process for sizing a chilled beam on the psychrometric chart.
Figure 78: This figure shows how you must calculate the fresh air CFM and the remaining
sensible load for the chilled beam.
There is one thing you must also check when sizing the chilled beam. If the fresh air CFM required
due to ASHRAE 62.1 is higher than the calculate CFM for latent cooling, then you must upside
the CFM value, then recalculate the sensible cooling provided by the fresh air to the space. This
will then cause the chilled beam size to change.
10.5 STEAM HEATING COILS

Steam heating coils are in its simplest form, heat exchangers. The steam transfers its latent heat
to the air. On one side of heat transfer (energy balance) equation is the condensing rate of the
steam. On the other side of the equation is the energy transferred to the air. Since the steam is

completely separated by the coil, the heat gain to the air will be sensible.
Derivation of Simplified Equation for Steam to Air Heat Transfer
𝑄 𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0.24
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∗ ℉
∆𝑇 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℉
𝑓𝑡 60 min . 0752 𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑚 ∗ℎ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0.24 ∗ ∆𝑇
min ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑡
Simplified Equation for Steam to Air Heat Transfer (sensible heating)
𝑚 ∗ℎ 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
10.6 HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION SYSTEMS
In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, humidification and dehumidification systems are used to
transfer moisture to/from the air. These types of systems are sized based on the amount of
moisture, measured in pounds of water per hour that is added or removed from the air.
𝑚 60 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑙𝑏
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
𝑄 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝑏
𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
ℎ𝑟

10.7 HUMIDIFIERS
Humidifiers are used to add moisture to air typically in order to achieve the best conditions for
human occupancy. In dry areas, low humidity causes moisture to evaporate from people’s skin,
creating the feeling that it is much colder than the dry bulb temperature indicates. Other times
humidifiers are used to maintain best humidity levels for equipment or produce.
There are two main types of humidifiers, (1) Steam and (2) Evaporative humidifiers.
(1) Steam Humidifiers add moisture to air. There is a specific type of steam humidifier, known
as an isothermal humidifiers, which adds moisture without a change in dry bulb temperature.
The air conditions will move vertically upward on the psychrometric chart, as shown in the figure
below. For other steam conditions, the movement on the chart will vary based on the steam
enthalpy (Btu/lbmwet), typically with a very slight change in dry bulb temperature, as described in
the Psychrometrics section of this book.
Steam is created through an external means like a gas fired boiler or electric boiler. Then, the
steam is typically directly injected into the air stream. It is common to assume that the temperature
of the air will rise since steam is 212 F. However, it is important to think of steam as water vapor
and as it is added to air, it will correspond to an upward movement on the psychrometric chart [Pt
1 to Pt 2]. For simplicity, an isothermal humidifier is shown. See the Psychrometrics chapter for
additional discussion of steam humidifier movement on the chart.
Figure 79: Isothermal steam humidifier movement on the psychrometric chart. Please see the
Psychrometrics section for more detail.

(2) Evaporative Humidifiers, also known as adiabatic humidifiers, add moisture to air without
a change in enthalpy. Evaporative humidifiers do not require an external energy source like
Steam Humidifiers. Evaporative humidifiers work by blowing dry air over water or through water
droplets. The energy to vaporize the water comes from the dry air. As the air releases heat to
vaporize the water, the air also cools. On the psychrometric chart, adiabatic humidification is
shown as an upward-left movement, along a constant enthalpy line. It is constant enthalpy
because the enthalpy lost to sensible cooling is gained by latent heating [humidification].
Figure 80: One evaporative humidifier movement on a psychrometric chart. Please see the
Evaporative humidifiers operate on the same principle as air washers, evaporative coolers and
cooling towers. These principles will be discussed further in the Cooling Tower section.
10.8 DE-HUMIDIFIERS
De-Humidifiers are used to remove moisture from air in order to achieve the best conditions for
human occupancy, equipment or produce. In humid areas, high humidity causes the feeling that
it is much hotter than the dry bulb temperature indicates. Other times de-humidifiers are used to
maintain best humidity levels for equipment or produce. De-humidifiers are especially important
in preventing mold and mildew from forming.
There are two main types of de-humidifiers, (1) Condensing and (2) Desiccant de-humidifiers.
(1) Condensing de-humidifiers or cooling de-humidifiers work by decreasing the temperature

of the incoming air so that it is unable to hold moisture, which causes condensation. A cooling

coil acts a dehumidifier. In the Psychrometric chart below, hot, humid air enters the coil and
leaves as cool air. The amount of water vapor removed from the air is shown in red. In some
cases the air is reheated in order to lower the relative humidity and increase the dry bulb
temperature.
Figure 81: Cooling Coil – Dehumidifier movement on a psychrometric chart. Please see the
(2) Desiccant de-humidifiers or chemical dehumidifiers use desiccants to adsorb or absorb

water from air. As the air loses its water vapor, the heat from condensing the water vapor is
gained by the air stream, which causes the air to increase its dry bulb temperature. A desiccant
de-humidifier is shown as a downward-right movement, along the constant enthalpy line
(adiabatic).

Figure 82: Desiccant de-humidifier movement on the psychrometric chart. Please also see the
One type of dehumidifier uses a Lithium-Chloride and Water solution. A Li-Cl, water solution is
sprayed over humid air. The Li-Cl has high affinity water. As the humid air is blown through the
Li-Cl-Water solution, the Li-Cl picks up the moisture in the air. The amount of moisture that can
be removed is dependent on (1) percentage of Li-Cl and (2) the temperature of the solution.
(1) A solution with a high concentration of Li-Cl can absorb more moisture and the opposite is
true of a low concentration.
(2) A solution with a low temperature can absorb more moisture and the opposite is true for a
higher temperature solution.
These types of dehumidifiers are dependent on the incoming conditions of the air, the equalized
temperature of the Li-Cl solution and the equalized concentration of the Li-Cl. The equalized
conditions are similar to the ADP for coils. These conditions describe the temperature and
humidity ratio that the incoming humid air would achieve if the dehumidifier was 100% effective.
A contact factor is often indicated for a dehumidifier and is used in the same manner as the bypass
factor for coils.
𝑇 𝑇
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑇 𝑇
where T is equal to the dry bulb temperature
The concentration of the Li-Cl solution determines the equivalent humidity ratio, however this
determination is complex and is out of the scope of a 6-minute problem.
11.0 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The air and water distribution systems within the HVAC & Refrigeration cycles are controlled with
automated valves and dampers.
11.1 CONTROL VALVES

Control valves are used to maintain a set pressure or flow to another piece of equipment. These
valves are important because too little flow or pressure may cause one piece of equipment not to
work and too much flow or pressure may be unsafe for the piece of equipment and personnel.
These valves typically work automatically and are controlled by a control system and an actuator.
The actuator is what provides the mechanical force to close and open the control valve. The
control system is what tells the actuator when to operate and how to operate.

There are many types of control valves, like the globe valve, plug valve, angled valve, butterfly
valve and 3-way valve. As an engineer you should understand each type of valve and when to
use each type of valve. The different names of valves are given based on the shape of the valve.
A good resource for valves is at any valve manufacturer’s websites, like Cla-Val, Apollo Valves
and Powell Valves. However another good source is at the control valve webpage at Emerson
Process’s website. If the link is not functional, please email me. You will find my contact
information at the end of this book and the beginning of this book. Please read through these
resources to increase you knowledge, so you can answer the experience type problems on the
actual exam.
https://www.emerson.com/documents/automation/control-valve-handbook-en-3661206.pdf
The various types of valves are good to understand but they are difficult to test on an exam, the
sizing of the valves and the flow characteristics of a control valve is something that does fit this
type of exam.
• Globe valve
A globe valve consists of a plug and a seat. The plug is raised and lowered to increase
and decrease flow through the valve.
Figure 83: A section view of a globe valve. As the valve is closed, the plug is lowered into the
seat, which blocks the fluid flow from moving up and to the right of the valve.
• Ball valve
A ball valve is called a ball valve due to the ball shape in the center of the valve. This ball
has an opening on sides 180 degrees opposite of each other. The rest of the valve is
solid. When the valve is aligned such that the openings are in line with the fluid flow, then
the valve is 100% open. When the valve is aligned such that the openings are
perpendicular to the fluid flow, then it is 100% closed.

Figure 84: A section view of a ball valve. As the valve is closed, the ball is turned so that less
and less of the opening is in the direction of the flow. When the valve is closed, the opening is
perpendicular to the direction of the flow.
• Butterfly valve
A butterfly valve has a disc in the center of the valve. The disc can be spun to open and
close the valve.
Figure 85: A section view of a butterfly valve. The valve is currently shown as a ¼ open. The
fluid passes around the disc. As the valve is closed, the disc is perpendicular to the path of the
fluid flow, creating a wall. When the valve is 100% open, the disc is parallel to the fluid flow.
11.1.1 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

Flow characteristics describe the relationship of the flow rate and the % open/close status of the
valve. For example, if a valve is 50% open, then the flow is at 50 GPM or if a valve is 75% open,
then the flow is 80 GPM. This is an example of the term flow characteristics and a collection of
these points result in a flow characteristics graph.
The graph shown on the following page is an example of a flow characteristics graph of various
control valves. Each valve produced by a manufacturer will have a corresponding graph. This
graph will allow you to properly select the type of valve that you need for your application. For
exam purposes, you should be able to understand this graph and determine how the flow will be
controlled by the control valve under various operating points.

Figure 86: Control Valve Flow Rates
The flow characteristics graph gives the operating conditions of a control valve at a constant pressure.
As you can see from the above graph, there are a variety of different control valves, each with
its own flow characteristics. The simplest control valve is the valve with linear characteristics,
this means that if the valve is 50% open, then the flow rate is 50% and if the valve is 75% open,
then the flow rate is 75%. The quick opening valves let through the majority of the flow when
the valve is only slightly opened. The others need a larger percent opening to increase the flow.
If you needed tight control in a certain area near the 90% to 100% operating region, then you
could use quick acting valve. If you needed tighter control in the 25 to 50% region, then the
hyperbolic globe valve could be used. As an engineer you should be able to read these graphs
and select a control valve that best suits your need.
11.1.2 SIZING FOR LIQUIDS
The sizing of a liquid valve is dependent on the following equation. This equation shows that for
flow through an orifice like a control valve, that the square of the fluid velocity is directly
proportional to the pressure drop across the orifice.
∆𝑃
𝑄 𝐶
𝑆𝐺
𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ; 𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑡; ∆𝑃 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑆𝐺 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
The valve coefficient is specific to each valve and is found through controlled experiments. This
value corresponds to the flow rate through the valve in one minute, when a pressure drop of 1
PSI is maintained across the valve.

11.1.3 SIZING FOR GASES

The sizing of control valves for gases is derived from the same equation used for liquids, except
there are conversion factors to make it more applicable to the common units encountered with
gases. There are many more complex equations for sizing the control valves for gases, but this
is the simplest one. However, this equation can only be used when the change in pressure across
the control valve is much less than the operating pressure. This is typical of compressed air
systems greater than 150 psi.
∆𝑃 520
𝑄 59.64 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑃
𝑃 𝑆𝐺 ∗ 𝑇
𝑄 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑓ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 ; 𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑡;
∆𝑃 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ; 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝑅
𝑆𝐺 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.0 ; 𝑃 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 → 𝑄 2.11 ∗ 𝐶 𝑃 𝑃
11.1.4 CRITICAL POINT

Control valves can act like a converging-diverging nozzle and when the velocity of the fluid is
increased too high, it reaches a point where the flow rate is not changed no matter how much the
valve is opened. This is called the critical pressure or critical flow point. The equation that governs
this point is shown below.
520
𝑄 𝐶 ∗𝑃 ∗
𝑆𝐺 ∗ 𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
11.2 CONTROL DAMPERS

Dampers in HVAC systems are similar to control valves, except dampers control the flow of air
either by modulating or two-position control, open/close. These dampers are connected to electric
actuators, which modulate the dampers or open/close the dampers. Dampers consist of multiple
blades that sit within the ductwork. The dampers are arranged such that when they are fully open,
all the blades are parallel to the air flow and the air passes through the spaces between the
blades. When a damper is fully closed, the blades are arranged perpendicular to the airflow and
there is no space between the dampers.

There are two main types of dampers, parallel and opposed blade dampers. Parallel and opposed
blade dampers describe the relationship of the orientation of the blades. When a parallel damper
is closed, the blades all rotate in the same direction, which also changes the direction of the
airflow. In opposed blade dampers, the adjacent blades rotate in opposite directions. Please see
the figures below, which describe the two main types of dampers.
Figure 87: Parallel Blade Damper
Figure 88: Opposed Blade Damper
A common task in selecting dampers is finding the damper pressure drop. In practice, this is
usually determined by finding the manufacturer’s performance data for the selected damper. In
the performance data, you will be able to find out how the damper performs for various air
velocities. As the air velocity increases, the pressure drop will increase.
11.2.1 DAMPER AUTHORITY

Damper authority is found by dividing the pressure drop through the damper when it is open by
the total pressure drop through the ducting. But you have to be careful, the total pressure through
the ducting is only from the ducting that is affected by the damper. For example, volume damper
(VD) – 1 can only affect the flow rate through P-1. VD-2 can only affect the flow rate through P-
3 in the figure below.

Figure 89: The damper and valve authority is found by fully opening a damper and flowing the
design airflow through the system. The pressure drop across the damper is compared to the
pressure drop across the total ducting system that is affected by that damper.
Let’s assume the pressure drop through VD-1, when it is fully open at the design airflow is 0.01
in wg. The total pressure drop through the controlled ducting is P-1 = 0.13. Remember that this
total pressure drop also includes the pressure drop through the fully open VD-1.
.
𝑉𝐷 1 𝐴𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 0.08
, .
Damper authority is used to determine the controllability of the damper. If a damper has a lower
damper authority, then it will have less control at typically higher percentages of maximum airflow.
For example, the graph below shows how the controllability changes as damper authority
decreases. A damper authority of 1.0 shows that there is nearly a direct relationship between the
percentage open and the percentage of maximum airflow which means that it has excellent
controllability.

Figure 90: There are two damper authority graphs in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook. Make sure you select the correct one (opposed blade or parallel blade) on the
HVAC PE exam.
12.0 REFRIGERANTS
The main requirement for a fluid to be classified as a refrigerant is the ability to transfer heat.
Refrigerants must also be safe in order to be used for commercial and residential air conditioning
purposes. Refrigerants are classified by the following information: (1) Flammability, (2) Toxicity,
(3) Global Warming Potential (GWP), (4) Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) and (5) Operating
Pressure. The flammability and toxicity classifications are shown in ASHRAE 15 and are
discussed briefly in Sections 3.1 through 3.5 and later in Section 7.1. The GWP, ODP and
Operating Pressure of refrigerants are discussed further in Sections 3.1 through 3.5.
The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook also has a section under Refrigeration that
discusses various refrigerants and their properties, like molecular mass, flammability, boiling point
and safety group. You should be familiar with these properties shown in the handbook and you
should also read through the original source of these properties in ASHRAE Fundamentals
Chapter 29 Refrigerants.
Refrigerants can be split into four different types, (1) Hydrocarbons, (2) Chlorofluorocarbons, (3)
Hydroclurofluorocarbons and (4) Hydrofluorocarbons.

12.1 HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons consist of hydrogen and carbon. Some examples of hydrocarbons include
methane, ethane, propane and butane. Hydrocarbons like propane and isobutene can be used
in vapor compression cycles for refrigeration, but most commonly hydrocarbons are used in the
combustion process.
12.2 CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCS)

CFCs consist of carbon, with the chemical addition of chlorine and fluorine. Common CFCs
include R-12 and R-11, which were used heavily in air conditioning, vapor compression cycles.
Unlike hydrocarbons, CFCs are non-flammable. However, CFCs when improperly handled and
released into the atmosphere have been found to deplete the ozone layer. For this reason, CFCs
have been scheduled to be phased out and in the United States. In fact, CFCs are no longer used
in new air conditioning machines.
12.3 HYDROCLUROFLUOROCARBONS (HCFCS)

HCFCs consist of hydrogen and carbon, with the chemical addition of chlorine and fluorine. The
most common HCFC is R-22, which was used heavily in air conditioning. HCFCs are non-
flammable. They are also no longer used in new air conditioning machines in the United States,
because they contain the ozone harmful element, chlorine. The Montreal Protocol requires that
HCFC's be decreased in consumption and production, until HCFC's are completely phased out in
2030. Two specific HCFC’s, 22 and 142B, have been phased out of new equipment in 2010, with
the complete phase out of these refrigerants in 2020 (existing and new equipment). The Montreal
Protocol is further discussed in Section 8.2.
12.4 HYDROFLUOROCARBONS (HFCS)
HFCs have been substituted for CFCs because they have an ozone depletion potential of zero
and contain no chlorine. HFCs are also being substituted for HCFCs because they are currently
the most efficient refrigerants that do not harm the ozone, since they do not contain chlorine.
However, HFCs are also planned to be substituted in the future because of the greenhouse gases
that are emitted.
12.5 REFRIGERANT SUMMARY

A summary of the different types of refrigerants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Refrigerant summary
Refrigerant
Example(s) Remarks
Type
HC-290 (Propane), CH4 Not typically used in commercial A/C
HCs
(Methane) products, flammable.
Contains ozone depleting chlorine, most
CFCs CFC-11, 12, 113, 114, 115
harmful, phased out in ’95, High GWP.
Contains ozone depleting chlorine, Short
HCFCs HCFC-22, HCFC-123 term replacements, phased out in ’10 from
new equipment, High GWP.
Contains ZERO ozone depleting chlorine,
HFC-134a, HFC-407C,
HFCs ZERO ODP, Long term replacements, High
HFC-410A,
GWP.
Hydrofluoroolefins are composed of
hydrogen, fluorine and carbon. They have 0
HFOs HFO-1234yf
ODP and very low GWP. This is being
called the next generation of refrigerants.
Ozone Depleting Potential [ODP]: The ODP is an index developed to identify how damaging a
substance is to the ozone. The reference point from which all substances are compared is CFC-
11. CFC-11 is assumed to have an ODP of 1, more damaging chemicals have a higher ODP and
less damaging chemicals have a lower ODP. A summary of chemicals and their ODP is shown
in Table 2. Refrigerants with chlorine have a higher ODP. It is estimated that each chlorine atom
destroys 100,000 ozone molecules.
Table 2: ODP summary
Ozone Depleting Potential
Substance
[ODP]
CFC-11 1
CFC-12 1
HCFC-22 0.055
HCFC-123 0.02
HFC-134a 0
HFC-410A 0
HFO-1234YF 0
Global Warming Potential [GWP]: The GWP is an index developed to identify the potential for a
substance to prevent infrared radiation from leaving the earth's atmosphere. The reference point,
from which all substances are compared, is carbon dioxide. CO2 is assumed to have a GWP of
1, chemicals with a higher potential to contribute to global warming have a higher GWP and those
with a lower potential have a lower GWP. A summary of chemicals and their GWP is shown in
Table 3.

Table 3: GWP Summary
Substance Global Warming Potential

[GWP]
CO2 1
CFC-11 5,000
CFC-12 8,500
HCFC-22 1,700
HCFC-123 80
HFC-134a 1,300
HFC-410A 1,890
HFO-1234YF <1
Refer to the Thermodynamics section for the use of refrigerants within the vapor compression
cycle.
13.0 REFRIGERANT COMPONENTS

The Thermodynamics section discussed all the major refrigerant components, but there are also
support components that you should know for the PE exam. These components transform the
refrigeration cycle to real life application.
Figure 91: This figure shows the overall refrigerant diagram with all of the miscellaneous
components.

13.1 EXPANSION VALVE

Expansion Valves (or expansion devices) are described in the Thermodynamics Section.
13.2 ACCUMULATOR
An accumulator is located on the suction side of the compressor. It is located after the evaporator.
The accumulator will accumulate any excess liquid from the evaporator. A slug of liquid entering
the compressor can damage the compressor.
An accumulator is selected based on its tank volume, orifice size, and pressure drop. The
accumulator volume shall be 70% of the refrigerant charge for fixed orifice systems and 50% for
thermostatic expansion valve systems. The orifice of the accumulator should also be small
enough to control the refrigerant back to the compressor. The pressure drop across the
accumulator should be as small as possible.
13.3 FILTER
A filter on the evaporator exit will collect any contaminants from entering the compressor. The
filter will protect the moving parts of the compressor and will also help to keep the oil seals clean.
13.4 OIL SEPARATOR

An oil separator is provided at the high pressure side of the compressor. Oil is necessary to
lubricate the moving parts of the compressor and to provide oil seals to prevent the escape of
refrigerant or introduction of outside contaminants. The downside of oil is that it restricts heat
transfer. The refrigerant must be pure in order to get the most heat transfer. So after the
refrigerant leaves the compressor, there will be an oil separator to remove any oil, before the
refrigerant enters the condenser.
13.5 HOT GAS BYPASS VALVE

A hot gas bypass system consists of a valve that is typically controlled by the compressor inlet
temperature. If the temperature from the evaporator is too cold, then hot gas can bypass the
condenser and be sent to the evaporator to create a false load. This can be used to prevent frost.
The hot gas mixes with the cool liquid before the cool liquid enters the evaporator. This warms up
the liquid and creates an artificial load on the evaporator. The outlet of the evaporator will then
have a higher temperature. If the actual load within the system increases, then the evaporator
temperature will increase, which will decrease the need for the hot gas bypass.

13.6 RECEIVER
A receiver is located after the condenser. It is used to collect all of the refrigerant liquid. It can
also be used to hold the refrigerant while other parts of the refrigeration system are serviced. A
receiver is not always necessary.
13.7 FILTER/DRYER
The liquid line filter and dryer is used to protect the expansion valve. The filter removes
contaminants that may be in the refrigeration system that could damage the expansion valve.
The dryer removes any water moisture that could cause the expansion valve to freeze. As the
expansion valve lowers the pressure of the liquid, it will evaporate the refrigerant gas. If water
undergoes the same reduction in pressure, this could cause the water to turn into a solid which
would damage the expansion valve and also reduce heat transfer in the evaporator.
13.8 SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is used to shut-off and open flow throughout the refrigerant system. It is
interlocked with the compressor, so when the compressor starts up, then the solenoid valve opens
and vice versa when the compressor shuts off. When the compressor shuts off and the solenoid
valve closes, this creates a separation between the high pressure (condenser) side and the low
pressure (evaporator) side.
13.8 SIGHT GLASS
A sight glass is typically provided close to the expansion valve. The sight glass is a diagnostic
tool that allows you to see the refrigerant quality entering the expansion valve. You can see if the
refrigerant is liquid and gas or just liquid. You can also see if frost or moisture is forming, which
could indicate that there is moisture in the system that is not being picked up by the dryer.


14.1 PROBLEM 1 – FANS
Background: Two fans are placed in parallel. Each fan has the following performance, 2,000
CFM at 1.5 in. wg. If the fans are combined into a single 26” X 12” duct, then what is the resulting
pressure at the end of an equivalent length of duct of 100’?
Assume standard conditions, density = 0.075 lbm/ft^3 and roughness factor of 0.0007 ft.
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 1.5 𝑥10
(a) 0.4 in. wg
(b) 1.3 in. wg
(c) 2.3 in. wg
(d) 3.0 in. wg
14.3 PROBLEM 2 – FANS

Background: A fan has been selected at the design point shown on the below fan curve. What
is the minimum number of fans required to be placed in series, to achieve a flow rate of 3,000
CFM at a pressure of 4.0 in. wg?
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4

14.3 PROBLEM 3 – COILS

Background: A new cooling coil has an apparatus dew point of 53 F. The air entering conditions
are 80 F DB, 70% Relative Humidity. If the bypass factor of the coil is 0.05, then what is the
enthalpy of the air leaving the coil?
(a) 21.6 Btu/lb
(b) 22.7 Btu/lb
(c) 35.2 Btu/lb
(d) 36.4 Btu/lb
14.4 PROBLEM 4 – COILS

A chilled water coil is supplied with 12 GPM. Chilled water is supplied at 44 F and leaves the coil
at 54 F. 1500 CFM of air enters the coil at an enthalpy of 34 Btu/lb. What is the resulting enthalpy
of the air leaving the coil?
(a) 25.1 Btu/lb
(b) 28.2 Btu/lb
(c) 29.3 Btu/lb
(d) 34.7 Btu/lb

14.5 PROBLEM 5 – HUMIDIFIER

An evaporative humidifier, with a capacity of 5 lb of water vapor per hour, is used to humidify 500
CFM of air with entering conditions of 80 F DB, 20% Relative Humidity. What is the resulting
humidity ratio of the air leaving the humidifier?
Assume density of air is equal to 0.075 lb/ft^3
(a) . 0040
(b) . 0043
(c) . 0056
(d) . 0063
14.6 PROBLEM 6 – PUMPS

A pump is sized for 200 GPM at 150 ft of head. If the impeller diameter is decreased in size by
25%, what is the new flow of the pump? Assume the speed remains the same.
(a) 100 GPM
(b) 115 GPM
(c) 150 GPM
(d) 200 GPM

14.7 PROBLEM 7 – COOLING TOWERS

A cooling tower is used to cool 95 °F condenser water down to 85 °F. If the design wet bulb is 78
°F WB, then what is the approach and range?
(a) Range = 10 °F, Approach = 10 °F
(b) Range = 7 °F, Approach = 10 °F
(c) Range = 10 °F, Approach = 7 °F
(d) Range = 17 °F, Approach = 7 °F
14.8 PROBLEM 8 – AIR WASHER

Air at 87 °F DB, 65 °F WB is drawn through an air washer. The air washer has a single bank of
nozzles and has an efficiency of 65%. What is the resulting dry bulb temperature of the air leaving
the air washer? The water is kept at a temperature of 65 °F.
(a) 68 °F, DB
(b) 73 °F, DB
(c) 77 °F, DB
(d) 84 °F, DB

14.9 PROBLEM 9 – ABSORPTION CHILLER

In a lithium-bromide absorption chiller, which of the following fluids most likely serves as the
refrigerant?
(A) Water
(B) Lithium
(C) Bromide
(D) Lithium-bromide solution
14.10 PROBLEM 10 – ABSORPTION CHILLER

In an ammonia absorption chiller, which of the following fluids most likely serves as the absorbent?
(A) Water
(B) Ammonia
(C) LiBr
(D) Ammonia-water solution

14.11 PROBLEM 11 – COOLING TOWER

A water cooled chiller operates with a chilled water leaving temperature of 44 °F and an entering
temperature of 56 °F. The chilled water flow rate is 950 GPM. What is the minimum size cooling
tower required to match with this chiller? The chiller COP is 5.0. Assume standard water
conditions.
(A) 460 nominal cooling tower tons
(B) 475 nominal cooling tower tons
(C) 475 tons
(D) 550 tons
14.12 PROBLEM 12 – REFRIGERANTS

Which of the following elements is not part of R-134?
(a) Hydrogen
(b) Carbon
(c) Fluorine
(d) Chlorine

15.0 SOLUTIONS
15.1 SOLUTION 1 – FANS
Background: Two fans are placed in parallel. Each fan has the following performance, 2,000
CFM at 1.5 in. wg. If the fans are combined into a single 26” X 12” duct, then what is the resulting
pressure at the end of an equivalent length of duct of 100’?
Assume standard conditions, density = 0.075 lbm/ft3 and roughness factor of 0.0007 ft.
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 1.5 𝑥10
Method 1: The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook, section 9.3.6 Duct Design copies
different equations from ASHRAE Fundamentals. This makes finding the pressure drop difficult.
The first method is to use the hydraulic diameter. ASHRAE Fundamentals indicates that this is
NOT an exact method and there will be uncertainty in this answer. Please see the excerpt below.
“Although hydraulic diameter is often used to correlate noncircular data, exact solutions for
laminar flow in noncircular passages show that this causes some inconsistencies. No exact
solutions exist for turbulent flow. Tests over a limited range of turbulent flow indicated that fluid
resistance is the same for equal lengths of duct for equal mean velocities of flow if the ducts have
the same ratio of crosssectional area to perimeter. From experiments using round, square, and
rectangular ducts having essentially the same hydraulic diameter, Huebscher (1948) found that
each, for most purposes, had the same flow resistance at equal mean velocities. Tests by Griggs
and Khodabakhsh-Sharifabad (1992) also indicated that experimental rectangular duct data for
airflow over the range typical of HVAC systems can be correlated satisfactorily using Equation
(19) together with hydraulic diameter, particularly when a realistic experimental uncertainty is
accepted. These tests support using hydraulic diameter to correlate noncircular duct data.
Rectangular Ducts. Huebscher (1948) developed.” Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter
Duct Design.
First calculate the hydraulic diameter of the duct:
4 ∗ 26 ∗ 12
𝐷
2 ∗ 26 2 ∗ 12
𝐷 16.4
𝐷 16.4" 1.37 𝑓𝑡
Next recognize that the fans are in parallel, thus the resulting flow rate is 4,000 CFM. Also the
pressure at the outlet of the fan is assumed to be 1.5 in. wg.
On the PE exam, you will not have access to ASHRAE Fundamentals, so the other way to
complete this problem is to use the equation from the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook.
12𝑓 𝑣
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝜌
𝐷 1097

First, you need to find the friction factor from the Moody Diagram.
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 26 12 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 4,000 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4,000 ∗ 1846 30.77
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 12 12 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑓𝑡
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1.5 𝑥10
𝑠
𝑓𝑡
30.77 𝑥1.37
𝑅𝑒 𝑠 281,025
𝑓𝑡
1.5 𝑥 10
𝑠
𝜀 0.0007 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 0.00044
𝐷 19"/12
From the Moody Diagram, you will see that the friction factor is equal to .025
12 0.025 𝑙𝑏 1,846 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 100 𝑓𝑡 0.075 0.39 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑔
16.4 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 1097
Since we are concerned with the pressure drop after 100’, then simply subtract 0.39 from the
starting pressure of 1.5.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1.11 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔
Method 2: The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook also uses the equivalent diameter
method. This is also taken from the same chapter in ASHRAE Fundamentals as the hydraulic
diameter. First, convert to equivalent diameter. According to ASHRAE Fundamentals,
“Huebscher (1948) developed the relationship between rectangular and round ducts that is used
to determine size equivalency based on equal flow, resistance, and length.” This means that you
need to calculate the velocity, Reynolds number and pressure drop based on this new equivalent
diameter.
.
26 ∗ 12
𝐷 1.30 ∗ .
26 12
𝐷 18.96
𝐷 19" 1.58 𝑓𝑡
First, you need to find the friction factor from the Moody Diagram.
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 4,000 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4,000 0.25 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 1.58 2032 33.88
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑓𝑡
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1.5 𝑥10
𝑠

𝑓𝑡
33.88 𝑥1.58
𝑅𝑒 𝑠 357,565
𝑓𝑡
1.5 𝑥 10
𝑠
𝜀 0.0007 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 0.00044
𝐷 19"/12
From the Moody Diagram, you will see that the friction factor is equal to .018
12 0.018 𝑙𝑏 2032 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 100 𝑓𝑡 0.075 0.30 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑔
19 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 1097
Since we are concerned with the pressure drop after 100’, then simply subtract 0.30 from the
starting pressure of 1.5.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 1.2 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 1.3 in wg.
(a) 0.4 in. wg
(b) 1.3 in. wg
(c) 2.3 in. wg
(d) 3.0 in. wg
15.2 SOLUTION 2 – FANS
Background: A fan has been selected at the design point shown on the below fan curve. What
is the minimum number of fans required to be placed in series, to achieve a flow rate of 3,000
CFM at a pressure of 4.0 in. wg?

If fans are placed in series, then their pressures are added. (3) Fans are required to achieve a
pressure of 5.4 in. wg.
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
15.3 SOLUTION 3 – COILS

Background: A new cooling coil has an apparatus dew point of 53 F. The air entering conditions
are 80 F DB, 70% Relative Humidity. If the bypass factor of the coil is 0.05, then what is the
enthalpy of the air leaving the coil?
First determine the enthalpy of the air entering the coil.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 36.15
𝑙𝑏
Next determine the enthalpy at the apparatus dew point (ADP) of 53 F DB/53 F WB.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 22.01
𝑙𝑏
Use the bypass factor to find the resulting coil leaving enthalpy.
ℎ 22.01 ∗ . 95 36.15 ∗ .05
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ 22.72
𝑙𝑏
15.4 SOLUTION 4 – COILS

A chilled water coil is supplied with 12 GPM. Chilled water is supplied at 44 F and leaves the coil
at 54 F. 1500 CFM of air enters the coil at an enthalpy of 34 Btu/lb. What is the resulting enthalpy
of the air leaving the coil?
First calculate the amount of heat transferred by the chilled water.
𝑄 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑄 500 ∗ 12 ∗ 54 44
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 60,000
ℎ𝑟

Next, set up the energy balance on the air side.
𝑄 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
60,000 4.5 ∗ 1,500 ∗ 34 𝑥
ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑥 25.1
𝑙𝑏
15.5 SOLUTION 5 – HUMIDIFIER

An evaporative humidifier, with a capacity of 5 lb of water vapor per hour, is used to humidify 500
CFM of air with entering conditions of 80 F DB, 20% Relative Humidity. What is the resulting
humidity ratio of the air leaving the humidifier?
Assume density of air is equal to 0.075 lb/ft^3
First use the psychrometric chart to find the humidity ratio of the air entering the humidifier.
𝑊 .0043
𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Next use the humidifying equation to calculate the leaving humidity ratio.
𝐻 60 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
5 60 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 500 ∗ 𝑊 .0043
ℎ𝑟
𝑊 .0063
15.6 SOLUTION 6 – PUMPS

A pump is sized for 200 GPM at 150 ft of head. If the impeller diameter is decreased in size by
25%, what is the new flow of the pump? Assume the speed remains the same.
Use the affinity laws.
𝑄 𝐷
𝑄 𝐷
200 𝑥
𝑄 0.75𝑥
200 ∗ 0.75 ∗ 𝑥 𝑄 ∗𝑥

𝑥 150 𝑔𝑝𝑚
15.7 SOLUTION 7 – COOLING TOWERS

A cooling tower is used to cool 95 F condenser water down to 85 F. If the design wet bulb is 78
F WB, then what is the approach and range?
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑇 , ℉ 𝑇 ℉
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 95 85 10℉
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑇 , ℉ 𝑇 , ℉
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 85 78 7℉
15.8 SOLUTION 8 – AIR WASHER

Air at 87 F DB, 65 F WB is drawn through an air washer. The air washer has a single bank of
nozzles and has an efficiency of 65%. What is the resulting dry bulb temperature of the air leaving
the air washer?
The efficiency of an air washer is found by comparing the actual reduction in dry bulb temperature
to the maximum reduction in dry bulb temperature.
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇
The maximum amount of reduction in dry bulb temperature occurs if the air entering leaves at its
wet bulb temperature.
87 𝑥
87 65
0.65 ∗ 87 65 87 𝑥
𝑥 72.7 ℉ 𝐷𝐵
15.9 SOLUTION 9 – ABSORPTION CHILLER

In a lithium-bromide absorption chiller, the lithium-bromide (LiBr) serves as the absorbent and
water serves as the refrigerant.
The correct answer is most nearly, (A) Water.

15.10 SOLUTION 10 – ABSORPTION CHILLER

In an ammonia absorption chiller, the water serves as the absorbent and ammonia serves as the
refrigerant.
The correct answer is most nearly, (A) Water.
15.11 SOLUTION 11 – COOLING TOWER

First, you need to calculate the total amount of condenser water cooling that will be required from
the cooling tower. This is equal to the chiller tons plus the heat from the compressor. The heat
from the compressor can be found with the COP.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐶𝑂𝑃
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 500 ∗ 950 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ 12 °𝐹 ∗ 475 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
12,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
475 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐶𝑂𝑃 5.0
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑛𝑠 95 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
The total cooling required by the cooling tower is equal to the compressor heat and the chiller
cooling.
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 95 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 475 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 570 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
Now you need to understand the difference between a nominal cooling tower ton and a normal
ton. The normal ton term is used above. A cooling tower ton is used below. A cooling tower ton
is equal to 3.0 GPM, multiplied by a 10 degree delta T and the 500 conversion value.
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑛 500 ∗ 3.0 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ 95 85 𝐹
A normal ton is equal to 2.4 GPM at a 10 degree delta T.
1
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑜𝑛 500 ∗ 𝑋 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ 95 85 𝐹 ∗
12000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 500 ∗ 𝑋 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ 95 85 𝐹 ∗
12000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ
𝑋 2.4 𝐺𝑃𝑀
Thus the conversion between a normal ton and cooling tower nominal ton is 2.4/3.0 or 0.8.
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 570 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 ∗ 0.8 456 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 570 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 456 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
The correct answer is most nearly, (A) 460 nominal cooling tower tons.
15.12 SOLUTION 12 – REFRIGERANTS

Which of the following elements is not part of R-134?
(a) Hydrogen
(b) Carbon
(c) Fluorine
(d) Chlorine
R-134 is a HFC refrigerant. This means it contains hydrogen, fluorine and carbon. It does not
contain chlorine.
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) Chlorine.

cooling humidifiers · 81
A Cooling tower ton · 14
Cooling Towers · 7, 107
Absorption Chiller · 38 Counter-flow · 8, 27
Absorption Cycle · 39 Critical point · 87
Accumulator · 94, 95 Cross-flow · 8
Adiabatic fluid coolers · 17
adiabatic humidifiers · 81
ADP · 73 D
Affinity Laws · 52
AFUE · 22 Damper Authority · 88
Air · 24 De-Humidifiers · 81
Air cooled chillers · 37 Desiccant de-humidifiers · 82
Air to Fuel Ratio · 25 drift · 13
Air Washer · 107 Dry type fluid cooler · 16
Air-Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration Institute · 37
Airfoil · 63
Apparatus Dew Point · 73 E
approach · 10
Axial Fans · 60 Effective Surface Temperature · 73
Efficiency of a boiler · 18
Electric boilers · 21
B Electrical Power · 46, 60
End-Suction Pump · 47
Backward inclined · 62 Evaporative cooling · 7
Ball valve · 84 Evaporative fluid cooler · 15
blow-down · 13 Evaporative Humidifiers · 81
Boiler energy balance · 21 Excess Air · 26
Brake Horsepower · 46, 59 Expansion Valve · 94
Butterfly valve · 85
bypass factor · 73
F
C Fan Affinity Laws · 66
Fan Curves · 64
Centrifugal · 69 Fans · 102, 104
Centrifugal Fans · 62 Fans in parallel · 67
Centrifugal Pump · 47 Fans in series · 68
CFCs · 91 feed-water system · 17
Chilled Beam: Active · 76; Passive · 76 Filter/Dryer · 95
Chilled Beams · 74 Firetube · 19
Chillers · 36 Fluid coolers · 14
Coils · 105, 106 Forced Draft · 8
Combustion · 23 Forward Curved · 62
combustion system · 18 Fouling · 34
Compressor efficiency · 70 Fuel · 23
Compressors · 68 Furnaces · 22
Condensers · 36
Condensing boiler · 20
contact factor · 74 G
Control Dampers · 87
Control Valves · 83 Globe valve · 84
Cooling & Heating Coil · 73 GWP · 92
Cooling & Heating Coils · 71

H O
HCFCs · 91 ODP · 92
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness · 33 Open Drive · 70
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance · 34
Heat Exchanger Plate and Frame · 29
Heat Exchanger Shell and Tube · 28 P
Heat Exchangers · 27
Heat Pump · 43 parallel and opposed blade dampers · 88
Heating Coil · 72 parallel flow · 27
Heating Value · 23 Propeller Fans · 60
Hermetic · 70 Pump Curves · 48
HFCs · 91 Pump Operation Point · 51
Higher heating value · 18, 24 Pump VFD · 54
Humidifier · 106 Pump with Modulating Valve · 53
Humidifiers · 80 pumps · 46
Hybrid fluid cooler · 16 Pumps · 107
Hydrocarbons · 91 Pumps in Parallel · 55
Pumps in Series · 57
I
R
Induced · 8
In-Line Pump · 47 Radial · 63
IPLV · 37 range · 10
isothermal humidifiers · 80 Reciprocating · 69
Refrigerant Components · 93
Refrigerants · 90
L Rotary · 69
Li-Cl · 83
Lithium bromide (LiBr) · 40 S
Lithium-Chloride · 83
LMTD · 30 Screw · 69
LMTD Correction Factor · 31 Scroll · 69
Lower heating value · 24 Semi-Hermetic · 70
Sight Glass · 95
Similarity Laws · 53, 66
M Solenoid Valve · 95
Static Pressure · 60
Make-up · 12 Steam Boilers · 17
Mechanical · 8 Steam heating coils · 78
Mechanical Horsepower · 46, 59 Steam Humidifiers · 80
Motor Horsepower · 46, 60 steam system · 18
Multiple Fans · 67 Stoichiometry · 24
System Curve · 50
system resistance curve · 64
N
Natural Draft · 8 T
Non-condensing boiler · 19
NPLV · 37 TDS · 13
NTU Method · 32 Total Pressure · 60
Tube-Axial Fans · 61

V W
Valve: Flow characteristics · 85 Water Cooled Chiller · 37
Valve Coefficient · 86 Water Loss · 12
Variable Refrigerant Flow · 42 Watertube · 19
Velocity Pressure · 60
VRF · 43

10 - Systems and Components

Air Distribution | Fluid Distribution | Refrigeration | Energy Recovery | Basic Control
Concepts
HVAC Textbook
Section 10.0 – Application Systems & Components

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 5

2.0 Air Distribution .................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Air Handling Units ........................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Fan/Duct ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Darcy Weisbach Equation ....................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Determining Velocity in Ducts for Pressure Calculations. ....................................... 8
2.2.3 Determining Diameter of Duct ................................................................................. 8
2.2.4 Determining Volumetric Flow Rate .......................................................................... 9
2.2.5 Determining Total Static Pressure ......................................................................... 10
2.3 Terminal Units .............................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Supply Air Diffusers ...................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Method I – Selection by Noise Criteria .................................................................. 13
2.4.2 Method II – Selection by Throws ........................................................................... 13
2.4.3 Method III – Selection by ADPI ............................................................................. 14
2.5 Duct Design .................................................................................................................. 16
2.5.1 Constant Volume System ...................................................................................... 16
2.5.2 Variable Volume System ....................................................................................... 18
3.0 Fluid Distribution (Hydronic) ............................................................................................. 22
3.1 Pumps .......................................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Determining Total Head or Pressure Loss ................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Open Systems ....................................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 Closed Systems .................................................................................................... 25
3.2.3 Friction Losses ...................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Determining Net Positive Suction Head Available ........................................................ 30
3.4 Pipe Design .................................................................................................................. 33
3.5 Hydronic Chilled Water System .................................................................................... 36
3.5.1 Air Cooled, Constant Flow Chilled Water System ................................................. 36
3.5.2 Water Cooled, Constant Flow Chilled Water System ............................................ 38
3.5.3 Variable-Primary Chilled Water Flow .................................................................... 40
3.5.4 Primary-Secondary Chilled Water Flow................................................................. 41
Systems & Components - 1 www.engproguides.com

3.5.5 Direct-Return vs. Reverse-Return ......................................................................... 42

3.6 Hydronic Hot Water System ......................................................................................... 44
3.7 Dual Temperature System ............................................................................................ 45
3.7.1 Two Pipe, Dual Temperature System ................................................................... 45
3.7.2 Four Pipe Combined, Dual Temperature System.................................................. 46
3.7.1 Four Pipe Separate, Dual Temperature System ................................................... 47
4.0 Fluid Distribution (Oil) ....................................................................................................... 48
5.0 Fluid Distribution (Fuel Gas) ............................................................................................ 48
5.1 Longest Length Method ................................................................................................ 49
5.2 Branch Length Method ................................................................................................. 50
6.0 Fluid Distribution (Compressed Air) ................................................................................. 50
7.0 Fluid Distribution (Steam) ................................................................................................. 51
8.0 Refrigeration..................................................................................................................... 53
9.0 Energy Recovery Devices ................................................................................................ 54
9.1 Types of Problems ........................................................................................................ 54
9.1.1 Effectiveness ......................................................................................................... 54
9.1.2 Actual Heat Transfer ............................................................................................. 55
9.1.3 Efficiency ............................................................................................................... 55
9.2 Rotary Sensible Wheel ................................................................................................. 56
9.3 Rotary Enthalpy Wheel ................................................................................................. 57
9.4 Wrap-Around Heat Pipe ............................................................................................... 57
9.5 Run-Around Loop ......................................................................................................... 59
9.6 Air-Side Economizer ..................................................................................................... 60
9.7 Other Energy Recovery Devices .................................................................................. 61
10.0 Basic Control Concepts .................................................................................................... 62
10.1 DDC Systems ............................................................................................................... 62
10.2 Economizer ................................................................................................................... 63
10.3 Temperature reset ........................................................................................................ 63
11.0 Practice problems ............................................................................................................ 65
11.1 Problem 1 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 65
11.2 Problem 2 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 65
11.3 Problem 3 – Diffusers ................................................................................................... 66
11.4 Problem 4 – Energy Recovery Device .......................................................................... 66

11.5 Problem 5 – Pressure loss ........................................................................................... 67

11.6 Problem 6 – Steam Piping ............................................................................................ 67
11.7 Problem 7 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 68
11.8 Problem 8 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 68
11.9 Problem 9 – Net Positive Suction Head ....................................................................... 69
11.10 Problem 10 – Duct Construction ............................................................................... 69
11.11 Problem 11 – Air Distribution Systems ..................................................................... 70
11.12 Problem 12 – Air Distribution Systems ..................................................................... 70
11.13 Problem 13 – Controls .............................................................................................. 71
11.15 Problem 15 – Duct Systems ..................................................................................... 72
11.16 Problem 16 – Duct Systems ..................................................................................... 72
11.19 Problem 19 – Steam Systems .................................................................................. 74
12.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 76
12.1 Solution 1 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 76
12.2 Solution 2 – Duct Design .............................................................................................. 76
12.3 Solution 3 – Diffusers ................................................................................................... 77
12.4 Solution 4 – Energy Recovery Device .......................................................................... 78
12.5 Solution 5 – Pressure loss ............................................................................................ 78
12.6 Solution 6 – Steam Piping ............................................................................................ 79
12.7 Solution 7 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 80
12.8 Solution 8 – Friction Loss ............................................................................................. 81
12.9 Solution 9 – Net Positive Suction Head ........................................................................ 81
12.10 Solution 10 – Duct Construction ............................................................................... 82
12.11 Solution 11 – Air Distribution Systems ...................................................................... 83
12.12 Solution 12 – Air Distribution Systems ...................................................................... 83
12.13 Solution 13 – Controls ............................................................................................... 84
12.15 Solution 15 – Duct Systems ...................................................................................... 84

12.16 Solution 16 – Duct Systems ...................................................................................... 85

12.19 Solution 19 – Steam Systems ................................................................................... 86

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section of the exam guide book focuses on the Mechanical Systems used in the HVAC &
Refrigeration field. The systems and components section accounts for approximately 16-
24 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical PE exam.
The systems discussed in this section include the most common systems that are on the PE
exam. The previous section described the equipment that make up these systems in more
detail. Also at the end of this section is a brief discussion on controls.
Air Distribution Systems: The air distribution systems consist of an air handler (coil and fan),
ducting, air, and terminal devices.
Fluid Distribution Systems: A fluid distribution system consists of a pump, piping and the
fluid.
Refrigeration Systems: Refrigeration systems are primarily used to cool and freeze food.
Energy Recovery: Energy recovery systems are additions onto an air distribution or fluid
distribution system that make the air or fluid distribution system more efficient.
Systems & Components

16-24 questions
Air Distribution Fluid Distribution Refrigeration Energy

Systems Systems Systems Recovery
• Air handlers • Hydronic • Food storage • Enthalpy
• Duct design • Oil • Cooling wheels
• System type • Fuel gas • Freezing • Heat pipes
• Terminal • Compressed • Run-around
devices air systems
• Steam
• System type
Basic control
concepts
• Economizer
• Temperature
reset

2.0 AIR DISTRIBUTION

In the HVAC field, air distribution systems are used to supply cold/hot air to various spaces to
keep the occupants comfortable and/or to keep equipment at optimum conditions. Fresh air is
also provided through the air distribution system to provide appropriate ventilation levels, in
order to alleviate carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.
An air distribution system consists of a supply air system, return air system, outside air and
exhaust air system. The supply air system consists of an air handling unit, supply ducting,
dampers, terminal units and diffusers. An air handling unit is a fan with cooling/heating coils.
The air handling unit cools/heats supply air and then distributes it through the ducting system,
which consists of ducts, dampers and duct fittings. Once the air reaches the space, it is then
directed to a terminal unit, which controls the amount and conditions of air distributed to that
specific space. Next the air is delivered to the space through a supply air diffuser, this piece of
equipment controls the way the air is distributed throughout the space. The return air system
consists of return air registers, ducts, dampers and duct fittings. The return air system also
exhausts air via the exhaust air system, before sending the return air back to the air handler,
where the cycle begins again. At the air handling unit, the exhaust air is replaced with new
outside air.
Figure 1: A typical air distribution system has an outside air and return air system that supply
air to the air handler. The air handler will cool or heat and filter the air. Humidification may also
be provided if needed at the air handler. The fan at the air handler will push the air through the
supply air ducting system. Dampers and terminal units will be provided to control the airflow, in
order to ensure that just the right amount of air is provided to each diffuser. Supply diffusers are
provided to ensure proper distribution within the space.
2.1 AIR HANDLING UNITS

Air handling units or AHUs are a common piece of equipment in the HVAC & Refrigeration field.
An AHU is a built-up, air moving and conditioning device. It is typically constructed of metal
framing with a multitude of individual air handling components. Each of the individual

components is discussed throughout this book. It is simplest to think of an AHU as pieced

together or built up by various building blocks or components. Components that most often
comprise an AHU are shown below:
1. Mixing Box: Typically the first component in an AHU is a mixing box, which mixes the correct
amounts of outdoor air with return air through the use of dampers.
2. Air Filter: An air filter is then provided prior to the next devices, in order to protect the
following devices and to keep them clean.
3. Heating and/or Cooling Coil: A heating and/or cooling coil is then provided to condition the
air to the correct leaving temperature.
4. Humidifier or Dehumidifier: If required a humidifier and/or dehumidifier is provided to

condition the air to the correct humidity level.
5. Fan: A fan may either be provided ahead or behind devices, depending on the engineer's
decision. If the fan is placed last, then the configuration is deemed a draw-thru fan, because the
fan draws the air thru the other devices. A blow-thru fan is located before the other components
and blows the air thru them.
6. Energy Recovery Device: If there is an opportunity for energy recovery, then an ERV like a
heat pipe may be provided.
Figure 2: Sample Air handling unit with draw-thru fan
2.2 FAN/DUCT
The professional engineer must be able to properly size a fan. There are two main parameters
that must be determined, (1) volumetric flow rate [CFM] and (2) static pressures, but first you
need to understand the Darcy Weisbach Equation, duct velocities and equivalent diameters.

2.2.1 DARCY WEISBACH EQUATION

The equation used to determine the pressure drop in ducts is the Darcy Weisbach Equation.
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝐿 𝑓𝑡 𝑉 𝑠
∆𝑃 𝑓∗𝜌 ∗ ∗
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡 𝐷 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔
𝑠
Converting to more commonly used HVAC & Refrigeration units:
𝑓𝑡
12 ∗ 𝐿 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑉
𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑃 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝑓∗ ∗𝜌
𝐷 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 1097
Although this equation is the governing equation for determining pressure drop, it is most often
not used in the HVAC & Refrigeration field. In this field, airflow pressure drop calculations are
simplified through the use of Friction Charts. Friction Charts show pressure drops as a
function of duct diameters, air volumetric flow rate and air velocity. However, these values are
only applicable for standard air conditions (sea level, density of 0.075 lb per ft3). Airflows,
pressures, elevations and duct construction NOT normally encountered in the HVAC &
Refrigeration field should use the Darcy Equation.
Unfortunately, these friction charts are not provided on the HVAC PE exam, so you must use
the manual calculations, which include the Darcy equation.
2.2.2 DETERMINING VELOCITY IN DUCTS FOR PRESSURE CALCULATIONS.

In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, airflow is typically measured in cubic feet per minute or CFM.
But velocity is the term that is required in determining the pressure drop of the air flow through a
duct. In order to determine the velocity, the area of the duct must be found. Finding the area of
the ducts is a simple calculation for circular ducts, which are shown below.
𝐷
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑡 𝜋∗ ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
4
For rectangular and oval ducts, the rectangular and oval duct dimensions MUST FIRST be
converted to Equivalent Diameter. Remember, that the pressure loss calculations require a
circular shape.
2.2.3 DETERMINING DIAMETER OF DUCT

The Friction Charts and the Darcy Equation are typically a function of duct diameter. Thus no
calculations are necessary for a circular duct. However, rectangular and oval ducts must be

converted to an equivalent diameter circular duct before the equation can be properly
completed. The equations for determining equivalent diameters are shown below.
Rectangular Duct
.
𝑎∗𝑏
𝐷 1.30 ∗ .
; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 a and b are the width ft and height ft of the duct
𝑎 𝑏
Oval Duct
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 .
𝐷 1.55 ∗ .
; 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜋∗𝑎 2∗ 𝐴 𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A is the major axis and a is the minor axis
A quicker way to determine equivalent diameter is to use the Equivalent Diameter Tables for
Rectangular and Oval ducts shown in ASHRAE Fundaments Handbook. Unfortunately, these
are not included in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
Once you have the equivalent diameter, then you can find the air velocity with the volumetric
flow rate.
2.2.4 DETERMINING VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE

In order to find the volumetric flow rate of air that the fan must blow, will depend on the following
factors, (1a) heat/cooling load, (1b) ventilation/exhaust or (1c) velocity.
(1a) First in the HVAC & Refrigeration field fans are used to provide cool/hot air to properly
control the temperature of the space. The amount of air required is determined by the
cooling/heat load and the desired temperature and the supply air temperature.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 𝑚 ∗𝐻
ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.075𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 60 ∗ ∗ ∆h
ℎ ℎ𝑟 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝐻20
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 70℉ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚.
Q 4.5 ∗ ∆h ∗ CFM
Q
CFM
4.5 ∗ ∆h
(1b) Second in the HVAC & Refrigeration field fans are used to provide ventilation to adequately
remove noxious fumes, like carbon dioxide from occupied spaces. The amount of ventilation or
exhaust is determined by researching ASHRAE 62.1 for the required factor. This factor could

be a person factor, for example, “Provide 15 CFM per person” or it could be an area factor, for
example, “Provide 1 CFM per square foot of area”.
(1c) Volumetric flow rate (CFM) can also be determined by the required velocity. This method is
typically used in industrial ventilation situations and in kitchens. A high velocity is required in a
system in order to keep particles suspended in the air so that they may be exhausted out of the
space.
2.2.5 DETERMINING TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE

The second parameter that must be found in order to size a fan is to determine the total static
pressure. This is the total pressure that the fan must overcome in order to deliver the required
CFM to the required location. The total static pressure is a function of the (2a) duct friction
losses, (2b) duct fitting losses and (2c) miscellaneous equipment losses.
(2a) Duct Friction Losses: Straight lengths of duct incur friction losses on the airflow, which
must be calculated by the engineer in order to properly size the fan. The amount of friction loss
is a function of the velocity of air and the size of the duct. Another important tool that is required
is the Standard Friction Loss in Standard Duct graphs, which can be found in the ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook.
𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔
𝐹 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝐿 𝑓𝑡 ∗ 𝑓
100 𝑓𝑡
Figure 3: Sample duct friction loss graph

Since, this graph is not provided on the HVAC PE exam, you need to follow this process.
Step 1: Find Equivalent Diameter. If you have a round duct, then you already have the
equivalent diameter. If you have a rectangular or oval duct, then you need to use the previously
discussed equations.
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝐷
Step 2: Find Air Velocity. The volumetric flow rate and the equivalent diameter will allow you to
find the air velocity. Make sure you use the equivalent diameter to find the area.
𝑓𝑡
𝑉
𝑉 𝑓𝑝𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.25 ∗ 𝜋𝐷 𝑓𝑡
Step 3: Find the Reynolds Number. The typical kinematic viscosity for air is shown below.
𝑉∗𝐷 𝑉∗𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜈 15.8 𝑥 10 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝜈 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;𝑉 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ;𝐷 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐 sec
Step 4: Find the relative roughness. The roughness for galvanized steel is typically between
0.0002 to 0.0008. These roughness values for other materials are shown in the NCEES
𝜀
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷
Step 5: Use the Moody diagram to find the friction factor.
𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Step 6: Lastly, plug-in all the appropriate values into the Darcy equation. You should use the
variant of the equation that is specifically suited to typical HVAC units.
𝑓𝑡
12 ∗ 𝐿 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏 𝑉
𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑃 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝑓∗ ∗𝜌
𝐷 𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝑓𝑡 1097
(2b) Duct Fitting Losses: Each fitting also will have a friction loss associated with its
construction. In order to find these fiction losses, the engineer will need the ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook. Duct fittings losses are dependent on the type of fitting and the
velocity of the air through the fitting. The type of fitting will have a corresponding “K-factor” or
“C-factor”, which can be found in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. The “K-factor” or “C-
factor” is multiplied by the velocity pressure in order to get the pressure loss due to the duct
fitting. The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook only provides K-factors for piping and

not ducts, so if this type of problems appears on the HVAC PE exam, then the problem needs to
state the K-factor or C-factor for that duct fitting.
𝑉 𝑉
𝐹 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝐾∗ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 ∗
4005 4005
If the problem uses air at non-standard conditions or at a different elevation then you need to
use this equation, which allows you to input the different air density.
𝑉 𝑉
𝐹 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝐾∗𝜌 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 ∗ 𝜌
1097 1097
(2c) Miscellaneous Equipment Friction Losses: In a duct system, there are also miscellaneous
equipment losses due to different types of equipment, like filters, dampers, fans, diffusers,
registers and grilles. The friction losses are given by the equipment manufacturer for different
velocities and flow rates.
𝐹 . . 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟 𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
2.3 TERMINAL UNITS

A Variable Air Volume (VAV) terminal unit or commonly referred to as a VAV box is a device
that is used to regulate the volumetric air flow rate provided to a space. A VAV box is typically a
metal box with a duct inlet, outlet and a motorized damper. The motorized damper is controlled
by a thermostat located in a space. As the thermostat measures the temperature in the space,
it reacts to changes in the space by either restricting or allowing more airflow through the VAV
box.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝐴𝑉 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
The maximum airflow corresponds to the Maximum Heat Load, which is typically the design
heat load.
The minimum airflow can correspond to the Minimum Heat Load. However, typically this
amount is restricted by the minimum amount of fresh air required to the space, commonly
referred to as the air changes. Air changes can be thought of as the rate at which the air in a
space is completely removed and replaced with fresh air.
60𝑚𝑖𝑛 1
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝐴𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∗
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝐿′𝑥𝑊′𝑥𝐻′
A single air change per hour is found by determining the fresh airflow rate and dividing it by the
volume of the space.

2.4 SUPPLY AIR DIFFUSERS

The goal with air devices, like supply air diffusers, is to maintain human comfort or to properly
cool equipment. According to ASHRAE 55, comfort is dependent on the following, dry bulb and
radiant temperature, relative humidity and air velocity.
The air handler and coils typically keep the air temperature in a space between 73-77 F and the
relative humidity at 50%. However, the air devices, like air diffusers must keep the air at a
certain velocity. The supply air diffusers can be designed with smaller openings to increase the
velocity and larger outlets to decrease the velocity, depending on the velocity required in the
space and the location of the air diffusers.
For example, in an office situation, it is recommended that the air velocity be maintained at 30 to
50 feet per minute at the occupants. But air velocity is not the only criteria in determining the
correct supply air diffuser for your space. The following are three methods that may be tested
on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE Exam, selection by noise criteria (NC), selection by throws and
selection by the Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI).
2.4.1 METHOD I – SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA

In this method, you must use the manufacturer’s provided data and select a diffuser that has an
NC rating less than the required rating for your space at the desired CFM. A typical diffuser
product data will have the size and the sound rating at various airflow rates, as shown below.
Airflow 57 CFM 114 CFM 133 CFM 152 CFM 190 CFM 228 CFM
NC Rating 10 NC 15 NC 20 NC 24 NC 31 NC 36 NC
2.4.2 METHOD II – SELECTION BY THROWS
Throw is the distance from the outlet face to a point where the velocity of the airstream is
reduced to a specified velocity, usually 150, 100 or 50 feet per minute (FPM). The throw is
typically selected such that the 50 fpm terminal velocity equals the distance from the outlet to
the occupants or the edge of the occupied zone. A manufacturer’s product data will typically
have various airflow rates and corresponding throw values for each velocity, 150-100-50 FPM.
Airflow 57 CFM 114 CFM 133 CFM 152 CFM 190 CFM 228 CFM
Throw (ft) 4-6-11 10-14-20 12-15-21 13-16-23 15-18-25 16-20-28

Figure 4: This figure shows the throw of a sidewall diffuser. This diffuser will provide an air
velocity of 20 FPM in the occupied zone. The distances provided in the diffuser product data
shows the distance from the diffuser in the flow direction, where the air velocity will be 150, 100
and 50 feet per minute.
2.4.3 METHOD III – SELECTION BY ADPI

ADPI is the statistical percentage of the points when measured uniformly within the space
whose draft velocities and temperatures fall within the comfort criteria. The higher the ADPI the
better, 80 is acceptable. ADPI is going to depend on the heat load in the space and also the
ratio of the air velocity and the characteristic length of the diffuser.
The characteristic length of the diffuser characterizes where the diffuser is placed in the room.
The characteristic length will also depend on the type of diffuser. For example, for the typical
cross-flow pattern/square diffuser, the characteristic length is the distance to the wall or mid-
plane between diffusers.
Characteristic Length is the
Cross-Flow Pattern, Perforated 4-Way,
distance to wall or mid-plane
Round, Square Diffusers
between diffusers

The previous figure shows that you can have multiple characteristic lengths for a single diffuser.
The distance between the various walls and the distance between another diffuser may vary.
Ideally, you want to locate diffusers such that the characteristic lengths are consistent.
Once you have located the diffuser and calculate the characteristic length, then you can select
the diffuser with that achieves the best ADPI. This is done through the following tables. These
tables give you the acceptable ratio between the diffuser T50 length and the characteristic length
for a specific diffuser type and the room load in the space. Just for reference, a typical office
space has around a 40 Btu/h/ft2 room load.
Room Load T50 / L for Max Range

(Btu/h /ft2) Max. ADPI ADPI T50 / L
Diffuser 60 1.8 72 1.5 – 2.2
type 40 1.6 78 1.2 – 2.3
20 1.5 85 1 – 1.9
The ratios are then applied to the characteristic lengths of the diffusers in the space. This will
result in T50 values that you can use to select the correct diffuser. The table below shows a ratio
between 1.3 and 2.0. The various characteristic lengths and the corresponding diffuser T50
value is also shown.
T50 / L (1.3 to 2.0)
Diffuser L 10 15 20 25
type
T50 13-20 20-30 26-40 33-50
Other characteristic lengths are shown in the following figures.
Characteristic Length is
Characteristic Length is in the
Sill Diffuser Sidewall diffuser the distance from the
direction of the airflow.
diffuser to the nearest wall

The next figure shows the characteristic length for ceiling slot diffusers. For these diffusers the
characteristic length is measured to the wall or to the mid-plane between outlets.
Figure 5: The characteristic length for ceiling slot diffusers is measured from the diffuser to the
breathing zone.
2.5 DUCT DESIGN
The best resource for ducting can be found in ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 21 Duct
Design. The key concepts and skills are presented in the previous discussion, but there may be
some random look-up type problems on the PE exam that require you to use your references.
You should be familiar with converting between round and rectangular ducts and converting
between round and oval ducts or at the very least know where to look for these equations.
2.5.1 CONSTANT VOLUME SYSTEM

There are two major categories of air distribution systems, constant air volume and variable air
volume. In a constant volume airflow system, the fan at the air handling unit or fan coil unit is
either on or off. Manual balancing dampers are adjusted to supply a set airflow rate through the
diffuser based on maximum design conditions. This system has minimal controls and is
intended to serve only one temperature zone.

Figure 6: Constant volume system
2.5.1.1 C ONSTANT V OLUME S YSTEM C ONTROLS

In an air handling unit, the chilled water (CHW) and hydronic hot water (HHW) valves can either
be two way or three way, this is discussed further in the fluid distribution section. The valve
either modulates open to let more chilled water or hydronic hot water into the coil or close to
reduce the amount of water to the coil. This valve is controlled by the temperature sensor
located after each coil. The purpose of the preheat coil (if required) is to ensure air reaching the
cooling coil does not drop below freezing conditions. The cooling coil is typically controlled to
maintain 55oF supply air to remove humidity from the airstream. A humidifier can be added for
dry locations and for winter periods where the outside air wet bulb drops too low. A valve will
modulate in response to a humidity sensor to determine how much humidity is added to the air.
Finally, there is one temperature sensor located in a room, this is the temperature that the
occupant will experience. This sensor will control whether the fan remains on or off. If the
temperature falls below the room set point, then the fan will shut off. If it gets too warm, then
the fan will turn back on.
Figure 7: Controls for a constant volume air handling unit

2.5.1.2 C ONSTANT V OLUME WITH R EHEAT S YSTEM C ONTROLS

A reheat coil is a heating coil that is installed in-line with a duct to provide heating to a supply air
branch. This coil can either be a hot water type or electric type; both add sensible heat to the
space and allow you to add additional controls, i.e. one space temperature sensor to each coil.
Usually reheat should be provided from a heat recovery source and electrical reheat is not
allowed because of its energy consumption. The following scenarios describe situations when
reheat may be added to a system.
Scenario 1: Assume that one constant volume air handler serves multiple rooms with different
cooling schedules, but there is only one space thermostat to control the fan. There is a potential
for the rooms without the thermostat to become too cold or too hot. Usually you wouldn’t design
a constant volume system to serve spaces with different cooling schedules. Adding reheat can
give you more individual space temperature control, but is also a waste of energy in this
scenario.
Scenario 2: A hospital requires constant air changes to filter out the air in the space. Since the
airflow must remain constant, there is a potential that the room could get too cold if there is no
load in the space.
If a room is too cold, the dry bulb temperature will drop, but the humidity ratio will increase, this
is known as overcooling. When a room overcools and the humidity levels raise, there is a risk
for mold growth. To maintain the dry bulb temperatures in the space when there is not enough
load, a reheat coil is added. A room temperature sensor is connected to a hot water modulating
valve or an electric control box to provide heating until the room dry bulb temperature is met.
Figure 8: Controls for a constant volume air handling unit with reheat.
2.5.2 VARIABLE VOLUME SYSTEM

The variable air volume (VAV) system adds a variable frequency drive (VFD) to the fan in the air
handling unit and VAV boxes to the supply air branches. This allows the system airflow to be
varied based on the cooling demands in each zone. See the Terminal Units section for

additional discussion on VAV boxes. This system saves energy by reducing the fan power as
the cooling load drops. The following figures show various VAV system configurations.
The first is the simplest single duct VAV box configuration, where the box has a single inlet and
a modulating damper within the box to control the airflow to the supply diffuser. Since minimum
airflows may be necessary for fresh air requirements, the box can come with an integral reheat
coil. The box will reduce the airflow to the space as much as possible before the reheat kicks
in.
Figure 9: Variable air volume system with single duct VAV box with optional reheat.
The second configuration uses fan powered VAV boxes. These boxes have a supply duct inlet
and a plenum return inlet, as well as an internal fan that is either in parallel or in series with the
air handling unit fan. When temperatures begin to fall within the space, the VAV box opens the
return air plenum to admit warm plenum air. The parallel fan allows for varied airflow to the
space, while the series fan is used for spaces that require constant airflow.
Figure 10: Variable air volume system with fan powered VAV. A parallel fan VAV is outside of
the airstream of the normal supply air. When the supply air is too cold for the space, then the
parallel fan will turn on and suck in warm plenum air. The parallel fan will then mix this air with
the cold supply air. When the space temperature is increased, then the parallel fan will shut off
and its backdraft damper will close, which will isolate the parallel fan and its connection to the
warm plenum. A series fan VAV is inside of the airstream of the normal supply air. When the

supply air is too cold for the space, then a damper will restrict cold supply air and another
damper will allow warm plenum air into the box.
Finally, the VAV system can incorporate a dual duct system, with one duct that supplies hot air
and the other that supplies cold air. A dual duct VAV box has a connection for both air supplies,
mixing the hot and cold air in varying proportions to maintain the temperature in the space. The
fan to dual duct system can either use a single fan that splits to a heating and cooling coil or use
two fans, one for each coil as shown in the next figure.
Figure 11: Variable air volume system with dual duct VAV. One duct system provides heating
and the other provides cooling. A dual duct VAV box mixes the hot and cold air to control the air
temperature to the space. A single duct VAV box only has one airstream (cold or hot).
2.5.2.1 V ARIABLE V OLUME S YSTEM C ONTROLS
The coil controls for a variable air volume system is similar, where an air temperature sensor
after each coil controls how much the chilled water or hydronic hot water valve opens or closes.
The fan controls, however, do change. Instead of the space temperature sensor being
connected to the air handling unit fan, it is connected to the VAV box controller. The controller
determines how much air the VAV box will let through, by continuously sampling the space
temperature and periodically opening the damper to allow more cool air if it is too high or
periodically closing the damper if it is too low. If a reheat coil is installed, it will also be
connected to the space temperature. While the damper is open wider than its minimum
position, damper will have primary control. When the damper is at its minimum position, the
reheat controls will override, adding heat until the space temperature is met.
As more VAV box dampers begin to modulate close, the pressure in the supply air duct will
begin to build up. A pressure sensor located roughly two thirds down the main duct branch will
register the increased pressure and tell the VFD at the supply fan to slow down until pressure
set points are reached. This is how the overall system is able to vary its airflow rate.

Finally, one of the more difficult aspects of VAV systems is making sure sufficient outside air is
provided. ASHRAE 62.1 has minimum requirements as to how much outside air must be
provided to each space. To ensure these requirements are met, a track damper is installed in
the outside air and return air ducts to vary the ratios until these two airstreams until the outside
airflow requirements are met. This can either be by a CO2 sensor or by measuring the outside
airflow rate. Other alternatives to making sure the outside airflow requirements are met includes
installing an outside air fan inline that supplies constant outside to the system or providing a
dedicated outside air handling system that is separate from the cooling system.
Figure 12: Control schematic for variable air volume system with single duct VAV box and
optional reheat.
Figure 13: Control schematic for variable air volume system with fan powered VAV box and
optional reheat.

Figure 14: Control schematic for variable air volume system with dual duct VAV box.
3.0 FLUID DISTRIBUTION (HYDRONIC)

In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, fluids are distributed throughout various types of systems, like
chilled water, hot water, condenser water, condensate systems, fuel compressed air and steam.
These systems have three things in common, (1) piping, (2) pumps and (3) liquids.
(1) Piping is used as the means to transfer the liquid from one point to the next. It is important
to be able to (a) determine the pressure drop through a piping system and (b) determine the
velocity of liquid through a pipe. These skills will be discussed as part of this section.
(2) Pumps are used to provide the necessary mechanical energy to move a desired liquid flow
rate at the desired pressure. The important pump skills consist of (a) selecting the appropriate
pump, (b) determining the necessary volumetric flow rate, (c) determining the total dynamic
head and (4) determining the net positive suction head available. All of these items are
discussed in this section, except determining the volumetric flow rate, which is dependent on the
amount of energy that is required and has already been discussed in multiple areas.
(3) The properties of liquids that are important have been discussed in the fluids section.
3.1 PUMPS
In a fluid distribution system, a professional engineer must be able to size the pumps based on
the flow rate required and the pressure loss in the fluid distribution system. First, you need to

know the total flow rate required. This is determined by the energy load required in the system,
whether it is chilled water, condenser water, hot water, condensate recovery, steam, fuel or
compressed air. In each of these system types, the fluid is delivering energy to a piece of
equipment or recovering energy from a piece of equipment. For example, at an air handling
unit, the chilled water or hot water flow rate (GPM) determines how much cooling or heating can
be provided by the air handling unit. In a fuel system, the GPM determines the amount of
energy can be provided to a boiler or generator.
Once you determine the flow rate, then you must determine the pressure loss in the fluid
distribution system, which will be discussed next. The term total head is used in place of
pressure loss. Total head is pressure loss in the units of feet of water column, where 1 PSI is
equal to 2.31 feet of water column. This term can be used for water only, if you have another
type of fluid, be sure to use PSI.
3.2 DETERMINING TOTAL HEAD OR PRESSURE LOSS

Sizing a pump depends on two criteria, (1) the flow rate and (2) the total dynamic head. The (2)
second criteria is the total dynamic head. Determining total head is a must-have skill for the
engineer.
𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 1 𝐺𝑃𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑇𝐷𝐻 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Total head or total dynamic head is the total equivalent height of water that a fluid must be
pumped against. Head is a unit of pressure and has the units of feet of head, which is the total
pressure exerted by a certain amount of feet of a water column.
Figure 15: 1 psi is equal to 2.31 feet of head
Total head can be broken up into the following components, (1) Static head or Elevation
Difference between the inlet and the outlet of a piping system and (2) Friction loss. In an open
system, both static (elevation) head and friction loss are present. However, in a closed system
there is no elevation difference, because the beginning and the end of the piping system are the
same, therefore there is no elevation difference.

3.2.1 OPEN SYSTEMS

This section will find the total head required by a pump in an open system.
Figure 16: The typical open system in the HVAC field is the condenser water system, which
consists of a cooling tower, condenser water pump and a chiller.
The typical example of an open system in the HVAC & Refrigeration field is the condenser water
system serving a cooling tower. The pump moves the condenser water from the cooling tower
basin through piping, then through the chiller and back to the top of the cooling tower. The
pump must provide a total dynamic head to account for the (1) Static [Elevation] head and (2)
the Friction Head through the piping, chiller, fittings, other equipment and appurtenances.
(1) The static head is the difference between the inlet and the outlet. The elevation difference
between the inlet and the pump, on the suction side of the pump is called the suction static head
and the elevation difference between the outlet and pump, on the discharge side is called the
discharge static head. The difference between discharge and suction static head is the
static/elevation head that the pump must pump against.

Figure 17: This figure solves for the discharge and suction pressures. The suction pressure is
found by taking the elevation pressure and subtracting the friction losses in the suction piping.
The discharge pressure is found by adding the friction losses in the discharge piping and the
difference in elevation between the centerline of the pump and the discharge point to
atmosphere. The discharge point to atmosphere must be 0 psig. Thus you need sufficient
pressure at the discharge of the pump in order to overcome the friction losses and elevation,
with a resulting pressure at the top of the cooling tower of 0 psig.
(2) Friction head. Friction head consists of pressure losses due to equipment like chillers,
cooling towers, filters, strainers, heat exchangers, air handlers, etc. The amount of friction head
from these pieces of equipment are provided by the manufacturer and are typically provided in a
table format with total friction head or pressure loss for the equipment versus the flow rate.
Friction head also consists of pressure losses due to the piping and the various fittings like
elbows, tees, valves, etc. Calculating friction head due to piping will be discussed later in this
section.
3.2.2 CLOSED SYSTEMS

This section will find the total head required by a pump in a closed system.

Figure 18: The typical closed system in the HVAC field is the chilled water system. In these
types of systems, there is typically an expansion tank which is the location of constant pressure.
You typically take this point and then calculate the suction pressure and the discharge pressure,
in order to determine the total dynamic head or total pressure that the pump must provide.
The typical example of a closed system in the HVAC & Refrigeration field is the chilled water
system serving the air handlers and chillers. The pump moves chilled water to and from the
chiller and through the air handlers. The total dynamic head required at the pump accounts for
only the friction head through the piping, chiller, fittings, other equipment and appurtenances.
There is no static/elevation head because the system is closed.

Figure 19: This example shows the process of calculating the suction and discharge pressures
of the pump. First, the expansion tank point of connection is set at 50 psig. As water travels
from this point to the suction there will be friction losses and elevation losses, because the
suction point is above the expansion tank point. The suction pressure will be 35 psig. Location
3 is before the expansion tank point, so this point will add the friction losses, but since it is
above, the elevation pressure will be subtracted. This results in a pressure of 40 psig. The
discharge point is before point 3, so the friction losses will be added again, but now that the
discharge point is below point 3, the elevation losses will be added. This results in a discharge
pressure of 70 psig. As you can see the pump is sized at 35 psig, which is also equal to just the
friction losses. In a closed system, the elevation changes are not needed to size the pump.

3.2.3 FRICTION LOSSES

This section will describe the process of finding the friction losses. Friction loss is found through
the use of either the Darcy Weisbach equation or the Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy
Weisbach equation is slightly more involved and will be explained below, starting with the
equation.
𝑓𝐿𝑣
2𝐷𝑔
𝑓𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑; 𝑓 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ,
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 32.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
During the exam, in order to quickly complete a friction loss question using the Darcy Weisbach
Equation, the aspiring professional engineer must have the necessary tools readily available to
find the values necessary to complete the equation. These include the following:
Necessary Tools:
1) Inner Diameter tables of common pipe materials and sizes. You need to be familiar with the
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook and how the pipe sizes are presented. You
should try to use the standard friction loss tables for various pipe sizes and flow rates from the
handbook. Only if the problem gives you different fluids or different water temperatures, should
you go through the entire process presented below.
2) Flow unit conversions. In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, volumetric flow rates are typically
given in units and need to be converted to cubic feet per second for use in the Darcy Weisbach
equation. Once the volumetric flow rate is converted to cubic feet per second, then simply
divide the value by the inner area of the pipe to find the velocity of the fluid through the pipe.
1 FT
448.83 sec
3) Inner Area table of common pipe materials and sizes. The handbook gives you the common
pipe materials and sizes in terms of inner diameters. So you just need to use the area of a
circle formula to calculate the inner area. Please remember to convert the diameter from inches
to feet.
Area ft ; Diameter feet;
4) Kinematic viscosity tables of common fluids at various temperatures. The kinematic viscosity
is used to find the Reynolds number.
Water Temperature [°F] Kinematic Viscosity [ft2/s]

32 1.924 x 10-5

40 1.664 x 10-5
50 1.407 x 10-5
60 1.210 x 10-5
70 1.052 x 10-5
90 0.823 x 10-5
100 0.738 x 10-5
120 0.607 x 10-5
140 0.511 x 10-5
180 0.383 x 10-5
212 0.317 x 10-5
5) Moody Diagram. The Moody Diagram is used with the Reynolds number and the roughness
factor to find the friction factor.
6) Pipe Roughness. Find the pipe roughness factors ∈ for common pipe materials, steel, PVC,
copper, etc. in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
Material Roughness (ft)

Steel .0009833
PVC .000005
Copper .000005
Moody Diagram: The Moody diagram uses the Reynolds number and the relative roughness
factor to determine the friction factor. The relative roughness factor is found by first finding the
roughness value corresponding to the pipe material. Then the roughness factor is divided by
the inner diameter of the pipe. It is important to ensure that the roughness factor and the
diameter are in the same units.
The Reynolds number is found by multiplying the velocity of the fluid through the pipe by the
diameter of the pipe and dividing by the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
𝑉∗𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜈
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝜈 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ;𝑉 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ;𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐 sec
These two values (a) Relative Roughness and (b) Reynolds Number, determine the friction
factor, which can be found by finding the intersection of the vertical Reynolds number line
shown in black and the Relative Roughness factor curves shown in red.

Figure 20: Moody diagram - finding the friction factor. Step 1: Find relative roughness factor,
step 2: find intersection of Reynolds number and relative roughness factor. Step 3: read
corresponding friction factor.
Now, that all the variables of the Darcy Weisbach equation have been determined, simply plug
in the variables into the equation to determine the friction head.
𝑓𝐿𝑣
2𝐷𝑔
3.3 DETERMINING NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE

The professional engineer must be able to properly determine net positive suction head in order
to avoid cavitation. Cavitation occurs when the suction pressure (head) is less than the vapor
pressure of the water. If the suction pressure is lower than the vapor pressure, then small vapor
bubbles form. When these bubbles reach the pump, the pressure of the fluid increases and the
bubbles implode causing damage to the impellers and other parts of the pump. This is what is
known as cavitation.
Suction head is defined as the total pressure at the inlet of the pump and net positive suction
head is the difference between the suction head at the inlet and the vapor pressure of the water
at the inlet of the pump.

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Suction head is found by determining all the pressures acting upon the fluid whether positive or
negative. The following figure best describes all the pressures that can be acting upon a pump.
Figure 21: This figure will be used to show how net positive suction head is determined.
Point 1 is the pressure measured at the suction of the pump. Please remember that the typical
HVAC pressure gauge will only measure the static pressure. This will be discussed later on in
this section.
Point 2 is the discharge pressure gauge. The difference in pressure between points “2” and “1”
will be the pressure applied by the pump. There must be sufficient pressure at point “2” in order
to overcome the pressure drop through the discharge piping, the equipment like the chiller and
the elevation difference between the centerline of the pump and the discharge to atmosphere
point.
Point 3 shows the atmospheric pressure. This is the absolute pressure acting on the fluid. If
the system is located at sea level, then the pressure is equal to1 atmosphere (atm) or 14.7 PSIA
or 33.9 feet of water.

H elevation, suction: This pressure identifies the elevation difference between the top surface of the
liquid and the pump centerline. This value can be positive or negative and is measured in “feet
of head”.
H elevation, discharge: This pressure identifies the elevation difference between the discharge
location at the top of the cooling tower and the centerline of the pump. This value can be
positive or negative and is measured in “feet of head”.
H friction, suction: The friction pressure or head is the amount of pressure lost due to friction in the
piping, fittings, equipment, valves, etc. leading from the fluid source to the pump on the suction
side.
H friction, discharge: The friction pressure or head is the amount of pressure lost due to friction in the
piping, fittings, equipment, valves, etc. leading from the pump discharge to the discharge point
at the top of the cooling tower.
There are two equations used to calculate the net positive suction head. The first equation is
used when there is no pressure gauge at the suction of the pump. You take the atmospheric
pressure, then add or subtract the elevation pressure on the suction piping. Next you subtract
the friction in the suction piping leading to the suction of the pump. This current sum is the
suction pressure at the pump. But lastly, you need to subtract out the vapor pressure of water.
This will give you the net positive suction head available.
Equation/Method 1:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 ℎ ℎ , ℎ , ℎ
The vapor pressure of the water is found by simply looking up fluid property tables and finding
the vapor pressure at the operating temperature. In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, water is the
most common fluid used in pumping systems and a table of corresponding vapor pressure and
temperatures are shown below. Use the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook to find
similar tables.
Water Temperature [°F] Vapor Pressure [ft of head]

32 0.20
41 0.29
50 0.41
59 0.57
68 0.78
77 1.06
86 1.42
104 2.47
140 6.68
176 15.89
212 33.96

From the table above, it can be seen that as the temperature of the water increases, the
pressure at which vaporization will occur also increases. The issue of cavitation becomes even
more critical at higher temperatures.
The next equation is used when you have a pressure gauge reading at the suction of the pump.
Remember that the pressure gauge will be in gauge pressure and it will only measure the static
pressure. So in order to find the net positive suction head available, you need to convert to
atmospheric pressure and then add in the velocity pressure to get the total pressure.
Equation/Method 2:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
H velocity pressure: The velocity head pressure is the pressure due to the flowing liquid. Using the
velocity pressure is an alternate method to calculating the suction pressure. This term is only
used if there is a pressure gauge at the suction of the pump. The pressure gauge measures the
static pressure at the pump. In order to determine the total suction pressure the static pressure
and the velocity pressure are summed together. Typically the velocity head pressure is very
small.
𝑉 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ; 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ; 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 32.2
2𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 sec
The net positive suction head required (NPSHR) is an important criteria when selecting pumps.
NPSHR is provided by the pump manufacturer and it is the minimum required pressure at the
suction of the pump. The NPSHA must be higher than the NPSHR to prevent cavitation.
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑅
3.4 PIPE DESIGN
When designing a piping system for your fluid (chilled water, condenser water, hot water,
steam), you must be able to choose the correct material for the application, choose the correct
size (discussed earlier), design the piping supports and design the piping layout to
accommodate changing conditions.
The correct material for each application will depend on the pressure required, the
corrosiveness of the fluid or environment, the temperature required, whether or not the piping
will be in a location that can be damaged and whether or not the piping needs to be fire rated.
Piping located in plenum spaces for example typically must be fire rated to avoid spreading fire
or to prevent producing noxious fumes when burned, but this depends on the authority having
jurisdiction. ASHRAE Fundamentals, Pipe Design chapter has a table that lists the applicable
materials for each type of fluid, including compressed air, chilled water, condenser water,
domestic water, hot water, steam, condensate, refrigerant, fuel, gas and drainage. The table
also identifies the joining methods, like threaded, welded, flanged, press, compression and
solder.

The next aspect of pipe design is locating pipe supports. The pipe support spacing will depend
on the modulus of elasticity of the material and the weight of the fluid within the piping. A more
flexible material like plastic pipe will need supports at a smaller space to avoid sagging. A more
rigid material like steel will need supports at a larger spacing. ASHRAE Fundamentals, Pipe
Design chapter has a table on the recommended spacing for copper and steel piping that you
can’t use on the PE exam but you should read up on. The weight acting upon each support will
be determined by the fluid weight, piping weight and the support spacing which was previously
determined. These types of problems can be found with the fluid density properties and pipe
weight properties which can be found in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
Finally, piping must be designed to accommodate thermal expansion and contraction. When
heat is added to most materials, the average amplitude of the atoms' vibrating within the
material increases. This, in turn, increases the separation between the atoms causing the
material to expand. If the material does not go through a phase change, the expansion can be
easily related to the temperature change. The linear coefficient of thermal expansion (𝛼)
describes the relative change in length of a material per degree temperature change. As shown
in the following equation, 𝛼 is the ratio of change in length (∆l) to the total starting length (li) and
change in temperature (∆T).
∆𝐿 𝐿 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝛼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ; ∆𝑇 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 °𝐹

℉
Figure 22: Increasing the temperature will cause expansion
If the pipe is restrained by a support, then as the pipe expands the pipe will incur stresses. The
maximum stresses that can be incurred will be a function of the allowable stress values. You
should know where to find the properties for common pipe materials, which include thermal
expansion coefficients, modulus of elasticity values and allowable stress values. These values
are present in the Basic Engineering Practice section and the Fluids section of the NCEES
The following values are the common pipe materials and their thermal expansion coefficients.
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 → 𝛼 9.4 𝑥 10 ; 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 → 𝛼 6.31𝑥 10
𝑖𝑛 ℉ 𝑖𝑛 ℉

𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 → 𝛼 9.6 𝑥 10 ; 𝐻𝐷𝑃𝐸 3408 → 𝛼 120 𝑥 10 ;
𝑖𝑛 ℉ 𝑖𝑛 ℉
The following values are the common pipe materials and their modulus of elasticity values.
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 → 𝐸 17.0 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ; 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 → 𝐸 27.5 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 → 𝐸 28.0 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖; 𝐻𝐷𝑃𝐸 3408 → 𝐸 0.11 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖
The following values are the common pipe materials and their allowable stress values.
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 → 𝑆 13,500 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ; 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 → 𝑆 22,500 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Using these values you should be able to determine the layout necessary to accommodate
thermal expansion/contraction via an L-bend, Z-bend or U-bend. The following steps will take
you through the general process.
1st Step: Locate Anchors
Anchors are supports that restrict the movement of the pipe in all 3-dimensions. Thus when the
pipe expands, the pipe must expand within these two anchors. The anchors should typically be
located within 100 feet of each other or as to limit the amount of expansion between the
anchors, see next step.
𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑡
2nd Step: Determine Expansion between Anchors
Once the anchors are located, then you must use the expansion coefficient and the length
between the anchors to calculate the expansion between the anchors. Make sure you convert
lengths such that you are using the same units for length and expansion.
∆ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑖𝑛
∆ 12 ∗𝐿 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇 ∗𝛼
𝑓𝑡
3rd Step: Calculate L-Bend, Z-Bend, or U-Bend Parameters
Finally, use the equations in ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 22 Pipe Design, to find the
parameters that govern the dimensions of the L-bend, Z-bend or U-bend.
L-Bend: The length of the L-bend can be found through the below equation.
3∗∆ ∗𝐷∗𝐸
𝐿 𝑓𝑡 3∗
144 ∗ 𝑆
𝐷 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛. ; 𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝑡

Z-Bend: The length of all 3-sides of the Z-bend can be found by taking 65% of the value found
for the L-Bend.
U-Bend: Use the table and navigate to the appropriate cell that matches your anchor to anchor
expansion (inches) and pipe size. Read off the values for “W” and “H” and use these values in
your design, where “W” is the width of the U-bend and “H” is the height of the U-bend.
3.5 HYDRONIC CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

A chilled water system uses water that is cooled by a chiller to 44oF or 45oF as the cooling
distribution medium throughout the building. Water is chilled with either an air-cooled or water-
cooled chiller. Refer to the Thermodynamics and Equipment and Components sections for an
explanation of how a chiller produces chilled water.
The distribution system schemes for air-cooled, water-cooled, constant chilled water flow,
variable primary chilled water flow, primary-secondary chilled water flow, and reverse return are
explained below. There are many fine details that go into designing a complete distribution
system that are not covered here for the purposes of the exam. Instead, the sections below
explain the major concepts of each distribution system.
3.5.1 AIR COOLED, CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

Recall that an air-cooled chiller uses a fan to reject the heat from the chiller to the ambient air.
Therefore, the only piping you will observe in this system is the chilled water supply and return.
Water is cooled at the chiller to 44oF or 45oF and distributed to the air handlers or fan coil units
in the building. This is the chilled water supply (CHWS) piping indicated in teal. The chilled
water then picks up heat from the warm air at the air handler. A 3-way motorized valve controls
how much cooling is sent to the air handler. Any excess chilled water that is not needed for
cooling is bypassed around the air handler through the third leg of the control valve and sent
directly to the return piping. At maximum design conditions, the chilled water return (CHWR)
temperature will be 58oF or 55oF. As more chilled water is bypassed, this return temperature
will lower.
The pumps in this system will operate at constant flow. The major concept to understand is that
this constant flow is possible with the 3-way valve configuration. The valve either supplies
chilled water to the air handler or bypasses around the coil, but the water supplied will always
equal the water returned.
If multiple chillers and pumps are used, they can be staged on and off based on the cooling
demand, which can be determined by the chilled water return temperatures.
Other components of a chilled water system include the expansion tank, air separator, chemical
pot feeder, and make-up water. The expansion tank is used to capture water as its volume
expands and contracts with the change in temperature. The air separator removes any air

accumulation in the closed loop system. The chemical pot feeder is used to keep the water
clean and to prevent buildup that could affect the quality of the water and the efficiency of the
equipment. Finally, the makeup water is used when any part of the system is drained for repair
or if there is a leak. A backflow preventer is required between the makeup water supply and the
domestic water system to prevent any tainted water from entering the drinking water supply.
Figure 23: This figure depicts the overall layout of an air cooled, constant flow chilled water
system. The chilled water pump is constant and 3-way valves are used at the air handler or fan
coil unit coils.

3.5.2 WATER COOLED, CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

A water cooled system on the other hand uses water to reject the heat from the chiller. A
second loop called the condenser water (CDW) loop captures the heat from the condenser.
The water is then sent to the cooling tower to get cooled from 95oF to 85oF. See the Equipment
and Components section for more information on cooling towers. Condenser water pumps
(CDWP) are normally constant in flow.
Figure 24: Schematic of a water cooled, constant flow chilled water system.

The most basic layout uses a constant volume fan at the cooling tower. However, to increase
the efficiency of the system, the cooling tower fan is commonly provided with a variable speed
drive, adjusting the fan speed as necessary to maintain condenser water supply (CDWS)
temperatures at its set point. More advanced systems use a control optimization system to
provide an additional variable speed drive on the condenser water pump. The control loop
adjusts the pump and fan speeds to operate the entire system at its most efficient operation
point. This is much more complex and costly due to the multiple feedback loops required. The
chilled water loop in this layout, shown in the previous figure, is the same configuration as that
used in the air-cooled, constant flow system.
The following figure shows an isolated version of an open loop condenser water system. In an
open loop system, the condenser water return is sprayed into the cooling tower and comes into
contact with the atmosphere. This allows for impurities to enter the water stream. The
evaporation of the water will also cause the increase of mineral concentrations that originally
come from the water supply. To prevent these minerals from scaling onto the cooling tower, a
periodic blow down with replenishment of that water is added. A water treatment system is also
added to maintain the condenser water quality, remove solids and the growth of
microorganisms.
Figure 25: Open loop condenser water system for water cooled chillers.
A closed loop cooling tower system is similar except there is a heat exchanger between the
cooling tower and chiller, with an additional set of pumps for the second loop. This allows the
condenser water loop to the chiller to be closed and minimizes the maintenance on the
condenser water side to the chiller. It can also be used to allow glycol to be used in the closed

loop to prevent freezing. The drawbacks are the larger initial investment and the higher energy
cost.
3.5.3 VARIABLE-PRIMARY CHILLED WATER FLOW

A variable-primary system uses variable speed pumps to distribute chilled water through a
single loop between the chiller and air handler. This is called the primary loop, hence the name,
variable-primary.
Figure 26: Schematic of a variable primary chilled water system. The CDW loop is not shown.

Variable speed drives on the chilled water pumps (CHWP) are used to improve the efficiency of
the chilled water loop. This allows you to reduce the amount of chilled water that is flowing to
the system as the cooling loads drop, which effectively reduces the amount of pumping power
by the cubed of the reduction in pump speed, as indicated by the pump affinity laws.
The main differences between the constant and variable flow chilled water systems are that the
3-way valves at the air handlers become 2-way valves, a bypass valve is added between the
main chilled water supply and chilled water return piping, and variable speed drives are added
to the chilled water pumps.
Since the chilled water flow rate can now vary, there is no need to maintain constant flows at
each air handler. This means the bypass that the 3-way valves provided for the constant flow
system can be converted to a 2-way valve that constricts the flow to the coils when cooling
loads drop. As the 2-way valves begin to close the pressure within the chilled water loop will
begin to build up. A differential pressure sensor is added across the chilled water supply and
return piping leading to the farthest coil in the system, as shown in the figure. As this sensor
reads higher pressures, it will inform the chilled water pump to slow down. Alternatively, as the
pressures begin to drop, the chilled water pump will speed up. This is the main concept of how
a variable flow chilled water system operates.
As the cooling loads in the building falls and the chilled water flows to the chiller begin to drop to
very low rates, there is potential for the chiller’s evaporator coil to freeze. To prevent this, a
bypass valve is added between the main chilled water supply manifold and the main chilled
water return. This allows flow to the air handlers to drop, while still being able to maintain the
minimum required flow to the chiller. A flow meter is added on the pipe to the chiller to monitor
how much water goes to the chiller. As flow rates begin to fall below the minimum set point, the
bypass valve begins to open until the minimum flow rate is maintained.
Finally, a 3-way valve is often added to the farthest cooling coil. This allows chilled water to
constantly flow through the loop, preventing it from getting warm if the farther coils are not being
used.
3.5.4 PRIMARY-SECONDARY CHILLED WATER FLOW

A primary-secondary system contains two chilled water loops. The primary loop circulates
chilled water through the chiller, while the secondary loop circulates chilled water to the air
handlers in the building. The flow to the building can be varied by the secondary pumps with a
differential pressure sensor at the farthest coil, similar to how the variable primary pumps are
controlled. The primary-secondary configuration is typically used for larger applications. The
layout simplifies the controls with the elimination of the bypass. In general, primary-secondary
has a higher installation cost and uses more pumping power than a variable primary system.

Figure 27: Primary-secondary chilled water distribution schematic. The condenser loop is not
shown.
3.5.5 DIRECT-RETURN VS. REVERSE-RETURN

Direct-Return: A direct-return chilled water system supplies and returns chilled water in the
most direct path, where the first air handling unit to receive and return chilled water is closest to

the chiller and the last unit to receive and return chilled water is farthest from the chiller. This
means that the pressure of the chilled water at the first air handler is the highest and the
pressure at the farthest air handler is the lowest. A balancing system is required to make sure
there is sufficient pressure to the farthest unit.
Figure 28: Left - Direct return configuration, Right - Reverse return configuration. Observe the
different chilled water return (CHWR) piping configurations in red.
Reverse-Return: A reverse-return configuration is used to equalize the pressures throughout

the loop. In the reverse-return arrangement, the air handler that is closest to the chiller is the
first to be supplied with chilled water, but the last unit to return the chilled water. Likewise, the
air handler farthest from the chiller is the last to be supplied with chilled water, but the first to
return water. In this scheme, the chilled water pressure of last air handling unit is equalized with

the first, preventing the last unit from being starved of chilled water. Reverse-return is used for
systems where balancing may be an issue, like long distribution runs. Of course reverse-return
is more costly due to the additional return line that must be distributed through the building.
3.6 HYDRONIC HOT WATER SYSTEM

When hot water is distributed throughout a building for mechanical heating, this is called a
hydronic hot water system. The heating source of a hydronic hot water system can be a gas or
electric boiler, steam to water heat exchanger, water to water heat exchanger, heat pump, heat
recovery, solar etc. The layout is similar to the chilled water system, with a closed loop piping
and constant flow pumping with 3-way valves at the air handling units or variable flow pumping
with 2-way valves. Primary-Secondary loops can also be used to provide high temperature, low
flow hot water in the primary loop and lower distribution temperatures in the secondary loop.
Figure 29: Variable flow hydronic hot water distribution system. Copyright © 2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
The hot water distribution temperature set points are not as crucial as the chilled water system
which requires temperatures less than dew point to remove humidity from the air. The hot water
supply and return temperatures are typically chosen based on what is optimal for your heating
source and the distribution system. For a basic gas boiler, typically 180-200oF is provided with
a 20oF temperature drop to the return. For heat pumps, the maximum supply temperature is
limited. Generally, the higher the differential temperature between supply and return will

improve the efficiency of the equipment as well as reduce the required flow rates, which reduce
the pumping power and the pipe sizes. Non-condensing boilers are typically required to have a
return temperature above 130oF to prevent condensation and corrosion in the flue. Newer,
more efficient condensing boilers do not have this issue and may have lower return
temperatures.
3.7 DUAL TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

Buildings with heating and cooling loads require a dual temperature system that distributes
chilled water and hydronic hot water. Dual temperature systems can be installed as a two pipe
system, four pipe common, and four pipe separate.
3.7.1 TWO PIPE, DUAL TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

The simplest version of a dual temperature system is the two pipe distribution.
Figure 30: Two Pipe Dual Temperature System

The entire system will either be in complete heating or complete cooling mode. A 3-way
changeover valve as shown in the following figure is used to switch between the heating source
or the cooling source. An additional bypass can be added around the changeover valve to allow
a little bit of heated water into the chiller loop to prevent this pipe from freezing during the winter
season.
3.7.2 FOUR PIPE COMBINED, DUAL TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

A four pipe system allows for simultaneous heating and cooling. A four pipe combined uses a
three way valve to divert control whether chilled water or hot water flows into the air handler or
terminal unit. Three way valves are also included in the return of the air handler to direct the
water flow.
Figure 31: Four Pipe Combined, Dual Temperature System

3.7.1 FOUR PIPE SEPARATE, DUAL TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

Finally, a four pipe separate system also allows for simultaneous heating and cooling, but
completely isolates the chilled water system from the hydronic hot water system.
Figure 32: Four Pipe Separate, Dual Temperature System

4.0 FLUID DISTRIBUTION (OIL)

Oil in the HVAC field is primarily used by HVAC equipment manufacturers to lubricate the
bearings in equipment like compressors, fans and pumps. As an HVAC engineer, you most
likely will not need to design and select lubrication oils. This is primarily done in the Machine
Design & Materials (MDM) PE exam. The lubrication charts are located in the MDM section of
the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook, so it is very unlikely that this will be on the
HVAC PE exam.
5.0 FLUID DISTRIBUTION (FUEL GAS)

As an HVAC engineer, you will need to be able to size the fuel gas piping that serves boilers or
other gas consuming equipment. On the HVAC PE exam, you are given a natural gas pipe
sizing table. You need to be able to use that table to size the natural gas piping and this
example will take you through that process.
Figure 33: This figure will be used to show how to use the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook to size natural gas piping.

Each gas consuming equipment’s Btu/hr value is converted to cubic feet per hour of gas flow
through the use of either the HHV or LHV of the fuel. Normally, you will size the equipment
based on the heat required in units of Btu/hr. Next, you will choose your fuel based on what is
available at the project location. On the PE exam, you should find the fuel’s higher heating
value, if the equipment is a condensing type and you should use the fuel’s lower heating value,
if the equipment is not a condensing type.
Once, you have the fuel gas flow rate, then you can start to size the piping with the table
presented in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. The table is located towards
the end of the Hydraulics, Fluids and Pipe Flow section. There are two methods that you can
use, (1) Longest Length Method and (2) Branch Length Method.
5.1 LONGEST LENGTH METHOD

First, determine the length of piping from the delivery point to the most remote outlet. In the
previous example, the longest length is 200 feet. Go to the last column in the table of the
natural gas pipe sizing table in your handbook. The following is an excerpt of that table for the
200 foot column and the maximum CFH for each pipe size.
1/4” 1/2” 3/4” 1” 1-1/4” 1-1/2” 2” 2-1/2” 3” 4”

6 26 55 100 210 320 610 980 1,700 3,500
2”
Figure 34: Now, just select the size for each pipe based on this table. Pipes (A) and (B) have
150 CFH of gas, so it requires a 1-1/4” pipe. Pipe (E) has 530 CFH, so it requires a 2” pipe.

Pipe (C) requires 80 CFH so it requires a 1” pipe and lastly pipe (D) has 380 CFH, so it requires
a 2” pipe.
5.2 BRANCH LENGTH METHOD

In the longest length method, you only have one length and all pipes are sized based on that
column in the table. In the branch length method, you will have multiple lengths. For each
branch pipe section, you will take the gas flow rate in that section and the total length from that
pipe section to the starting point. Make sure you include that pipe section length too. The start
of this method is the same as the longest length method. You first find and size the longest
length of pipe. This will give you the size for pipe sections (A), (B) and (E).
Figure 35: Next, branch pipe section (C) has a gas flow rate of 80 CFH and its total pipe length
to the start point is 75’ + 75’ + 25’ = 175’. So pipe (C) will be 1”. Branch pipe section (D) has
380 CFH and a total length to the starting point of 100’. So its size will be 1-1/2”.
6.0 FLUID DISTRIBUTION (COMPRESSED AIR)

In the past, compressed air was previously used in the HVAC field to open/close valves and
dampers. Compressed air was used as a control fluid. But now, HVAC primarily uses electricity
and electronics for its control mechanisms. It is highly unlikely that a compressed air problem
will appear on the HVAC PE exam. There are compressed air tables in the NCEES Mechanical
PE Reference Handbook, but those tables are geared for the Thermal and Fluids exam.

The compressed air bullet point on the HVAC PE outline may just have been a remnants from
the older HVAC PE exam. One of the common skills that HVAC engineers had was sizing the
compressed air piping. However, the pipe sizing was done via a compressed air piping table or
graph and that table or graph is not included in the handbook, so it is unlikely that you will have
a compressed air calculation type problem on the HVAC PE exam.
7.0 FLUID DISTRIBUTION (STEAM)

A steam system consists of a feedwater system, boiler system and the distribution system. The
feedwater system cleans and prepares the water quality, pressure and collects the condensate
prior to it entering the boiler. The boiler converts the fuel source into heat and creates steam.
The steam distribution system safely sends the steam to the steam users and collects the
condensate. The condensate is then sent back to the feedwater system and the cycle begins
again.
Figure 36:
On the HVAC PE exam, it is unlikely that you will get a calculation type problem on the steam
system. The only calculation type problems with respect to steam were covered in the
Thermodynamics section and in the HVAC Equipment section. Besides the steam tables, there
is also a steam pressure drop through piping table that you should know. This table has
multiple columns for various pressure drops like 0.125 psi per 100 feet. The cells contain the
mass flow rate that corresponds to this pressure drop. There are two cells, one that

corresponds to a saturation pressure of 3.5 psig and another that corresponds to 12 psig. The
12 psig cell will have a higher allowable mass flow rate. As the pressure increases, the
saturation temperature increases and the density also increases.
𝑙𝑏
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 3.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 → 𝑆𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 223 °𝐹; 0.0456 ;
𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 12 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 → 𝑆𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 244 °𝐹; 0.0652 ;
𝑓𝑡
Since the pressure drop is dependent on velocity, the pressure drop will have an inverse
relationship with density of steam. As the pressure increases, the density increases, so the
velocity of steam for the same mass flow rate will decrease and thus the allowable mass flow
rate through a pipe will increase.
𝑉 𝑚/𝜌 𝑚
𝑣
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝜌
An excerpt of the steam pressure drop table through steel piping is shown below.
2” Pipe
Mass Flow Rate Pressure Mass Flow Rate Pressure
@ 3.5 psig initial Drop @ 12 psig initial Drop
(lb/hr) (psi/100 ft) (lb/hr) (psi/100 ft)
108 0.0625 134 0.0625
162 0.125 194 0.125
234 0.25 285 0.25
336 0.5 410 0.5
420 0.75 510 0.75
480 1.0 590 1.0
710 2.0 850 2.0
When sizing steam piping, you typically look at the velocity and the pressure drop. You want to
maintain between 8,000 and 12,000 feet per minute in the piping. You also typically want to
ensure less than 50% of the initial pressure lost in the hydraulically remote piping. For example,
if you have an initial steam pressure of 12 psig, then the maximum pressure drop will be 6 psig.
Let’s also say that the hydraulically remote piping has a total equivalent length of 600 feet.
Thus the maximum pressure drop per 100 feet will be equal to 1.0 psig.
6 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 1.6 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 100 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
600 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
If the pipe size was 2”, then this corresponds to a mass flow rate of 590 lbm/hr.
It is possible that an experience type question could be asked on the steam system. You can
increase your knowledge for these types of problems by reading through the ASHRAE Systems
& Equipment chapter on Boilers or the ASHRAE Applications chapter on Steam Systems.

8.0 REFRIGERATION
In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, you may encounter the task of cooling and freezing food. On
the exam, these types of problems involve finding the relevant properties of food, then
calculating the time to cool and freeze the food. For these types of problems, you should have
your ASHRAE Refrigeration book and specifically turn to the thermal properties of food chapter.
Cooling and freezing food involves first cooling food to its freezing point, then removing the
latent heat of fusion, followed by cooling the food to the final desired temperature.
The first step is to use the specific heat of the food to calculate the amount of cooling required to
bring the temperature of the food down to the freezing point. Make sure to use the correct
specific heat, because the specific heat does vary based on whether or not the food is frozen.
𝑄 , 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 , 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑐 , 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 ;
𝑙𝑏 ℉
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ℉ ;
𝑇 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ℉ ;
The second step is to use the latent heat of fusion, 𝐻 , which can be found in the ASHRAE
Refrigeration Handbook. This is the amount of energy required to change the phase of the
liquid parts of the food to a solid, since some of the food consists of oils and water.
𝑄 𝑚 ∗𝐻
The third step is to use the specific heat of the food to calculate the amount of cooling required
to bring the temperature of the food down from the freezing point. Make sure you use the
correct specific heat, because the specific heat does vary based on whether or not the food is
frozen.
𝑄 , 𝑚 ∗𝑐 , ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
The above equations determine the amount of BTU required to cool food from one temperature
to a temperature below freezing. Often times, food must be frozen within a certain amount of
time. In order to determine the amount of time it takes for the above process, you must use the
cooling power, 𝑃 , of the refrigeration system and the total cooling required with
the following equation.
𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 ;
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑃
𝐻𝑟

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑄 , 𝑄 𝑄 ,
9.0 ENERGY RECOVERY DEVICES

An energy recovery device recovers energy that would normally be wasted. In the HVAC &
Refrigeration field, an energy recovery device acts as an air to air heat exchanging device. The
energy recovery device is used to exchange energy from outgoing exhaust air to incoming
outside air. During the winter months the outside air is pre-heated prior to entering the air
handler and during the summer the outside air is pre-cooled.
9.1 TYPES OF PROBLEMS

There are three main types of calculation based problems that can be asked on Energy
Recovery Devices, (1) Effectiveness, (2) Actual Heat Transfer and (3) Efficiency.
9.1.1 EFFECTIVENESS
The amount of heat transferred by the device is determined by the effectiveness of the device.
The effectiveness of an energy recovery device is defined as the ratio of the actual heat
transferred to the maximum amount of heat that can be transferred. The effectiveness can be
rated in terms of sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer or total heat transfer.
𝑞 , 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,

𝑞 , 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝐸𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,
𝑞 , 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,
𝑞 , 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝐸𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,
𝑞 , 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,

𝑞 , 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝐴𝐼𝑅 , 𝐸𝐴𝐼𝑅 ,
The equations for effectiveness were previously discussed in the heat transfer section, but they
have been simplified in the previous equations. An energy recovery device in HVAC is used
primarily to pre-cool or pre-heat incoming outside air. So the actual heat transfer will most likely
focus on the outside air entering and leaving conditions. The maximum amount of heat transfer
occurs when the entire lowest volumetric flow rate air stream is converted from one incoming
condition to the other incoming condition.
These equations are used to determine the leaving outside air and exhaust air conditions. You
are typically given the effectiveness of the device and the incoming conditions of the airstreams
and must use the effectiveness equations to find the leaving airstreams’ conditions.

9.1.2 ACTUAL HEAT TRANSFER

Once you have the entering and leaving air conditions, you can then calculate the actual
amount of heat transfer between the device and each of the airstreams.
Figure 37: Energy recovery device
Actual Sensible Heat Transferred [function of dry bulb temperature]
𝑞 , 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
𝑞 , 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑇 𝑇
Actual Latent Heat Transferred [function of humidity ratio, lbs of water vapor per lb of dry air]
𝑞 , 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
𝑞 , 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑊 𝑊
Actual Total Heat Transferred [function of enthalpy]
𝑞 , 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ℎ ℎ
𝑞 , 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ℎ ℎ
9.1.3 EFFICIENCY
The last type of calculation based problem that you can expect on Energy Recovery Devices will
use the efficiency of the device. The effectiveness will determine the outlet conditions of the air
and can be used to calculate the actual amount of heat transfer, but this is based on the
assumption that there are no losses.
Sometimes the PE exam may give you the incoming and leaving conditions of the exhaust air
and then ask you to find the leaving conditions of the outside air. The trick will be that they tell
you there are losses at the device. This means that the exhaust air will transfer energy to the
device, but the device will not be able to transfer all of that energy to the outside air.

Figure 38: In this figure, the exhaust air transfers energy to the device. The device then rotates
and transfers that energy to the outside air. However, there are losses at the device, so not all
of the energy is transferred to the outside air.
The first equation calculates the total heat transfer from the exhaust air to the device.
𝑞 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐻 , 𝐻 ,
The second equation takes the total heat transferred to the device and then multiplies it by an
efficiency value. This is the new heat transferred to the outside air. This equation is used to
solve for the outside air leaving conditions.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑥 𝑞 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝐻 , 𝐻 ,
The next sections will go into more detail on specific types of energy recovery devices. There
are various types of energy recovery devices that will be described in this section, (1) the rotary
sensible wheel, (2) the rotary enthalpy wheel, (3) the wrap-around heat pipe and (4) the run
around loop.
9.2 ROTARY SENSIBLE WHEEL

A rotary sensible wheel is typically a metal wheel that rotates and exchanges only sensible heat
from one air stream to another. The wheel is connected to a gear and motor, which rotates the
wheel. As a section of the wheel picks up heat from air stream, the wheel then rotates to the
other air stream to move the heat to the cooler air stream.

Figure 39: A rotary sensible wheel is used to transfer sensible heat from the return/exhaust air
stream to the outdoor air that is entering the air handler.
9.3 ROTARY ENTHALPY WHEEL

A rotary enthalpy wheel is similar to a rotary sensible wheel, in that it has the same type of
construction and parts. But a rotary enthalpy is used to absorb moisture as well as heat. A
section of the wheel absorbs heat and moisture from the more hot and humid air stream, then
rotates and transfers the moisture to the colder and dryer air mixture.
The following figure shows an enthalpy wheel installed integral to a dedicated outside air
handling unit.
Figure 40: This is how an energy recovery wheel (enthalpy wheel) is situated in an air
distribution system.
9.4 WRAP-AROUND HEAT PIPE

A wrap around heat pipe is used typically in warm humid climates in spaces with a high amount
of outside air requirements. In these types of environments, warm, humid outside air is
conditioned to a low temperature in order to condense the water out of the air. A wrap-around
heat pipe is used to pre-cool the incoming warm humid outside air by transferring heat to the
exiting cool supply air. This has the effect of providing sensible re-heat to the supply air.
Figure 41: A wrap-around heat pipe transfers cooling from the cold supply air to the warm humid
air entering the cooling coil.
The heat pipe contains a pressurized refrigerant, which proceeds through the vapor
compression cycle. In the first phase, warm air passes over the cool liquid refrigerant. This
effectively pre-cools the outside air before it enters the main cooling coil. During this first phase,
the liquid refrigerants gains heat, causing it to vaporize and move to the other side of the coil. In
the second phase, on the other side of the coil, the cool air passes over the warm vapor, which
re-heats the air. In addition, the warm vapor is condensed to a liquid, allowing the process to
start over again.
In this example, energy is transferred from the entering outside air to the exiting supply air. The
heat pipe can also be used to transfer energy between two different air streams. For example, it
can be used between the outdoor/supply air and the return/exhaust airstreams.

Figure 42: This figure shows that energy is saved at the cooling coil and any additional reheat.
The difference in enthalpy between entering outside air and leaving heat pipe show graphically
the savings at the cooling coil. There are also energy savings between the supply air leaving
coil and the leaving heat pipe point. This movement shows the reheat of the supply air. Reheat
is sometimes necessary, when the SHR is too steep.
9.5 RUN-AROUND LOOP
The last energy recovery device that is explained in this section is the run-around loop. The run
around loop consists of two heat exchange coils connected by piping, a fluid and a pump. A
heat transfer fluid, typically water or a glycol-water mixture is pumped between the two coils.
The fluid transfers heat from one air stream to the other air stream.

Figure 43: A run-around loop uses a heat transfer fluid to move cooling from the exhaust air to
the outside air, during the cooling season. During the heating season, heat is transferred from
the exhaust air to the outside air.
9.6 AIR-SIDE ECONOMIZER

An economizer is another type of mechanical equipment that is used to save energy. In its
simplest form, an air-side economizer consists of two sets of dampers. One set controls the
amount of return air that is directed either to exhaust or back to the air handler and another set
of dampers control the amount of outside air routed to the air handler.
Cooling Season: When the outside air (OAIR) has a lower enthalpy than the return air (RAIR),
then the OAIR is directed to the coils and the RAIR is routed to the exhaust. By routing the
lower enthalpy air (OAIR), the coil requires less energy to provide cooling. If the enthalpy of the
RAIR is lower than the OAIR, then the RAIR is routed to the coil and only the minimum amount
of OAIR is routed to the coil. OAIR is still required in order to maintain the proper amounts of
fresh air to the occupants.

Figure 44: In this figure, the economizer is not operating. The required amount of outside air is
provided and the remaining air is being recirculated back to the air handling unit.
Figure 45: In this figure, the outside air enthalpy is less than the return air, so the return air
damper is closed and the outside air damper is open to its maximum amount. The exhaust fan
now exhausts 100% of the return air. The supply air is not comprised of 100% outside air.
9.7 OTHER ENERGY RECOVERY DEVICES

The most common energy recovery devices have been previously discussed, but if you
encounter a different ERV on the PE exam, then you should refer to ASHRAE HVAC Systems
& Equipment, Chapter 26 Air to Air Energy Recovery Equipment. This chapter has more
detail on other types of ERVs like Thermosiphon, Indirect Evaporative Air Cooling and
Desiccant Wheel Systems. There is also some discussion on the various airflow patterns that
you could possibly encounter on the PE exam.

10.0 BASIC CONTROL CONCEPTS

The sub-field of controls in HVAC & Refrigeration is very vast and can span many different
topics. Luckily, only the basics are required for this section on the HVAC & Refrigeration PE
exam. Since, there should only be a few questions on controls, you will want to limit the amount
of time you spend on studying controls. You should know the following for the exam.
1. Control System Fundamentals

o Analog vs. digital control
o What is PID?
o Digital input and analog input sensors (temperature, pressure, flow, CO2,
humidity, etc.)
o Digital output and analog output devices (actuators, valves, dampers, etc.)
2. DDC Fundamentals
o Types of controllers
3. HVAC Control Applications – for each of the following applications you should
understand the sequence of operations, what sensors are required, what actuators are
required.
o VAV cooling
o VAV cooling with reheat
o Economizer cycle
o Heating control from supply air
o Control of chilled water coil with 3-way valve
o Two position control of direct expansion coil
The best resource for studying controls for the exam is the free Honeywell white paper called,
Engineering Manual of Automatic Control for Commercial Buildings. It can be found on the link
below. It is over 500 pages long. Please read briefly through the entire white paper and have it
as a reference during the exam. You should pay special attention to the following sections,
Control Fundamentals, Microprocessor-Based/DDC Fundamentals and Control System
Applications. Do not spend time on the Pneumatic, Electric and Electronic Controls sections.
These are outdated versions of control in the HVAC field. These methods of control may still be
used in other applications.
https://customer.honeywell.com/resources/techlit/TechLitDocuments/77-0000s/77-E1100.pdf
10.1 DDC SYSTEMS

Direct digital control (DDC) systems use a computer or microprocessor to control and monitor
HVAC equipment. It is commonly used for commercial buildings, where smarter controls are
desired. Basic controls use a sensor, like a thermostat, that is directly connected to an
equipment like a fan starter, to turn it on and off. DDC systems on the other hand, send all
those signals to a computer. The system accepts these input signal from various sensors,

processes it through pre-programmed functions in the controller, then sends an output signal to
perform an operation. The computer is also able to perform calculations based on the input
data, record and store data trends, and monitor information like energy usage. For more
complicated systems, like VAV air handling units and variable primary chilled water pumping
systems that require fan speed and pump adjustments based on a constant feedback of
temperature and pressure sensor inputs, a DDC or microprocessor system is necessary.
Inputs and Outputs: The DDC inputs and outputs are in terms of the controller. For example,
a temperature sensor is an input. The signal is recorded in the building, the sent into the DDC
controller. Turning a pump on or off is an output. The DDC controller processed information
which determined that a pump should be turned off. A signal is sent out of the DDC controller to
the pump. This is an output signal.
Analog: A signal that is varying is an analog signal. For example, you want to know the various
temperature changes in a room, it is recorded from 70oF to 73oF to 75oF. This temperature is an
analog input (AI) signal. The input temperature tells the DDC to marginally close a VAV box
damper from 80% to 70% to 60% as it continually reads that the temperatures are too low. The
signal to the VAV box is an analog output (AO) signal. Other example of analog output signals
are variable frequency drives (VFDs) and modulating valves.
Digital: A digital signal is a 0 or 1 signal, there are only two states, for example on or off, open
or close. If you want to know the status of a fan, whether it is on or off, that is a digital input
(DI). If you want to turn a fan on or off, that is a digital output (DO).
10.2 ECONOMIZER
An example of a control system is an economizer system. In an economizer cycle, a control
system controls the outside air and return air dampers and an exhaust air fan on an air handler
to use less energy. In its simplest form, the economizer uses sensors in the return air and the
outside air to determine which air stream has the highest temperature. When the return air
temperature is higher than the outside air, then the economizer control system will close the
return air damper and fully open the outside air damper. This will lessen the amount of cooling
required at the cooling coil. The return air is then exhausted or relieved directly to the exterior.
There are other versions of the economizer, where the control system looks at the enthalpy of
the outside air and return air instead of only the dry bulb temperature. This version will more
accurately save energy in all regions, but requires an additional humidity sensor and not just a
dry bulb temperature sensor.
10.3 TEMPERATURE RESET

Another example of a control system is a temperature reset system. In a temperature reset
system, a control system controls the temperature of air or water from a coil or chiller. Typically,
the temperature from a coil or a chiller is fixed. For example, a chilled water coil typically has a

2-way valve or 3-way valve which modulates the amount of chilled water to a coil, in order to
maintain a set temperature. The amount of air is varied by the fan to meet the requirements of
the thermostat in the space. If the temperature is lower than the thermostat, then the fan
increases the amount of air into the space. The same is true for a chiller, except a chiller
modulates its compressors (refrigerant mass flow rate) to maintain a set chilled water
temperature. A pump then varies the amount of flow to the various air handlers based on the
pressure required in the system.
In a temperature reset system, the set point is modulated by the control system in order to
match the load of the system. For example, in a chilled water coil, the set point of air leaving
the coil is adjusted depending on the speed of the fan. When the fan speed reaches its
minimum speed, then the set point of air leaving the coil is adjusted so the fan speed is
increased. In the chilled water system, when the pump is pumping chilled water at its minimum
conditions, and then the chilled water set point is increased, which lessens the work on the
compressors and saves more energy than is used by the increase in pump speed.


11.1 PROBLEM 1 – DUCT DESIGN
Background: The pressure at the outlet of a 2,000 CFM fan is 0.75 in. wg. The fan discharges
into a 12” x 18” duct. The duct runs for an equivalent length of 125’ to a supply diffuser. What
is the pressure at the supply diffuser? Assume standard conditions, density = 0.075 lbm/ft3 and
roughness factor of 0.003 ft. Friction factor = 0.018.
(a) 0.62 in. wg
(b) 0.53 in. wg
(c) 0.41 in. wg
(d) 0.25 in. wg
11.2 PROBLEM 2 – DUCT DESIGN

Background: A 26” X 12” duct is routed through a ceiling. Due to obstructions in the ceiling, the
duct must make (4) 90-degree elbow turns. The elbows are mitered and are provided with
turning vanes at 1.5” spacing (C = 0.11). If the flow rate through the duct is 3,000 CFM, then
what is the total pressure loss due to the elbows?
Assume standard conditions, density = 0.075 lbm/ft3 and roughness factor of 0.003 ft.
(a) 0.06 in. wg
(b) 0.08 in. wg
(c) 0.10 in. wg
(d) 0.11 in. wg

11.3 PROBLEM 3 – DIFFUSERS

Background: A new diffuser is selected with the following performance criteria. At what
perpendicular distance from the wall should the diffuser be located so that the velocity at the
wall is 50 feet per minute?
Velocity [fpm] 300 400 500 600 700 800

Total Pressure [in. wg] .024 .034 .047 .061 .078 .096
Flow Rate [CFM] 100 120 140 160 180 200
Throw 150-100-50 [ft.] 1-2-3 1-2-4 2-2-5 2-3-6 2-3-7 3-4-8
Assume the flow rate through the diffuser is 180 CFM.
(a) 3’
(b) 5’
(c) 7’
(d) 8’
11.4 PROBLEM 4 – ENERGY RECOVERY DEVICE

A cooling coil is used to cool 2,000 CFM of outside air at 87 F DB, 60% relative humidity to 55 F
DB/53 F WB. A heat pipe is provided to re-heat the leaving cold supply air with the incoming
outside air. The heat pipe is only used to transfer sensible heat. The heat pipe has a sensible
effectiveness of 25%. What temperature does the heat pipe reheat the supply air, Dry Bulb F?
(a) 63℉ 𝐷𝐵
(b) 71℉ 𝐷𝐵
(c) 75℉ 𝐷𝐵
(d) 79℉ 𝐷𝐵

11.5 PROBLEM 5 – PRESSURE LOSS

A new chilled water pump supplies a flow of 240 GPM at 150 total dynamic head. What is the
pressure drop through 200 feet of 4” schedule 40 steel pipe? C =140.
(a) 3.7 ft of head
(b) 6.4 ft of head
(c) 140.1 ft of head
(d) 143.8 ft of head
11.6 PROBLEM 6 – STEAM PIPING

The main steam distribution piping to a building consists of an equivalent length of 200’ of 3”
schedule 40 steel pipe. Steam is provided at saturated 12 PSIG, if the flow rate is1,000 lbs per
hour, then what will be the pressure at the end of the main distribution piping?
(a) 8 PSIG
(b) 9 PSIG
(c) 10 PSIG
(d) 11 PSIG

11.7 PROBLEM 7 – FRICTION LOSS

20 GPM of water at 50 F is flown through a 2” plastic pipe (2.067” ID). The Moody friction factor
is .025. What is the pressure drop (PSI) through 50’ of pipe?
(a) 0.18 psi
(b) 0.24 psi
(c) 0.41 psi
(d) 0.52 psi
11.8 PROBLEM 8 – FRICTION LOSS

Reynolds number?
(a) 78,000
(b) 83,000
(c) 86,000
(d) 92,000

11.9 PROBLEM 9 – NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

A cooling tower is located such that the fluid level in the basin is 10 ft above the centerline for
the suction of the condenser water pump. The water is at an average temperature of 86 F. The
friction loss from the cooling tower basin to the suction of the pump is approximately 15 ft of
head. What is the net positive suction head available at the suction side of the pump with a flow
rate of 400 GPM?
(a) 12.6 ft of head
(b) 17.6 ft of head
(c) 27.6 ft of head
(d) 30.1 ft of head
11.10 PROBLEM 10 – DUCT CONSTRUCTION

Which of the following duct construction is most suitable for a grease exhaust duct?
(a) Carbon steel, 18 gauge, continuously welded
(b) PVC
(c) 304 Stainless steel, 16 gauge, continuously welded
(d) 316 Stainless steel, 18 gauge, flanged

11.11 PROBLEM 11 – AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

An air handling unit contains an evaporative cooling section. If the air entering this section is at
78 F and 55% relative humidity, then which of the following statements is most nearly true about
the air leaving the section?
(a) The relative humidity will remain the same.
(b) The enthalpy will remain the same.
(c) The humidity ratio will increase.
(d) The dry bulb will increase.
11.12 PROBLEM 12 – AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

If a mixing plenum is not provided for an air handler, then which of the following issues can
result?
(a) Freezing cooling coils
(b) High CO2 levels in an individual space
(c) Control hunting
(d) All of the above

11.13 PROBLEM 13 – CONTROLS

Which of the following best characterizes the flow switch in a water cooled chiller?
(a) Analog input
(b) Analog output
(c) Digital output
(d) Digital input

Which of the following transmission medium is not suitable for communicating between HVAC
sensors/actuators and controllers?
(a) Twisted pair, copper cable
(b) BAS
(c) Wireless
(d) Fiber optic cable

11.15 PROBLEM 15 – DUCT SYSTEMS

A round, flexible duct has an R value of 4.5 and is UL 181 listed as a class 1 duct. The
pressure drop through the duct is 0.2 in wg per 100 feet. The length of the flexible duct is 5 feet.
Which of the following statements is always true?
(a) Flame spread index is equal to 0.
(b) Smoke developed index is equal to 0.
(c) Flame spread index is less than 25.
(d) Smoke developed index is less than 25.
11.16 PROBLEM 16 – DUCT SYSTEMS

Which of the following ducts will most likely have the most stringent air leakage requirements?
(a) Laboratory fume hood ductwork under negative pressure during normal operation.
Ductwork located indoors.
(b) Supply ductwork with air at 55 °F DB/54 °F WB under positive pressure, located in the air
conditioned space.
(c) Bathroom exhaust ductwork under negative pressure during normal operation, ductwork
located outdoors away from outdoor air intakes.
(d) Supply ductwork in heating mode, located upstream of VAV box.


A water cooled chiller has a variable speed pump, chiller, air handlers, distribution piping,
motorized control valves and a bypass piping system. What is most likely the reason for the
bypass piping system?
(a) Bypass the air handlers during low load
(b) Maintain minimum flow to the chiller
(c) Bypass the chiller during low load
(d) Maintain constant flow to the chiller

A VAV box (cooling only) is supplied with 55 °F DB/54 °F WB air. The box is equipped with a
reheat system. The VAV box has a range of 200 CFM to 800 CFM. The space shall be
maintained at 75 °F DB/50% RH. The space has a minimum load of 1,000 Btu/h of cooling.
What is the size of the reheat system? Assume sea level.
(a) 1,000 Btu/h
(b) 2,000 Btu/h
(c) 3,000 Btu/h
(d) 4,000 Btu/h

11.19 PROBLEM 19 – STEAM SYSTEMS

250 lbm/hr of steam is at 100 psia and is saturated with no superheating. The steam provides
75,000 Btu/hr of heating to a coil. What percent of the steam leaving the coil will be in vapor
form?
(a) 52%
(b) 67%
(c) 71%
(d) 100%

A cooling tower sump thermostat, sump heater and an outdoor thermostat work together to
most likely provide which of the following processes?
(a) Decrease condenser water output temperature from cooling tower.
(b) Increase condenser water output temperature from cooling tower.
(c) Prevent freezing in the cooling tower
(d) Increase cooling tower fan speed


A cooling tower relief control scheme accomplishes which of the following?
(a) Increases condenser water temperature to the chiller, in order to relieve the cooling tower.
(b) Decreases condenser water temperature to the chiller, in order to relive the chiller.
(c) Cycles cooling tower fans off, to relieve the stress on the cooling tower.
(d) Decreasing condenser water flow rate, in order to relieve the cooling tower.

12.0 SOLUTIONS
12.1 SOLUTION 1 – DUCT DESIGN
First calculate the hydraulic diameter and equivalent diameter.
18 ∗ 12 .
𝐷 1.3 16"
18 12 .
𝐷 16" 1.33 𝑓𝑡
18 ∗ 12
𝐷 4 14.4"
2 ∗ 18 12
𝐷 14.4" 1.2 𝑓𝑡
Calculate velocity based on equivalent diameter and based on actual area.
𝑓𝑡
2000
𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,333 𝑓𝑝𝑚
12 ∗ 18
144
𝑓𝑡
2000
𝑉 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,435 𝑓𝑝𝑚
𝜋 ∗ 1.33 ∗ 0.25
Finally, use the Darcy Equation from the HVAC section to find the pressure drop.
𝐿 𝑉 125 𝑓𝑡 1333
ℎ 𝑓 ∗𝜌 0.018 ∗ ∗ 0.075 ∗ 0.21
𝐷 1097 1.2 𝑓𝑡 1097
𝐿 𝑉 125 𝑓𝑡 1435
ℎ 𝑓 ∗𝜌 0.018 ∗ ∗ 0.075 ∗ 0.22
𝐷 1097 1.33 𝑓𝑡 1097
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 0.75 0.21 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒊𝒏. 𝒘𝒈
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 0.75 0.22 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝒊𝒏. 𝒘𝒈
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 0.53 in. wg
12.2 SOLUTION 2 – DUCT DESIGN

Background: A 26” x 12” duct is routed through a ceiling. Due to obstructions in the ceiling, the
duct must make (4) 90-degree elbow turns. The elbows are mitered and are provided with
turning vanes at 1.5” spacing (C = 0.11). If the flow rate through the duct is 3,000 CFM, then
what is the total pressure loss due to the elbows? Assume standard air density.
First calculate the equivalent diameter of the duct:

.
1.30 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
𝐷
𝑎 𝑏 .
.
1.30 ∗ 12" ∗ 26"
𝐷
12" 26" .
𝐷 19"
Next calculate the free area of the equivalent duct.
26 ∗ 12
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2.17 𝑆𝐹
144
3,000 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 1,384.6 𝐹𝑃𝑀
1.96 𝑆𝐹
Next calculate the velocity pressure.
1,384.6
𝑉𝑃 0.12 𝑖𝑛. 𝑤𝑔
4,005
Use the C coefficient to calculate the pressure loss from the elbows
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 4 ∗ 0.11 ∗ 0.12 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑 𝒊𝒏. 𝒘𝒈
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 0.06 in. wg.
12.3 SOLUTION 3 – DIFFUSERS
Background: A new diffuser is selected with the following performance criteria. At what
perpendicular distance from the wall should the diffuser be located so that the velocity at the
wall is 50 feet per minute?
Velocity [fpm] 300 400 500 600 700 800

Total Pressure [in. wg] .024 .034 .047 .061 .078 .096
Flow Rate [CFM] 100 120 140 160 180 200
Throw 150-100-50 [ft.] 1-2-3 1-2-4 2-2-5 2-3-6 2-3-7 3-4-8
Assume the flow rate through the diffuser is 180 CFM.
First find the column with 180 CFM.
Next find the throw distance corresponding to 50 feet per minute. 7’
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 7’

12.4 SOLUTION 4 – ENERGY RECOVERY DEVICE

A cooling coil is used to cool 2,000 CFM of outside air at 87 F DB, 60% relative humidity to 55 F
DB/53 F WB. A heat pipe is provided to re-heat the leaving cold supply air with the incoming
outside air. The heat pipe is only used to transfer sensible heat. The heat pipe has a sensible
effectiveness of 25%. What temperature does the heat pipe reheat the supply air, Dry Bulb F?
First calculate the maximum amount of heat transfer, the supply air is re-heated to the outside
air temperature.
𝑞 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 87 55 𝐷𝐵
Next set up the equation for the actual amount of heat that is transferred. Similar equation,
except replace the 87 (maximum temperature) with the variable “X”.
𝑞 , 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑋 55 𝐷𝐵
Next, set up the effectiveness equation for the Heat Pipe.

𝑞 ,
𝜀
𝑞 ,
Plug in the variables to find “x”. Where the effectiveness is 25%
1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝑋 55 𝐷𝐵
0.25
1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 87 55 𝐷𝐵
𝑋 𝟔𝟑℉ 𝑫𝑩
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 63F DB
12.5 SOLUTION 5 – PRESSURE LOSS
A new chilled water pump supplies a flow of 240 GPM at 150 total dynamic head. What is the
pressure drop through 200 feet of 4” schedule 40 steel pipe? C =140.
The quick solution is to use the NCEES Mechanical Reference Handbook pressure drop tables
in the Fluids section, but make sure you adjust the pressure drop factor with the 0.54 factor in
order to convert from C = 100 to a smoother, C = 140.
These tables show that at 240 GPM, 4” Schedule 40 steel pipe:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 6.0 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 100 ∗ 0.54 3.24
The question calls for the pressure drop over 200’, simply multiply the previous result by 2.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝟔. 𝟒 𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 6.4 ft of head.

12.6 SOLUTION 6 – STEAM PIPING

The main steam distribution piping to a building consists of an equivalent length of 200’ of 3”
schedule 40 steel pipe. Steam is provided at saturated 12 PSIG, if the flow rate is1,000 lbs per
hour, then what will be the pressure at the end of the main distribution piping?
Since Schedule 40 Steel pipe is being used, the Pipe Sizing Charts can be used in ASHRAE
Fundamentals or in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. Find the flow rate of
steam in a schedule 40 pipe of 12 PSIG saturated. Find the pressure drop as a function of
1,000 lbs per hour and 3” pipe.
The pressure drop of 1000 lbs per hour at 12 PSIG is going to be somewhere in between 0.25
psi and 0.5 psi per 100 ft.
Excerpt from Table:

Steam Flow Rate (Schedule 40 Pipe)
Pressure Drop (per 100 ft length)

1/4 psi 1/2 psi
Nominal Pipe
Saturation Pressure (psig) Saturation Pressure (psig)
Size (in.)
3.5 12 3.5 12
2.5 378 460 540 660
3 660 810 960 1160
4 1410 1690 1980 2400
1000 810 / 1160 810 54.3%
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 54.3% 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖.
0.25 𝑥 54.3% 0.14 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐴𝑑𝑑 0.25 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑡𝑜 0.14 𝑝𝑠𝑖 0.39 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑝𝑒𝑟 100 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 0.68 𝑃𝑆𝐼 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 12 𝑃𝑆𝐼𝐺 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 11.32 𝑃𝑆𝐼𝐺.
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 11 psig.

12.7 SOLUTION 7 – FRICTION LOSS

20 GPM of water at 50 F is flown through a 2” plastic pipe (2.067” ID). The Moody friction factor
is .025. What is the pressure drop (PSI) through 50’ of pipe?
For this equation use the Darcy Weisbach Equation below:
𝑓𝐿𝑣
2𝐷𝑔
𝑓𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑; 𝑓 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝑣 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ,
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 32.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Prepare each term to be plugged into the equation. First, find velocity. Convert 20 GPM to
velocity [ft/sec].
1 FT
448.83 sec
1 FT
20 GPM ∗ 0.04456 .
448.83 sec
2.067
Area PI ∗ 12 0.0233 ft
4
04456 ft /sec 𝑓𝑡
Velocity . 1.91
0.0233 ft 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Plug in the variables to the equation.
. 025 ∗ 50 ∗ 1.91
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2.067
2∗ 32.2
12
. 025 ∗ 50 ∗ 1.91
ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2.067
2∗ 32.2
12
ℎ 0.41 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Next convert to PSI
0.433 𝑝𝑠𝑖
ℎ 0.41 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ∗ 0.18 𝑃𝑆𝐼
1 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) 0.18 psi.

12.8 SOLUTION 8 – FRICTION LOSS

Reynolds number?
For this equation use the Reynolds Number equation below:
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 ∗ 𝑑 𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝜈
𝑠𝑒𝑐
First find the velocity, which requires the inner diameter of Schedule 80 pipe. Refer to your
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook to find the inner diameter.
𝐷 0.2417 𝑓𝑡
Next find the inner area, which is also shown in the handbook.
𝐴 0.04587 𝑓𝑡
Next convert GPM to ft^3.
1 FT
100 GPM ∗ 0.223 .
448.83 sec
Next find the velocity.
FT
0.223
V sec 4.86 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.04587 ft
Next find the kinematic viscosity for water at 50 F which is also found in the handbook.
𝜈 .0000141 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
Plug the values in to the equation.
4.86 ∗ 0.2417
𝑅𝑒 83,343
. 0000141
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 83,000.
12.9 SOLUTION 9 – NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

A cooling tower is located such that the fluid level in the basin is 10 ft above the centerline for
the suction of the condenser water pump. The water is at an average temperature of 86 F. The
friction loss from the cooling tower basin to the suction of the pump is approximately 15 ft of

head. What is the net positive suction head available at the suction side of the pump with a flow
rate of 400 GPM?
Assume sea level.
For this question use the Net Positive Suction Head Available equation:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
The pressure at the basin is simply atmospheric pressure.
ℎ 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑜𝑟 33.96 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
The elevation pressure is the difference in height between the top of the fluid and the centerline
of the pump.
ℎ 10 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
The friction loss is given.
ℎ 15 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Refer to your references NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook for the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure was also earlier in this section.
ℎ 1.4 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Find NPSHA
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 33.96 ∓ 10 15 1.4 27.6 𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 27.6 ft of head.
12.10 SOLUTION 10 – DUCT CONSTRUCTION
Which of the following duct construction is most suitable for a grease exhaust duct?
(a) Carbon steel, 18 gauge, continuously welded.
According to NFPA 96, carbon steel must have a thickness at least 16 gauge. This construction
is not suitable for a grease exhaust duct.
(b) PVC
Plastic ducting will not be able to handle the high temperatures from a grease duct.

(c) 304 Stainless steel, 16 gauge, continuously welded
According to NFPA 96, stainless steel duct for grease exhaust systems must be a minimum 18
gauge, so 16 gauge is suitable. Also ducts must be continuously welded to prevent grease
vapors from leaking out of the duct.
(d) 316 Stainless steel, 18 gauge, flanged
According to NFPA 96, stainless steel duct for grease exhaust systems must be a minimum 18
gauge, so 16 gauge is suitable. Also ducts must be continuously welded to prevent grease
vapors from leaking out of the duct. This solution is not suitable.
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 304 Stainless steel, 16 gauge, continuously welded.
12.11 SOLUTION 11 – AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

An evaporative air cooler uses the heat of vaporization of liquid water in order to cool the
incoming air. As the water evaporates into the air, the water content within the air rises. The
result is cooler, but more humid air. Theoretically, the enthalpy of the air should remain the
same because the decrease in sensible heat is counteracted by an increase in latent heat.
However, this may not always be true in practice and thus the answer should be the solution
that is mostly true. This answer is that the humidity ratio will increase.
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) The humidity ratio will increase.
12.12 SOLUTION 12 – AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
A mixing plenum is provided on an air handler in order to mix the outside air and return air. The
mixing plenum should evenly mix the two air streams such that the air quality (CO2 levels) and
air properties are even throughout the entire mixed air stream prior to the air stream reaching
the coils.
If the air stream is not mixed, then there may be areas within the air stream that are at different
temperatures and air quality. If the outdoor air is below 32 F and the air is not fully mixed and
the sensor that activates the pre-heat coil indicates that the air is not below 32 F, when the
portion of air that is below 32 F hits the next coil then freezing will occur.
If the air stream is not mixed, then the air quality will also vary throughout the air stream and
certain parts of the air stream will have high CO2 levels and certain parts will have low CO2
levels. Certain spaces may receive high CO2 concentrations and other spaces may receive low
CO2 concentrations.

If the air stream is not mixed, then the sensors will read erratic measurements. This is similar to
a flow sensor that is located too near a duct transition. The sensor will read erratic flow
measurements. The same is true for temperature and CO2, if the air stream is not fully mixed.
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) All of the above.
12.13 SOLUTION 13 – CONTROLS

Analog inputs and outputs are characterized by having a range of values as opposed to digital
inputs and outputs which are characterized by only two values like on/off, yes/no, 1/0. A flow
switch is used in a chiller to prove that there is flow, so the sensor will be either yes flow, no
flow.
The input or output determination is taken from the reference point of the controller or computer
that makes decisions. The controller will receive input signals from sensors like flow switches,
temperature sensors, pressure sensors, etc. The control will send output signals to actuators
for dampers, control valves, on/off buttons, etc. Thus a flow switch will be an input into the
controller. The flow switch on a chiller typically sends an input signal to the controller to indicate
when it is okay to turn on the chiller. The chiller should only be turned on when there is flow.
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) Digital input.

BAS stands for building automation system. This is a control system and is not a transmission
medium. Transmission medium is the path that transmits the control signals. The medium can
be wireless or wired like a cable.
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) BAS.
12.15 SOLUTION 15 – DUCT SYSTEMS

UL 181, Standard for Factory-Made Air Ducts and Air Connectors, indicates that Class 0 ducts
have a surface burning characteristic of zero and Class 1 ducts have a flame spread index of
not over 25 and a smoke developed index not over 50. So the smoke developed index could be
over 25, which makes D and B false. The flame spread index may also be above 0, so A is also
false. For more information, please refer to ASHRAE 2016 HVAC Systems and Equipment,
Chapter 19 Duct Construction.
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) Flame spread index is less than 25.

12.16 SOLUTION 16 – DUCT SYSTEMS

The air leakage rate is typically determined by either the potential for lost thermal energy or the
contamination of air. For exhaust systems, you must pay careful attention to the location of the
exhaust ductwork and what would happen if that exhaust ductwork were to leak. If the exhaust
ductwork is already located in a safe place, then any duct leakage would have less of an effect
when compared to ductwork located in a space that is connected to an occupied area. An
example of this would be the laboratory ductwork located in the plenum above the occupied
area. If this ductwork were to leak, then the contaminated air could leak into the space below.
Thus this ductwork has the most stringent duct leakage requirements. Typically exhaust
ductwork for laboratories require a maximum 2% leakage rate.
Duct system (B) will not require strict air leakage requirements because any leakage will go to
the air conditioned space. However, air distribution may be impacted due to air leakage.
Typically a 5% leakage rate is required for this type of space.
Duct system (C) will not require strict air leakage requirements because any leakage will go to
the outdoors, where bathroom exhaust should be exhausted.
Duct system (D) may or may not require strict air leakage requirements, but there is not
sufficient information to make this determination, so the correct answer has to be (A).
The correct answer is most nearly, (a) Laboratory fume hood ductwork under negative
pressure during normal operation. Ductwork located indoors.
A bypass pipe in a chilled water system with variable speed pumping is provided to maintain
chilled water flow to the chiller to prevent freezing of the chiller coils. As the load decreases, the
control valves will close and the variable speed pump will begin to slow down because of the
increased pressure in the system. The bypass piping system will open its valve and cause an
artificial load on the system. This will cause the variable speed pump to increase flow.
Although the bypass piping system will (A) bypass the air handlers during low load, this is not
the purpose of the bypass. The bypass piping system will have a flow meter to determine the
flow to the chiller and when the flow is too low, such that freezing of the chiller may occur, then
the valve on the bypass pipe will open and will increase the flow to the chiller.
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) Maintain minimum flow to the chiller.

A VAV box with reheat system will adjust its airflow to match the cooling load in the space. As
the cooling load decreases, then the VAV box will decrease its airflow to its minimum value. If

the cooling load continues to decrease, then the VAV box will turn on its reheat coil to create a
false load to offset the continued decrease in cooling load.
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 200 𝐶𝐹𝑀 @ 55℉ 𝐷𝐵 & 54℉ 𝑊𝐵
55℉ 𝐷𝐵 & 54℉ 𝑊𝐵 → 22.6 ; 0.076
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
75℉ 𝐷𝐵 & 50% 𝑅𝐻 → 28.2 ; 0.074
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
1,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 200 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 28.2 22.6 ∗ 0.075 ∗ 60
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑟
1,000 𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 5,040
ℎ ℎ
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑟𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 4,040
ℎ
The correct answer is most nearly, (d) 4,000 Btu/h.
12.19 SOLUTION 19 – STEAM SYSTEMS

The difference between the entering and leaving enthalpy will be related to the heating
provided.
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑄 75,000 250 ∗ 𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
100 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎; 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑; 𝑁𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 1,190
𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑄 75,000 250 ∗ 1,190 𝐻
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 890
𝑙𝑏
Now use the steam tables for 100 psia to find the steam quality.
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻 890 𝐻 𝑥∗𝐻
𝑙𝑏
𝐻 890 299 𝑥 ∗ 900
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑥 0.67
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) 67%.


A cooling tower sump thermostat may be used to control the cooling tower output. If the
thermostat reads too high, then the cooling tower output must be increased in order to lower the
condenser water temperature such that it can be used in the chiller. The cooling tower can
increase the fan speed or turn on more fans to promote more evaporative cooling. However,
this process does not use the outdoor thermostat nor does it use the sump heater.
The sump heater is provided in a cooling tower to increase the temperature of the condenser
water to above freezing conditions. If the cooling tower sump thermostat approaches freezing
temperatures, then the heater will be activated. The outdoor thermostat will activate the control
loop for the sump heater, only when the outdoor air temperature is around freezing
temperatures. This prevents any unnecessary activation of the sump heater. For example,
there may be too much evaporative cooling, causing a low cooling tower sump temperature and
thus the cooling tower fans should slow down to decrease the evaporative cooling.
The correct answer is most nearly, (c) Prevent freezing in the cooling tower.

A cooling tower relief control scheme, decreases the condenser water temperature to the chiller
by increasing the cooling tower fans’ speeds. This is typically only done if the outdoor wet bulb
temperature is low enough to prevent overtaxing the cooling tower fans. By decreasing the
condenser water temperature, the water cooling chiller will operate more efficiently. Since the
cooling tower fans typically have a much smaller power usage than the chiller, any efficiency
savings in the chiller will cause a much larger overall energy usage savings.
The correct answer is most nearly, (b) Decreases condenser water temperature to the
chiller, in order to relive the chiller.

Expansion · 35
A
absolute pressure · 31 F
ADPI · 13, 14
Air Distribution · 6 Fluid Distribution · 22
Air Filter · 7 freezing food · 53
Air Handling Units · 6 Friction Charts · 8
Air-Cooled Chiller · 36 Friction head · 25
Air-Side Economizer · 60 Friction Loss · 80, 81
Analog · 63 Fuel Gas Distribution · 48
Anchors · 35
H
B
Heating control · 62
Branch Length Method · 50 HHV · 49
Humidifier · 7
Hydronic Hot Water System · 44
C
cavitation · 30 I
Chilled Water System · 36
Closed system · 26 Inner Diameter tables · 28
CO2 · 6
Coil · 7
Constant Volume System · 16 K
Kinematic viscosity tables · 28
D
L
Darcy Equation · 8
Darcy Weisbach Equation · 8
DDC · 62 L-Bend · 35
Dehumidifier · 7 LHV · 49
Diffusers · 77
Digital · 63
Direct digital control (DDC) · 62 M
Direct-Return · 42
Dual temperature systems · 45 Miscellaneous Equipment Friction Losses · 12
Duct Design · 16, 76 Mixing Box · 7
Duct Fitting Losses · 11 Moody Diagram · 29
Duct Friction Losses · 10
N
E
NC · 13
Economizer · 63 Net Positive Suction Head · 81
Economizer cycle · 62 Net Positive Suction Head Available · 30
Effectiveness · 54 Noise Criteria · 13
Energy Recovery Device · 7, 78
Energy Recovery Devices · 54, 55, 61

Terminal Units · 12
O
thermal expansion coefficient · 34
Throws · 13
Open system · 24
total dynamic head · 23
Total Head · 23
TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE · 10
P
Pipe Roughness · 29 U
pressure loss · 23
Pressure loss · 78
U-Bend · 36
Primary-Secondary System · 41
Pumps · 22
V
R
Variable Volume System · 18
Variable-Primary System · 40
Refrigeration · 53
VAV · 12
Reheat System · 18
VAV cooling · 62
Reverse-Return · 43
VAV cooling with reheat · 62
Reynold's number · 29
velocity head pressure · 33
Rotary Enthalpy Wheel · 57
Velocity in Ducts · 8
rotary sensible wheel · 56
VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE · 9
Rotary Sensible Wheel · 56
Run-Around Loop · 59
W
S
Water Cooled System · 38
Wrap-Around Heat Pipe · 57
specific heat · 53
static head · 24
Steam Piping · 79
Z
Steam System · 51
Supply Air Diffusers · 13
Z-Bend · 36
T
Temperature reset · 63

11 - Supportive Knowledge
Codes and Standards | Air Quality and Ventilation | Vibration Control | Acoustics
HVAC Textbook
Section 11.0 – Supportive Knowledge

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 Codes/Standards ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1 ASHRAE 15 .......................................................................................................... 4
2.2 ASHRAE 34 .......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 ASHRAE 55 .......................................................................................................... 7
2.4 ASHRAE 62.1 ....................................................................................................... 8
2.5 ASHRAE 90.1 ..................................................................................................... 10
2.6 NFPA 90A ........................................................................................................... 10
2.7 NFPA 90B ........................................................................................................... 11
2.8 NFPA 96 ............................................................................................................. 12
2.9 Montreal Protocol ................................................................................................ 12
3.0 Air Quality and Ventilation ................................................................................................ 13
4.0 Vibration Control .............................................................................................................. 15
4.1 Spring Systems ................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Natural Frequency ............................................................................................... 16
4.3 Forced Vibration .................................................................................................. 18
4.4 Damping Ratio .................................................................................................... 19
4.4.1 Undamped ............................................................................................................. 20
4.4.2 Underdamped ........................................................................................................ 20
4.4.3 Critically Damped .................................................................................................. 21
4.4.4 Overdamped .......................................................................................................... 21
4.5 Transmissibility ................................................................................................... 22
4.6 Magnification Factor ............................................................................................ 23
4.7 Vibration Isolation ............................................................................................... 24
5.0 Acoustics .......................................................................................................................... 27
5.1 Sound Fundamentals .......................................................................................... 27
5.1.1 Decibel Level as a Function of Sound Power ........................................................ 28
5.1.2 Decibel Level as a Function of Sound Pressure ................................................... 28
5.1.3 Relationship Between Sound Power and Pressure ............................................... 28
5.1.4 Sound Frequency .................................................................................................. 29
Supportive Knowledge - 1 www.engproguides.com

5.2 Indoor Equipment Sound Calculations ................................................................. 29

5.2.1 Combining Multiple Noise Sources ....................................................................... 30
5.2.2 Reducing Sound Levels ........................................................................................ 31
5.2.3 NC Rating .............................................................................................................. 32
5.2.4 Sample Calculation ............................................................................................... 34
5.3 Outdoor Equipment Sound Calculations .............................................................. 34
5.4 Indoor Turbulence Sound Calculations ................................................................ 37
6.1 Problem 1 - References/Codes ........................................................................... 39
6.6 Problem 6 – Refrigeration Codes ........................................................................ 41
6.7 Problem 7 – Refrigerants .................................................................................... 42
6.8 Problem 8 – Sound .............................................................................................. 42
6.9 Problem 9 – Vibration .......................................................................................... 43
6.10 Problem 10 – Vibration ........................................................................................ 43
7.0 Solutions .......................................................................................................................... 44
7.1 Solution 1 - References/Codes ............................................................................ 44
7.6 Solution 6 – Refrigeration Codes ......................................................................... 46
7.7 Solution 7 – Refrigerants ..................................................................................... 46
7.8 Solution 8 – Sound .............................................................................................. 47
7.9 Solution 9 – Vibration .......................................................................................... 48
7.10 Solution 10 – Vibration ........................................................................................ 48

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In engineering many design issues are regulated by codes and references. These codes
govern the minimum requirements for mechanical design and the engineer must be familiar with
these codes in order to avoid making a legal mistake. Also the engineer should keep handy a
set of references to solve typically encountered problems. This section will introduce the
engineer to the must-have references for the HVAC & Refrigeration Engineer.
This section accounts for approximately 3-5 questions on the HVAC & Refrigeration Mechanical
PE exam.
Additionally, HVAC design requires an understanding of supplementary concepts that include

air quality, vibration and noise. These supportive tools are necessary for the health and comfort
of the building occupant. In mechanically conditioned buildings, air quality is an essential
design component to ensure proper ventilation of CO2 or hazardous substances and an overall
safe building environment. It is also important to understand how to mitigate the noise and
vibrations from rotating equipment and the sound transmissions through ductwork for privacy or
security reasons.
Since the Mechanical PE Exam is computer based, you will not be allowed to bring in these
references to the exam. So you will need to have these codes memorized. This section, along
with the other Application based problems gives engineers with more experience an advantage.
If you don’t have experience, I suggest reading the recommended references and using flash
cards to remember the general concepts, names and descriptions of codes. The equations for
acoustics and vibration are included in the handbook.
Supportive Knowledge
3-5 questions
Codes and Air Quality and Vibration Control Acoustics

Standards Ventilation
• ASHRAE • Filtration • Transmission • Sound control

• NFPA • Dilution effect • Absorption
• Montreal • Isolation • Attenuators
Protocol • Noise-level
criteria

2.0 CODES/STANDARDS
An engineer should be aware of the codes/standards that apply to their line of work. The
primary codes and standards that apply to the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer revolve around
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning (ASHRAE). The primary focus
of the ASHRAE Standards are in mechanical building equipment and systems, like cooling
towers, air handlers, boilers, chillers, air distribution, water distribution, etc.. The standards
govern minimum requirements for these systems and equipment in the areas of energy
efficiency (ASHRAE 90.1), indoor air quality (ASHRAE 62.1), thermal comfort (ASHRAE 55) and
refrigeration safety (ASHRAE 15 & ASHRAE 34).
The following sections go into more detail in the specific ASHRAE standards. It is
recommended that the HVAC & Refrigeration engineer be familiar with each of the codes and
standards listed below at a minimum.
2.1 ASHRAE 15
ASHRAE 15 is titled, "Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems". Refrigerants are dangerous
and in some cases highly flammable and toxic. This standard recognizes the danger that
refrigerants pose to humans and the environment. It creates minimum safety requirements for
Refrigeration Systems and the locations of these systems. The HVAC & Refrigeration engineer
should be familiar with the ventilation requirements for evacuating a refrigerant leak. There are
also other safety requirements of a room that hold refrigerant, like a mechanical chiller room.
Table 1: ASHRAE 15 Table of Contents and brief descriptions of each chapter.
Chapter Description
Purpose - Safe design, construction, installation operation of a refrigeration
1
system.
2 Scope – Compressor and absorption refrigerant systems
3 Definitions
4 Occupancy Classifications – Institutional, Commercial, Residential, etc.
5 Refrigerating System Classifications – Direct or indirect. High or low probability.
6 Refrigerant Safety Classifications – Single compound or blend.
7 Restrictions on Refrigerant Use – Limit pounds in occupied spaces, ducts, etc.
8 Installation Restrictions – Minimize safety concerns, damage to pipes/seals, etc.
Design & Construction of Equipment & Systems – Materials are chemically
9
compatible, can withstand system pressure, pressure relief safely,
10 Operation & Testing – Conduct pressure tests.
General Requirements – Safeguard the equipment during maintenance and secure
11
access.
12 Precedence with Conflicting Requirements – No applicable information.

13 Listed Equipment – Equipment must be listed with a reputable organization.

One common calculation completed by professional engineers is to determine the amount of
exhaust flow required to properly evacuate refrigerant from a space. Refrigerants are heavier
than air and if refrigerants were to be released into an enclosed space (mechanical room), then
the refrigerant would displace the air in the space. If someone were to be in the room, when a
leak were to occur then they could possible suffocate.
As part of ASHRAE 15, a refrigerant sensor and exhaust system must be provided in order to
evacuate the refrigerant in the event of a leak. The airflow required depends on the maximum
weight of refrigerant that can be leaked. This weight is assumed to be the largest refrigerant
amount (lbs) in a single piece of equipment or circuit. A single chiller with multiple refrigerant
circuits can be considered to contain two separate refrigerant systems, thus only the refrigerant
weight in the largest circuit needs to be considered and not both.
Once the refrigerant weight in the largest system is determined, then a simple formula is used to
determine the airflow required.
.
𝑄[𝐶𝐹𝑀] = 100 𝑥 𝐺 , where G = lbs of refrigerant.
ASHRAE 15 also provides a safety rating for variety types of refrigerants. There is a small
excerpt of this refrigerant table in the NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook under
Refrigerant Safety.
2.2 ASHRAE 34
ASHRAE 34 is titled, "Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants. The HVAC &
Refrigeration engineer should be familiar with the ASHRAE designation system for designation
and how the rating system was developed. The designation system for safety classification of
refrigerants depends on multiple properties of the refrigerant, including but not limited to toxicity
and flammability.
Table 2: ASHRAE 34 Table of Contents and a brief description of the key components of each
chapter.
Chapter Description
Purpose – Assigns refrigerant common names, safety classifications and
1
concentration limits
2 Scope – Safety classifications based on toxicity and flammability
3 Definitions
Numbering of Refrigerants - Zeotropes are blends. R-410 = R-32 (50%) | R-
4
125(50%)
5 Designation – HCFC, HFC, CFC, R-###
Safety Group Classifications –
6
Letter = Toxicity; OEL = Occupational exposure limit

A = OEL > 400 PPM; B = OEL < 400 PPM

Number = Flammability; Lower flammability limit (LFL) testing, heat of combustion
Refrigerant concentration limit – Acute Toxicity Exposure Limit (ATEL); Oxygen
7
Deprivation Limit (ODL); Flammability Concentration Limit (FCL) = 25% LFL
8 Refrigerant Classifications – Flammability/Toxicity tables
Refrigerants typically have three numbers that are used to describe the refrigerant. The first
number is dependent on the number of carbon atoms minus 1. The second number is equal to
the number of hydrogen atoms plus 1 and the third number is the number of fluorine atoms. For
example, R-134a.
𝐶𝐻 𝐹𝐶𝐹 → 𝑅 − 134𝑎
This standard also provides the values that classify a refrigerant’s safety in accordance with its
flammability and toxicity potential. The following graph summarizes the six possible
classifications.
Figure 1: This figure summarizes how the safety of refrigerants are rated.
OEL stands for occupational exposure limit. This is the concentration of refrigerant within the air
that a person can withstand for a certain amount of time (typically 15 minutes), before harmful
health consequences occur. A higher OEL means that the refrigerant is less toxic, because it
requires a higher concentration to cause health damages.
LFL stands for lower flammability limit. The lower flammability limit is the lowest concentration
(density) of refrigerant within the air that can ignite at a certain temperature and pressure. The
temperature is typically 140 F and the pressure is typically atmospheric pressure. The
refrigerants rated at A1 or B1, cannot be ignited at 140 F at any concentration. A refrigerant
with a higher LFL means that it is less flammable because it requires a higher density of
refrigerant to ignite.
The heat of combustion is an indicator of the amount of energy that is released when the
refrigerant ignites.

2.3 ASHRAE 55
ASHRAE 55 is titled, "Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy". Human
comfort is very subjective, since it depends on each individual and their own definitions of
comfort. However, this standard provides a level of comfort that can be scientifically measured
and achieved. In this standard, it describes the items that affect thermal comfort, which include
air velocity, air temperature, humidity, clothing and activity level.
Table 3: ASHRAE 55 Table of Contents and a brief description of the key components of each
chapter.
Chapter Description
Purpose – Specify combinations of above factors that will produce majority
1
acceptable thermal conditions.
Scope – Includes spaces up to 10,000 ft, regularly occupied by people and
2 focused on the above conditions and not air quality, acoustics, lighting, chemical,
biological or other factors.
3 Definitions
General Requirements – Introduces metabolic rate unit of mets and insulation units
4
of clo.
Conditions that Provide Thermal Comfort – Metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air
temperature, radiant temperature, air speed, humidity.
Metabolic rate: 0.7 (resting) – 1.0 (office) – 1.7 (walking) – 2.0 (light work) – 4.0
5
(heavy work, dancing) – 6.0 (basketball) – 8.0 (wrestling)
Clothing insulation: 0.4 (shirt/shorts) – 0.6 (long pants, shirt) – 1.0 (long pants,
sweater) – 1.3 (long pants, sweater, jacket)
Design Compliance – Complex calculations or graphical method for typical office
6
situations. Increased velocity will allow for higher supply air temperatures.
ASHRAE 55 is the origin for the common space design conditions like 75 F DB, 50% relative
humidity during the summer and 68 F DB/45% relative humidity during the winter. These design
conditions were selected because of the surveys and research done by survey. These
conditions will satisfy the majority of people (not everyone) in typical office situations. ASHRAE
55 takes this process and gives you the tools to find the design conditions for other situations
like clubs, gyms, etc. The standard indicates that there are 6 parameters that will affect thermal
comfort, (1) dry bulb temperature, (2) relative humidity, (3) air velocity, (4) radiant temperature,
(5) activity level and (6) clothing insulation.
The first three parameters were previously introduced. Radiant temperature characterizes the
radiant heat transfer between a body and the space around it (walls, lights, furniture, etc.). For
example, a stage will have spotlights that will emit radiant heat. The radiant temperature at the
stage will be different than in the seating area. The activity level is the metabolic rate of the
people within the space and the metabolic rate is given units of “mets”. The office activity level
is the baseline at 1.0. The clothing insulation is given in units of “clo” and the baseline of 1.0
describes people wearing long pants, long sleeves and a sweater.

The radiant temperature, activity level and clothing insulation will help you to choose the design
conditions (dry bulb temperature, relative humidity and air velocity). At typical activity levels,
you are limited on the air velocity in order to avoid draft. But at higher activity levels, you can
raise the air velocity to compensate for higher dry bulb temperatures. At higher clothing
insulations and radiant temperatures, you will need lower dry bulb temperatures.
The following graph is a graphic method of finding the design conditions for typical office activity
levels. During the winter the design conditions shift to the left, as people wear more clothes
(increased clo). During the summer the design conditions shift to the right, as people wear less
clothes (decreased clo). The design conditions can also shift left with increased activity level
and shift right with decreased activity level.
Figure 2: This figure shows graphically how the six parameters interact with one another to
produce the optimal conditions for maximized thermal comfort.
2.4 ASHRAE 62.1

ASHRAE 62.1 is titled, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality". In commercial/residential
building designs, there has been an emphasis on creating better indoor air quality for the
occupants. People in spaces, dispel CO2 into the HVAC system and if the system is poorly
designed, the CO2 will be re-circulated back throughout the space, creating an unsafe
environment. In addition, bacteria and odors have the possibility to be re-circulated throughout
the space. ASHRAE created this standard, ASHRAE 62.1, to establish minimum qualities of
fresh air that must be distributed to different types of occupied spaces in order to limit re-
circulation of air. This standard also provides additional requirements for air filters and exhaust
requirements for special spaces like bathrooms, chemical storage rooms, darkrooms, kitchens,
etc.

The NCEES Mechanical PE Handbook has an excerpt of some of the minimum ventilation rates
for various spaces. Remember that there are two terms for calculating ventilation rates, (1)
CFM per square foot and (2) CFM per person.
Table 4: ASHRAE 62.1 Table of Contents and a brief description of the key components of
each chapter.
Chapter Description
1 Purpose – Specify minimum ventilation rates and other air quality requirements.
Scope – Includes spaces designed for human occupancy, covers ventilation and
2
air cleaning systems. Does not cover hotels.
Definitions – Breathing zone is between 3’ and 6’ above the ground and 2’ from
3
walls.
Outdoor Air Quality – Document the “fresh” air that you are using to improve indoor
4
air quality.
Systems & Equipment – Exhaust contaminated air at a safe location (minimum
distance from fresh air intakes). Provide controls on ventilation air. Duct surfaces
5 should be clean. Recirculation can stay in same class levels or move up a level,
can’t go down a level.
Procedures – Contains Table 6.2.2.1 Minimum Ventilation Rates for various

occupancies. Table 6.2.2.2 Zone Air Distribution Effectiveness. Also includes
6
instruction for areas with variable loading. Table 6.5 Minimum Exhaust Rates for
various spaces.
7 Construction & System Start-Up – Keeping the ventilation system clean.
8 Operations & Maintenance
9 References
This standard also introduces the term “air Class”. The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook has a table that references this term, so you should be familiar with this term for the
exam. There are four classes of air, Class 1, 2, 3 & 4.
Class 1 Air: Low contaminant concentration, odors and sensory irritants. Examples of class 1
air are the return air from the following spaces, offices, lobbies, libraries, museums, churches,
conference rooms and bedrooms.
Class 2 Air: Moderate contaminant concentration, odors and sensory irritants. Examples of
class 2 air are the return air from art classrooms, nail salons, copy rooms, toilets, weight rooms,
and gyms.
Class 3 Air: Significant contaminant concentration, odors and sensory irritants. Examples of
class 3 air are the return air from mechanical rooms and laundry rooms.
Class 4 Air: Highly objective fumes, dangerous particles, gases. Examples of class 4 air are
return air from labs and chemical storage rooms.

2.5 ASHRAE 90.1

ASHRAE 90.1 is titled, "Energy Standards for Buildings Except Low Rise Residential Buildings".
HVAC systems account for nearly 30% to 50% of a building's energy use in most cases and
sometimes more. A HVAC engineer should be wary of the ongoing energy costs that their
design will have in the future. This standard recognizes the important role HVAC systems play
in energy costs and provides a minimum level of energy efficiency for HVAC systems and other
building systems, with the purpose of reducing the effect on energy usage, fuel usage, which
will ultimately be beneficial on the environment. The minimum energy efficiency requirements
for various HVAC & Refrigeration systems including but not limited to, Building Envelope,
Chillers, Heat Pumps, Air Distribution, Pumps, etc are discussed in this standard. It is not
recommended that any of these references be memorized or studied in great detail. A simple
review of this standard is sufficient, so that the engineer is able to navigate the standard quickly.
Table 5: ASHRAE 90.1 Table of Contents and a brief description of the key components of
each chapter.
Chapter Description
1 Purpose – Minimum energy efficiency requirements of buildings
2 Scope – Does not include low-rise residential.
3 Definitions
4 Administration & Enforcement
Building Envelope – Roof, wall, fenestration – insulation (U-values), fenestration –
5 Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) & Visual transmittance (VT), values are
dependent on the climate zone.
Heating, Ventilating & Air Conditioning – Minimum efficiencies for heat pumps,
6 chillers, fans, pumps, furnaces, heat pumps, economizers, coolers, freezers,
boilers, piping, etc. Required energy savings controls for part load.
Service Water Heating – Minimum efficiencies for water heaters and minimum
7
piping insulation.
8 Power – Transformers, voltage drop, controls.
9 Lighting – Maximum watts per square foot for various spaces and controls.
10 Other Equipment – Motors, elevators, escalators.
11 Energy Cost Budget
2.6 NFPA 90A

NFPA 90A is titled, "Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems".
This standard describes the requirements for air conditioning and ventilating equipment with
respects to Fire Protection. For example, it designates that fire dampers and/or smoke dampers
be placed in duct systems accordingly, to maintain fire ratings of building spaces. It also sets
the requirements for smoke index and flame spread rating of various A/C and Ventilating

equipment. Smoke index is the measure of the smoke concentration of a material when it is
burning. Lower smoke index values indicates less smoke generated while a higher smoke
index indicates more smoke generated. Flame spread rating is an indication of how well a
material burns and spreads a fire. A lower rating indicates that the material does not spread a
fire well, while the opposite is true for a higher rating. It is recommended that the engineer
review the code and to be familiar with it, in the event that a question references the code.
Chapter Description
1 Administration
2 Referenced Publications
3 Definitions
4 HVAC Systems
5 Integration of a Ventilation & Air Conditioning System(s) with Building Construction
6 Controls
7 Acceptance Testing
The code requires a maximum flame spread index of 25. Flame spread index was based on a
baseline of 100, which corresponds to red oak. Metal does not have any flame spread, so it has
a value of 0.
The code also requires a maximum smoke developed index of 50. Smoke developed index was
based on a baseline of 100, which corresponds to red oak. Cement does not create smoke, so
it has an SDI value of 0.
Fire dampers are required at all fire rated walls or partitions of 2 hours or more. These fire
dampers are activated by heat, like a fusible link (wax that burns and releases the damper).
Smoke dampers are required at all smoke barriers and should be activated automatically.
Typically these are activated by a smoke detector and an electric actuator.
2.7 NFPA 90B

NFPA 90B is titled, "Standard for the Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning
Systems". This standard is very similar to NFPA 90A, however it is directed to the topic of
heating and air conditioning as opposed to ventilation. It provides requirements for ducts,
heating panels, boilers, furnaces, A/C equipment, etc. The engineer should review the code
and be familiar with it so that he or she may be able to navigate the code, in the event that a
question arises on the code.

2.8 NFPA 96
NFPA 96 is titled, "Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection for Commercial Cooking
Operations. This standard is very specific and an engineer may not typically encounter this type
of problem unless they conduct work in kitchens. A quick review of the standard should be
conducted though, so that the engineer is aware of the information in the standard. If a kitchen
ventilation topic were to arise, then the engineer will have a resource available to them.
Chapter Description
1 Administration
2 Referenced Publications
3 Definitions
4 General Requirements
5 Hoods
6 Grease Removal Systems -
Exhaust Duct Systems – Ducts have to be sealed and fire rated to contain the
heat, moisture, grease, etc. Ducts have to be routed directly outdoors and have to
7
be sloped to limit the build-up of dangerous, flammable grease. Ducts have to be
easily accessed and cleanable. Ducts should also exhaust safely.
8 Air Movement
9 Auxiliary Equipment
10 Fire Extinguishing Equipment
11 Procedures for the Use, Inspection, Testing and Maintenance Equipment
12 Minimum Safety Requirements for Cooking Equipment
13 Recirculating Systems
14 Solid Fuel Cooking Operations
15 Downdraft Appliance Ventilation Systems
2.9 MONTREAL PROTOCOL

The Montreal Protocol is a treaty that was signed by the United Nations, with the purpose of
protecting the ozone layer by phasing out ozone depleting substances like CFC's and HCFC's,
which were commonly used as refrigerants. Although the Montreal Protocol covers many
substances like Halons, which are used in Fire Protection Systems, this section only covers
those substances pertaining to refrigeration.
CFC's, like the refrigerant R-11, were phased out in 1996. There were exceptions made for a
few CFC's, but the exceptions did not include refrigerants. Because of the ban on CFC's
refrigerant manufacturers created HCFC's as an interim solution to reduce the potential for
ozone depletion by refrigerants.
HCFC's, like the refrigerant R-22, were scheduled to phase out in the following manner.

• January 1, 2004. 35% Reduction in the consumption of HCFC's from the US

baseline.
• January 1, 2010. 75% Reduction in the consumption of HCFC's and new
machines shall no longer use HCFC's like R-22, R-123 is exempt.
• January 1, 2015. 90% Reduction in the consumption of HCFC's from baseline.
• January 1, 2020. 99.5% Reduction in the consumption of HCFC's and no
production of HCFC's like R-22 for existing machines, R-123 is exempt for
existing machines. R-123 is banned on all new equipment.
• January 1, 2030. 100% Reduction in the consumption of HCFC's. R-123
banned for all existing equipment.
3.0 AIR QUALITY AND VENTILATION

Air quality and ventilation standards are primarily defined in ASHRAE 62.1, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. If you read through this code, then you should be well prepared
for any questions on air quality and ventilation. Any calculations on this topic follow the below
equation. In this equation the amount of fresh air required in an indoor space depends on the
space type, amount of people in the space and the area of the space.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑅 ∗ (# 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒) + 𝑅 ∗ (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ; 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒( )
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐶𝐹𝑀)
You should be able to navigate ASHRAE 62.1 to find the fresh air rate based on the number of
people and the fresh rate based on the floor area to complete the above equation. The sum of
these two rates result in the minimum required fresh air flow into the space. You won’t have the
code during the exam, but it is possible that the exam will have a table excerpt that you will
need to use.
The values will vary based on occupancy types and activities that the space is used for. For
example, an office and a classroom have different rates because of the types of people and the
activity level of the people in the different spaces.
𝑐𝑓𝑚 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 → 𝑅 = 10 ; 𝑅 = 0.12
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝐹
𝑐𝑓𝑚 𝐶𝐹𝑀
𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 → 𝑅 = 5 ; 𝑅 = 0.06
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝐹

ASHRAE 62.1 also defines the minimum exhaust flow rates for air that should not be
recirculated into the building. For example, the exhaust airflow for a bathroom, janitor’s closet,
locker rooms and kitchens are defined here.
Location Exhaust Rate Location Exhaust Rate

Janitor Closet 1.0 CFM/SF Kitchenette .3 CFM/SF
50-70
Public Toilet Pet Shop 0.9 CFM/SF
CFM/toilet
ASHRAE 62.1 also defines the quality of fresh air based on the location and also the filtration
provided. The fresh air intake must be located a sufficient distance away from bad air sources
as shown in the table below.
Fresh Air Intake

Distance (feet)
Distance From
Cooling tower exhaust 15
Class 2 exhaust 10
Class 3 exhaust 15
Class 4 exhaust 30
The fresh air must also be filtered before being sent into the space. The fresh air filtration
typically provided at a minimum is MERV-6, but MERV 8, 11 and 13 can also be provided based
on the occupancy and the user. MERV stands for Minimum Efficiency Reporting Values. The
filters must have a certain filtration efficiency for various particulate sizes. The better the
efficiency, the higher the MERV.
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Min. Pressure Drop
MERV
(0.3-1.0 microns) (1.0-3.0 microns) (3.0-10 microns) (in. wg)
MERV-6 N/A N/A 35-49.9% 0.6
MERV-8 N/A N/A 70-84.9% 0.6
MERV-11 N/A 65-79.9% >85% 1.0
MERV-13 <75% >90% >85% 1.4
For context, a virus can have a diameter of 0.12 microns. Pollen can range in size from 10 to
40 microns. Mold can range from 10 to 30 microns, dusts can be as small as 0.5 microns and
fibers can be as small as 1.0 micron. You should also notice that as you increase the MERV
rating, the pressure drop through the filter increases.

4.0 VIBRATION CONTROL

In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, many pieces of equipment have moving parts that will vibrate.
You must be able to properly isolate or dampen the moving parts to avoid damaging the
equipment and the structures that support the equipment. In addition, proper vibration control
will also lessen the noise from the equipment. Make sure you read your ASHRAE Applications
and ASHRAE Fundamentals reference books in order to gain experience on vibration control.
These references contain much more information than what is needed for the exam, so do not
worry if you don’t understand everything. You should just understand the main concepts
presented in this book and be able to answer experience type questions based on these
concepts.
ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 – Chapter 8 Sound and Vibration
ASHRAE HVAC Applications 2015 – Chapter 48 Noise and Vibration Control
Vibration control consists of selecting a vibration isolator that has a low natural frequency. This
consists of a spring with a low natural frequency. The spring supports the weight of the
equipment and when this occurs the spring has a static deflection. This is the difference in
length of the spring from when it supports the weight of the equipment and when it is free.
4.1 SPRING SYSTEMS

A spring is used as the basis to analyze vibration control systems. A spring system is described
as a system with a spring constant or stiffness (k) and a mass (m). The stiffness is used to
characterize the amount of force required to cause a certain amount of deflection in the spring.
This is shown in the equation below.
𝐹 =𝑘∗𝑥
𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐹 [𝑁]; 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 [𝑁/𝑚]; 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛[𝑚]; 𝑁 =
𝑠
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐹 [𝑙𝑏𝑓]; 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 [𝑙𝑏𝑓/𝑖𝑛]; 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛[𝑖𝑛]
The deflection can be seen in the following figure on the left. The previous equation does not
take into account time. The previous equation assumes there is a constant force, F. But if the
force imparted on the mass and spring is at a single moment in time, then the result will be an
oscillation of the mass up and down as the potential energy due to the compression or
elongation of the spring balance with the kinetic energy of the moving mass. The following
figure shows how the oscillation of the spring can be modeled as a sinusoidal, periodic function.

Figure 3: Vibrations can be modeled as a spring. This figure assumes an undamped spring
that will oscillate until an external force is applied.
The stiffness can also be represented as a function of gravity, mass and the deflection.
𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 (𝑘𝑔)𝑔
𝑘 = 𝑠
𝑠 ∆ (𝑚)
The total energy in an undamped spring remains constant based on the following equations. An
undamped spring means that there are no frictional forces or damping forces.
1 1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 ; 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
The total energy is equal to the potential energy of the spring at max displacement. At this point
the kinetic energy of the mass is equal to zero because the velocity is equal to zero.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝐸 @ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡; 𝐾𝐸 =0
The total energy is equal to the kinetic energy of the mass at equilibrium. At this point the
potential energy of the spring is equal to zero, because the displacement is equal to zero.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝐸 @ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚; 𝑃𝐸 =0
4.2 NATURAL FREQUENCY

The period and natural frequency of the periodic, sinusoidal function will depend on the mass
and the spring stiffness. The formula that governs this equation is shown below. The term
natural frequency is used because this frequency is only dependent on the properties of the
mass and stiffness. Later in this section, forced or disturbing frequencies will be introduced and

these frequencies are due to external forces acting upon the spring system. It is critical to
determine the natural frequency of the mechanical system, because if a forced or disturbing
frequency is close to the natural frequency then resonance will occur and vibrations will be
magnified.
1 𝑘
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝑓 = (𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋 𝑚
1 𝑘𝑔
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝑓 = (𝐻𝑧)
2𝜋 𝑚
Once you have found the correct k-value, then you can use the k-value to find the
corresponding natural frequency with the previous equations. Another way frequency can be
expressed is in radians format. In this format the 2π term is removed.
𝑘 𝑘𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜔 = 𝑜𝑟 ;
𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The units can be found to be units as shown in the dimensional analysis below. The units for
radians are dimensionless, since the definition of radians is the circular arc divided by the radius
of the arc. This results in meters divided by meters for US units.
𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚
𝑘 𝑁/𝑚 /𝑚 1 1 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑐(𝑚)
𝜔 = → → 𝑠 → → ; (𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 )
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑚)
The following shows the dimensional analysis for US units.
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔 ∗ 32.2 1 1
𝑓𝑡 𝑠
𝜔 = → → → ;
𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑠
In the HVAC field, the natural frequency is found through the following equation. This equation
states that the natural frequency is a function of the static deflection of the isolator that is
controlling the vibration. Static implies that the HVAC equipment is not turned on, for example
the fan or pump is not on and the shaft is not rotating.
1 𝑔 (𝑚/𝑠 ) 0.5
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝑓 = =
2𝜋 ∆ (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠) ∆ (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
1 𝑔 (𝑖𝑛/𝑠 ) 3.13
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝑓 = =
2𝜋 ∆ (𝑖𝑛) ∆ (𝑖𝑛)

4.3 FORCED VIBRATION

Once the natural frequency of the system is found, then the forced vibration acting upon the
system must be determined. The natural frequency again only depends on the mass and spring
stiffness properties. Forced vibration depends on the external forces applied to the system. In
most cases this is due to the rotation of an item, like a rotating shaft. The speed of this shaft is
usually given in RPM, which can be converted to frequency with the following equation.
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜔 = (𝑅𝑃𝑀) ∗ = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Frequency (Hz) is simply number of cycles or revolutions completed in a second. This

frequency can also be converted to radians by dividing by the 2π term.
1 1
=𝑓 = 𝜔
𝑇 2𝜋
This frequency is called the disturbing frequency or the forced frequency. The natural frequency
and the disturbing frequency will determine the amount of damping required, as shown in the
next section.
Once the natural and disturbing frequencies have been determined, it is necessary to design an
appropriate damping system to reduce unwanted vibrations. The previous discussions and
equations assumed that the mechanical system was undamped. If no energy is lost or
dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation, the vibration is categorized as
undamped vibration. If any energy is lost, then it is called damped vibration. In many physical
systems, the amount of damping is so small that it can be disregarded for most engineering
purposes. However, consideration of damping becomes extremely important in analyzing
vibratory systems near resonance.
Figure 4: A spring system can be modeled similar to the undamped system, except for the
addition of the damping coefficient.
There are three main types of damping, (1) Coulomb Damping, (2) Hysteresis or Inherent
Damping and (3) Viscous Damping.
(1) Coulomb Damping: This type of damping force is constant throughout the entire
displacement and also does not depend on the velocity of the system. This type of damping is
also called dry friction damping. The best example is a mass moving on a surface. The
frictional force acting upon the mass does not depend on the speed or location of the mass.
This type of damping is not used on the PE exam.

(2) Hysteresis or Inherent Damping: This type of damping uses the elastic properties of
elastomers to dampen vibrations. This is typical of rubber pads or rubber bushings.
(3) Viscous Damping: This type of damping is used on the PE exam. This type of damping is
typical of spring vibration isolators. This type of damping changes its force in response to the
velocity and deflection from equilibrium. The following discussions only apply to viscous
damping.
The damping value is shown in the previous figure as a damping coefficient labeled “C”. This
value has the units as shown below.
𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐶 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐶 =
𝑖𝑛.
The critical damping coefficient is the value that causes the machine design system to most
quickly return back to equilibrium. This value is found through the following equation. Notice
that similar to the natural frequency, the critical damping coefficient is only a function of “k” and
“mass”.
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐶 = 2√𝑘 ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → ( 𝑠 ) ∗ 𝑘𝑔) → →
𝑚 𝑠 𝑠
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → 𝐶 = 2 𝑘 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → ∗ ∗ 𝑙𝑏𝑚 → →
𝑓𝑡 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
The actual damping coefficient will be determined by the manufacturer of the vibration
dampener or spring.
4.4 DAMPING RATIO

Once the critical damping coefficient and actual damping coefficient are found, then the
damping ratio can be computed. The damping ratio has dimensionless units and it describes
how slowly or quickly a system is returned to its original conditions after a temporary change to
the original conditions. The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the
critical damping.
𝐶 𝐶
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 → 𝜁 = =
𝐶 2√𝑘 ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

The ratio will determine the damping classification of the machine design system into one of the
four categories, (1) Undamped, (2) Underdamped, (3) Critically Damped or (4) Overdamped.
4.4.1 UNDAMPED
If there is no damping then the damping ratio will equal 0. This situation was previously
discussed and is called undamped. There will be no decay in the sinusoid and the amplitude of
the sinusoid will remain the same as time progresses. The undamped equation was previously
given, but is shown again here in a different format, since natural frequency has been
introduced.
𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 𝜁 = 0
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜓) ;
𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = +𝑦 ;
𝜔
𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑦 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑦
𝜓 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑦 /𝜔
4.4.2 UNDERDAMPED
If the ratio of the actual damping and critical damping is in-between 0 and 1, then the system will
be underdamped. The sinusoid will decay slowly and with oscillations. The equation that
governs an underdamped system is shown by the characterizing function below.
𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 0 < 𝜁 < 1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜓)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑦 𝜔
𝜓 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑦 + 𝜁𝑦 𝜔
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 → 𝜔 = 𝜔 1−𝜁
1 1
=𝑓 = 𝜔
𝑇 2𝜋

4.4.3 CRITICALLY DAMPED

This classification occurs when the actual damping equals the critical damping value. The
sinusoid will exponentially return back to equilibrium.
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 𝜁 = 1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑒 +𝑡∗𝐶 𝑒
𝑟 = 𝜔 ; 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
4.4.4 OVERDAMPED
The final classification occurs when the damping ratio is greater than 1. The machine design
system will decay exponentially back to equilibrium but not as fast as the critically damped
classification.
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 → 𝜁 > 1
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑒 +𝐶 𝑒
𝑟 = − 𝜁 − 𝜁 − 1 𝜔 ; 𝑟 = −(𝜁 + 𝜁 − 1)𝜔 ;
𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
The equations for the constants are not shown because this would make the equations take
longer than 6 minutes to solve on the PE exam. The constants are a function of initial
displacement and velocity. In most problems, you will be given the constants in order to focus
on the more critical concepts in these equations like damping ratio, natural frequency and
damped frequency.
Figure 5: There are four classifications of damped systems that depend on the damping ratio.
This graph shows the different effects of the different damping classifications.

4.5 TRANSMISSIBILITY
Transmissibility is a term used to describe the effectiveness of the damping. Transmissibility is
the ratio of the vibrational force that is measured after damping to the ratio of the vibrational
force entering the machine design system. A low transmissibility means that the damping
system is effective as opposed to a high transmissibility means that the damping system is
ineffective. The equation to determine transmissibility is shown below. In this equation a new
term called Frequency Ratio is introduced. This is the ratio of the damped frequency to the
natural frequency. The other term shown is the damping ratio.
1 + 4𝜁 𝑟
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
(1 − 𝑟 ) + 4𝜁 𝑟
𝜔
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 → 𝑟 = ;
𝜔
The equation above can also be shown in graphical terms. There may be a chance that you will
be given this graph on the exam and a question may involve finding the transmissibility given
the damping ratio and frequency ratio.
Also you should be familiar with typical damping factors. Rubbers and neoprene pads have
larger damping factors of around 0.05 to 0.15. Steel and other metal springs have order of
magnitudes lower damping factors around 0.005. This means that to achieve a lower
transmissibility for these metal springs, you need a smaller frequency ratio as compared to
rubbers and neoprene pads that will need a larger frequency ratio.
For really small damping ratios, the transmissibility is reduced to the following equation.
1
𝑇𝑅 (𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔) =
1−𝑟

Figure 6: This graph shows the transmissibility as a function of various frequency ratios for
different damping ratios.
4.6 MAGNIFICATION FACTOR

The magnification factor is focuses on the transmissibility values greater than one in the
transmissibility graph. The magnification factor indicates a situation when the forced vibration is
magnified by the damping system.
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑇𝑅 > 1
Transmissibility values greater than one occur when the following two requirements are met, (1)
the damping ratio is less than 1 and (2) when the frequency ratio is less than one. These
requirements are met in the upper left quadrant of the transmissibility graph. The magnification
factor increases exponentially in this portion of the graph. Transmissibility begins to be less
than one when moving from left to right, when the frequency ratio is equal to root 2.
𝑇𝑅 = 1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 = √2
𝜔
𝑟= = √2
𝜔
This point is an important location to remember. This point indicates that transmissibility will
become less than 1 when the damped frequency is root 2 times greater than the natural
frequency. This is the minimum damped frequency.

Figure 7: This figure reiterates that magnification occurs in the upper left quadrant and isolation
occurs in the lower right quadrant.
4.7 VIBRATION ISOLATION
In practice, your design should have vibration isolation to protect the equipment from unwanted
vibrations. For the purposes of the exam you should be familiar with the vibration isolator
selection process. The best free location for this information is the following manufacturer’s
websites.
Karman Rubber: http://karman.com/
Tech Products: https://www.novibes.com/
Shock and Vibration Components: http://www.vibrationmounts.com/
The basic process of selecting a vibration isolator will also be discussed next. Vibration
isolators are selected to reduce the vibration from equipment by storing the incoming energy.
The first step is to find the disturbing vibration frequency. This is the frequency at which the
equipment is vibrating. For example, fans, pumps and motors will have a frequency equal to
their RPM. A typical rotational speed for motors is 1,800 RPM. This corresponds to a
frequency of 30 HZ.

𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑓 = 1,800 ∗ = 30 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
If there is more than one disturbing frequency, then you should find the lowest frequency. If the
vibration isolator is designed for the lowest frequency, then all other higher frequencies will also
be isolated.
The next step is to choose the transmissibility of the vibration isolator. The transmissibility is the
amount of vibrations that are transmitted through the isolation system. This value is the inverse
of the isolation provided by the vibration isolator. The amount of transmissibility selected will
depend on the code requirements or the sensitivity required of the machine design.
Isolation Provided Transmissibility

100% 0%
90% 10%
80% 20%
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (%) = 100 − 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (%)
Once you have selected the transmissibility, the next step is to find the natural frequency of the
vibration isolator that is required to achieve this transmissibility. Typically you can use the
following equation for negligible damping.
1
𝑇𝑅 (𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔) =
1−𝑟
𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 > 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑓
𝜔
𝑟= → 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜔
−1
𝑇𝑅 (𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔) = ;
1−𝑟
−1 𝑓
𝑇𝑅 = ; 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝑅 = −1
𝑓 𝑓
1−
𝑓
𝑓 1 𝑓 (𝑓 )
𝑇𝑅 + 1 = 𝑇𝑅 →1+ = → (𝑓 ) =
𝑓 𝑇𝑅 𝑓 1 + 1/𝑇𝑅
𝑓
𝑓 =
1 + 1/𝑇𝑅
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡 (𝑇𝑅 < 0)

The following is provided for completeness, but in most cases the frequency ratio for isolation
will need to be greater than one. If the frequency ratio is less than one, then magnification
occurs.
𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 < 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑓
1
𝑇𝑅 = ;
1−𝑟
1 𝑓
𝑇𝑅 = ; 𝑇𝑅 − 𝑇𝑅 =1
𝑓 𝑓
1−
𝑓
𝑓 1 𝑓 (𝑓 )
𝑇𝑅 − 1 = 𝑇𝑅 →1− = → (𝑓 ) =
𝑓 𝑇𝑅 𝑓 1 − 1/𝑇𝑅
𝑓
𝑓 =
1 − 1/𝑇𝑅
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡 (𝑇𝑅 > 0)
Finally, you can use the required natural frequency to select the vibration isolator. There are
other factors that come into play when selecting a vibration isolator like material life, corrosion,
support weight and deflection. For the purposes of the exam you should be familiar with the
support weight and the deflection amount.
Support Weight: The vibration isolator must be capable of supporting the weight of the machine
design equipment when it is not vibrating.
Static Deflection: The isolator will also deflect from its equilibrium deflection based on the
natural frequency of the isolator. This is the minimum required deflection to obtain the required
natural frequency. An isolator with a larger deflection will have a lower natural frequency.
3.13
𝑈𝑆 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 → ∆𝑥 [in] = ;
𝑓
Stiffness (k): Once you have the minimum deflection, then you can find the required maximum
stiffness of the vibration isolator with the following equation.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑙𝑏𝑠)
𝑘=
∆𝑥 (𝑖𝑛)
Example: As an example, if you determine that you require a transmissibility of 5% and the
lowest disturbing frequency is 30 Hz, then determine the required vibration isolator deflection.
First, use the transmissibility equation to find the required natural frequency of the vibration
isolator.

𝑓 30 𝐻𝑧
𝑓 = → = 6.55 𝐻𝑧
1 + 1/𝑇𝑅 1 + 1/.05
Next, use the deflection equation.
3.128
∆𝑥 [in] = = 0.23 𝑖𝑛;
6.55
5.0 ACOUSTICS
In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, acoustical engineering is used to determine the sound levels
in occupied spaces and around HVAC & Refrigeration equipment. Sound is a sequence of
waves that moves through air. The frequency of the waves determines the pitch of the sound.
A high frequency corresponds to a high pitched sound and a low frequency corresponds to a
low pitched sound. The loudness of the sound is a measure of the pressure of the wave. In
practice, sound is typically measured in terms of the unit decibel [DB].
5.1 SOUND FUNDAMENTALS

Before you get to the practical acoustical concepts, you first need to understand some basic
sound fundamentals. Sound is measured in terms of levels. This means that sound is
measured relative to a base level. In HVAC, there are two sources of noise, (1) rotating
machines like fans and pumps and (2) air turbulence.
(1) HVAC Equipment: For fans, pumps, compressors and other equipment that generate noise,
the typical process involves getting the manufacturer’s sound data and then calculating the
sound at important locations.
(1a) 5.2 Indoor Equipment Sound Calculations: For indoor equipment, this could involve
calculating the sound transmission from a fan through the ductwork and to the space where
people are located.
(1b) 5.3 Outdoor Equipment Sound Calculations: For outdoor equipment, this could involve
calculating the sound as it travels from the equipment to a building window or property line.
(2) 5.4 Indoor Air Turbulence Sound Calculations: Air turbulence is simply a function of air
velocity. This sound calculation is typically done for sizing ducts and diffusers. There are two
tables that you should know for the PE Exam, but only one of the tables is provided in the
NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook.
The first fundamental concept that you need to understand about sound is that it covers a huge
range from the pico (10-12) range all the way up to the mega (106) range. This is why sound is
measured in decibel levels. Decibels are shown in a logarithmic scale. There are two ways to
calculate the decibel level, (1) Sound Pressure and (2) Sound Power.

5.1.1 DECIBEL LEVEL AS A FUNCTION OF SOUND POWER

Sound can be provided to you in the format of sound power. Sound power is in units watts.
Sound power is the total amount of energy leaving the source per unit of time. Since the levels
of sound power cover a huge range, the sound power is often represented in the units of
decibels, which requires a reference point. The reference point for power is a pico-watt.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 1 𝑝𝑊 = 1 𝑥 10 𝑊
The decibel equation has a factor of 10 in the front of the logarithmic function. Do not get sound
power confused with electrical power. A speaker may take 100 watts of electrical power, but the
amount of sound power generated is significantly less. The following example will give you an
idea of a simple calculation.
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 44 𝑊, 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑊 44
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 10 log( ) = 10 log = 126 𝑑𝐵
1 𝑥 10 1 𝑥 10
5.1.2 DECIBEL LEVEL AS A FUNCTION OF SOUND PRESSURE

Sound can also be displayed via sound pressure. Sound pressure is measured in units of
Pascals. Sound pressure is the typical way sound is measured. Microphones and our ears
respond to sound pressure. As you get closer to the noise source, the sound pressure
increases and as you move away, the sound pressure decreases. For the exam, just be careful
as to whether or not the problem is giving you sound power or sound pressure. The reference
point for pressure is 20 𝜇𝑃𝑎.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 → 20 𝜇𝑃𝑎 = 20 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎
The decibel equation has a factor of 20 in the front of the logarithmic function. Do not get sound
pressure confused with air pressure. The following example will give you an idea of a simple
calculation.
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0.005 𝑃𝑎, 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
___ 𝑃𝑎 0.005 𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 20 log( ) → 20 log = 48 𝑑𝐵
20 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎 20 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎
5.1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOUND POWER AND PRESSURE

The conversion between sound power and sound pressure is shown below.
4𝜋𝑟
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 10 log
𝐴

This shows that the sound pressure that you measure at a distance “r” away from a piece of
equipment will vary by the square of the distance. The A0 term is a reference area, which is
typically 1 square meter or 1 square foot. The reference term is always needed in order to work
in the decibel units. This equation is not provided in the handbook, but the main concept that
you need to understand is that sound leaves the source in a spherical manner. As the sound
leaves, its sound pressure gets diluted as it now must be applied to larger and larger spheres.
The sound level is diluted in relationship to the distance squared.
Figure 8: This figure shows a sound source in the center of the sphere. The total amount of
sound leaving the source is the sound power. The sound intensity at a certain location at a
distance of “r” away from the source can be measured to have a sound pressure in units Pascal.
5.1.4 SOUND FREQUENCY

Sound can be characterized by sinusoidal waveforms. These waveforms will have varying
frequencies. For example, a pump that operates at 1,750 revolutions per minute will have a
frequency of 29.17 Hz. There will be sound leaving the pump at 29.17 Hz. However, there will
be additional sound frequencies because the other pump materials and parts will vibrate at
different frequencies.
𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 1,750 ∗ = 29.17 = 29.17 𝐻𝑧
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 𝑠
5.2 INDOOR EQUIPMENT SOUND CALCULATIONS

Equipment produces sound not at just one frequency. The manufacturer of the equipment will
produce sound tables, which provides sound levels at a range of frequencies. A sample
equipment sound performance data is shown below.
Sound Performance Data
Frequency [HZ] 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000

Sound Level
51 60 67 68 70 71 61 52
[DB]
Equipment sound performance data is often simplified to a single DB level. In order to convert
the performance data to a single level, the sound levels at the various frequencies are weighted.
The following table shows the A-weighting, which is used to give sound levels at lower
frequencies a lower rating. This is because sound levels at lower frequencies are not as easily
heard by the human ear.
Sound Performance Data with A-Weighting
Frequency
63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
[HZ]
Sound Level
51 60 67 68 70 71 61 52
[DB]
A-Weighting -26 -16 -9 -3 0 1 1 -1

Sound Level
25 44 58 65 70 72 62 51
[DBA]
Once the DBA values are found, the sound levels at the various frequencies can be combined
with the following equation.
𝐿 = 10 ∗ log (10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 𝑣10 + 10 )
𝐿 = 75 𝐷𝐵𝐴
There are multiple ways of combining sound at various frequencies, like the C-weighting. You
don’t need to memorize these weighting but you should be familiar with the weightings, which
are located in ASHRAE Fundamentals 2017 – Chapter 8 Sound and Vibration.
5.2.1 COMBINING MULTIPLE NOISE SOURCES

The previous equation can also be used to find the equivalent sound level of two point sources,
like two condensing units. Here is a generic form of the equation that is used to combine
multiple sources of noise.
𝐿 = 10 ∗ log (10 + 10 … + 10 )
In this equation, it is assumed that the sources are already in a combined sound level, which
takes into account the sound level at various frequencies. For example, if two sources with
sound levels of 70 dB and 90 dB are next to each other, what is the combined sound level?
𝐿 = 10 ∗ log (10 + 10 )

𝐿 = 90.04
You should notice that if the sound levels are far apart from one another, then the combined
sound level will most nearly be the sound level of the highest source as shown in the previous
example. If the sound levels are exactly the same, then the following will result will be the
addition of a few dB levels.
𝐿 = 10 ∗ log (10 + 10 )
𝐿 = 93.01
The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook does not contain this formula. The handbook
has a shortened version that you can also use. The handbook basically takes the past two
concepts, (1) If two or more sound sources have a large decibel separation then the combined
sound level will be equal to the largest sound level and (2) If two or more sound sources have
the same decibel level, then the combined sound level will be equal to three plus the sound
level of one source.
Difference Between Amount Added to Highest Level to Example Example

Levels Combined Achieve Combined Level Sources Combined
0–1 3 90, 91, 90 91 + 3 = 94
2–4 2 90, 92, 94 94 + 2 = 96
5–9 1 90, 95, 99 99 + 1 = 100
10 or more 0 90, 100, 110 110 + 0 = 110
5.2.2 REDUCING SOUND LEVELS

Sound levels can be reduced through the use of silencers and insulation. These types of sound
reducing equipment, like duct silencers are provided with performance data similar to
mechanical equipment.
Sound Performance of Duct Silencer
Frequency [HZ] 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
Sound Level
-5 -6 -8 -8 -9 -6 6 -5
Reduction [DB]
In order to calculate the sound reduction, simply subtract the reduction levels from the sound
levels of the mechanical equipment.

5.2.3 NC RATING
The term noise criteria or NC is a curve that is used to describe the sound level at various
frequencies with a single term. There are different sets of curves like Noise Criterion Curves
(NC), Noise Rating Curves (NR) and Room Criteria Curves (RC). For the exam, you should
understand what the curves represent and should be very familiar with the curves in the NCEES
Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. The NC curves are located in ASHRAE Fundamentals
2017 – Chapter 8 Sound and Vibration. A table of the NC curves is also presented below for
your use. The RC rating curves
Noise Criteria 63 HZ 125 HZ 250 HZ 500 HZ 1000 HZ 2000 HZ 4000 HZ 8000 HZ

NC-15 47 DB 36 DB 29 DB 22 DB 17 DB 14 DB 12 DB 11 DB
In the HVAC & Refrigeration field, fans, diffusers and terminal units are closely located in the
space. As previously discussed in Section 10.0 Systems and Components, the diffusers are
selected to reduce noise. But in this section we are focused on the noise in ducting systems
from fans and terminal units. Many times, sound attenuators are provided to dampen the noise
from fans and terminal units to achieve a certain NC rating in the space. In order to achieve a
certain NC rating, all DB levels at every frequency must be below the values presented in the
table above.

Figure 9: This figure shows the NC curves graphically. A room or space must be lower than all
points of the curve in order to meet that NC rating.
As an example, consider the following points taken from a decibel meter within a room.
These points are graphed alongside the NC curves. Although most points meet NC-50, there is
one point that only meets NC-55. Thus this room would be classified as meeting NC-55.
Figure 10: The data points shown on the graph are the decibel readings within a space. The
space is shown to meet NC-55. Most points are below NC-50, but there is a decibel reading at
500 Hz that does not meet NC-50. That point meets NC-55, thus the entire space is rated at
NC-55.

5.2.4 SAMPLE CALCULATION

A fan has the following sound power decibel levels at the below frequencies.
63 HZ 125 HZ 250 HZ 500 HZ 1000 HZ 2000 HZ 4000 HZ 8000 HZ
Fan-1 83 DB 79 DB 75 DB 72 DB 71 DB 70 DB 69 DB 68 DB
The fan is connected to a 24 foot long rectangular duct silencer. The duct silencer is
constructed of fiberglass and one layer of 5/8 inch gypsum board. What is the decibel level at
the end of the duct silencer at 250 Hz?
For this problem, you need your NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook. In the handbook
is a table that indicates for a rectangular duct wrapped with fiberglass and one layer of 5/8 inch
gypsum board there will be an insertion loss of 6 dB at 250 Hz for every 12 feet. Since there
are 24 feet then the insertion loss will be 12 dB. Insertion loss is the loss of sound power as a
result of inserting in a component into the transmission path.
250 𝐻𝑧 → 75 𝑑𝐵 − 2(6 𝑑𝐵 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠) = 63 𝑑𝐵
The correct answer is most nearly, 63 decibels.
5.3 OUTDOOR EQUIPMENT SOUND CALCULATIONS

HVAC & Refrigeration equipment like condensers and cooling towers generate undesirable
noise. Often times, clients and architects request that mechanical equipment is located a
sufficient distance away from occupied areas in order to limit noise for occupants. The following
quick calculations are used to determine the sound level from a piece of equipment as a
function of distance from the equipment.
The sound levels are also dependent on the equipment’s surroundings. If the equipment is
suspended, then sound will propagated through the air in a spherical pattern as shown in the
figure below.
Directional 𝑸 𝑸
Direction 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎
Factor (Q) 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
Spherical 1 0.2821 m or 0.925 ft -11.0 or -0.67 dB
Half-sphere 2 0.3989 m or 1.308 ft -7.98 or 2.33 dB
Quarter-sphere 4 0.5642 m or 1.851 ft -4.97 or 5.35 dB
Eighth-sphere 8 0.7979 m or 2.617 ft -1.96 or 8.36 dB

Figure 11: Spherical sound propagation
At a distance of 0’ from the equipment, the sound level is as stated by the equipment
manufacturer. The sound level at a distance away from the equipment is simplified by the
equation below for a spherical sound propagation.
𝐿 =𝐿 − 20 ∗ log 𝑥 − 0.67
𝐿 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 [𝐷𝐵]; 𝐿 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝐷𝐵]
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝑓𝑡 ]
Figure 12: Half spherical projection
The sound level at a distance away from the equipment is simplified by the equation below for a
half-spherical sound propagation. This is typical of a piece of equipment located on the ground
and not surrounded by walls.
𝐿 =𝐿 − 20 ∗ log 𝑥 + 2.33

Figure 13: Quarter spherical projection
The sound level at a distance away from the equipment is simplified by the equation below for a
quarter-spherical sound propagation. This is typical of a piece of equipment located on the
ground with a wall on one side.
𝐿 =𝐿 − 20 ∗ log 𝑥 + 5.35
Figure 14: Eighth spherical propagation
The sound level at a distance away from the equipment is simplified by the equation below for
an eighth-spherical sound propagation. This is typical of a piece of equipment located on the
ground with walls on two sides.
𝐿 =𝐿 − 20 ∗ log 𝑥 + 8.36
The NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook does not have these equations, but you
should be familiar with the concept that the sound levels will be reduced in accordance with the
distance squared. In addition, you should also be familiar with calculating the sound reduction
due to the construction of a chiller room.
For example, the following table shows the reduction of the sound levels of a chiller located in
either a 8” CMU chiller room or a 6” solid concrete building.

63 HZ 125 HZ 250 HZ 500 HZ 1000 HZ 2000 HZ 4000 HZ 8000 HZ
Chiller 99 DB 98 DB 92 DB 88 DB 78 DB 70 DB 69 DB N/A
8” CMU -35 -35 -41 -44 -50 -57 -64 N/A
6” Conc. -40 -40 -40 -49 -58 -67 -76 N/A

Chiller w
64 DB 63 DB 51 DB 44 DB 28 DB 13 DB 5 DB N/A
8” CMU
Chiller w
59 DB 58 DB 52 DB 39 DB 20 DB 3 DB 0 DB N/A
6” Conc.
Lastly, larger outdoor HVAC equipment typically provide their sound pressure levels at a
distance of 30 feet or 10 meters away from the equipment. The sound level will decrease by 6
dB as the distance is doubled. This does not take into account any directional factor. This
should only be used as a rule of thumb.
For example, if the sound rating is 75 dB at 10 meters. Then the sound rating will be 69 dB at
20 meters and 63 dB at 40 meters. You can find the sound level at any distance, once you
know the sound level at one distance with this equation. Again, this assumes no directional
factor. This equation uses the standard distance of 10 meters, which is the typical distance that
HVAC equipment is tested.
𝑋 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐿 @ =𝐿 @ − 20 log
10 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
5.4 INDOOR TURBULENCE SOUND CALCULATIONS
Indoor turbulence sound calculations are based primarily on velocity. If you remember from the
Fluid Mechanics section, the Reynolds number determines whether a fluid is laminar or
turbulent. The Reynolds number is based on velocity, hydraulic diameter and the viscosity of
the fluid. In the HVAC field, you are only concerned with air, so that constrains the viscosity of
the fluid. The hydraulic diameter is the duct diameter or the diameter that characterizes the free
area of a diffuser or louver. Unfortunately there is no equation in the Mechanical PE Reference
Handbook that shows the relationship between velocity and sound, but there are two tables.
One table is shown in the handbook and the other is not included in the handbook. Please
review both of these tables, the source of these tables is shown below.
2015 ASHRAE HVAC Applications Chapter 48 Noise and Vibration
• Table 8 Maximum Recommended Duct Airflow Velocities to Achieve Specified Acoustic

Design Criteria
• Table 9 Maximum Recommended Air Velocities at Neck of Supply Diffusers or Return
Registers to Achieve Specified Acoustical Design Criteria

These tables help you to design your diffusers and ducts to achieve a certain room noise
criteria rating.
Another important concept that you need to understand is that this type of noise is based on the
amount of turbulence and turbulence will increase at fittings. If you have elbows, expansions,
contractions, flex duct or any type of ducting that will cause the air stream to not flow smoothly,
then the sound will greatly increase. The same source has figures that show the relationship
between sound, velocity and the type of fittings. Please also review this chapter and figures.
2015 ASHRAE HVAC Applications Chapter 48 Noise and Vibration
• Fig. 11 Velocity-Generated Sound of Duct Transitions

• Fig. 12 Velocity-Generated Sound of Elbows
• Fig. 13 Velocity-Generated Sound of 24 by 24 in. Volume Damper
• Table 10 Decibels to Be Added to Diffuser Sound Rating to Allow for Throttling of
Volume Damper - Damper Pressure Ratio


6.1 PROBLEM 1 - REFERENCES/CODES
Background: A new chiller is being installed in a mechanical room. The chiller has two
separate refrigerant circuits. One refrigerant circuit has 100 lbs of R-134a and the second
circuit has 200 lbs of R-134a.
Problem: What value is most nearly the minimum refrigerant exhaust system capacity in CFM?
(a) 750 CFM
(b) 1,000 CFM
(c) 1,400 CFM
(d) 1,700 CFM

Background: In the topic of thermal comfort, there are many factors that an HVAC engineer
must take into account.
Problem: Thermal comfort is a function of all of the following variables except for:
(a) Fresh air
(b) Relative humidity
(c) Air velocity
(d) Clothing


Background: Air conditioned buildings serving occupants are required to have fresh air in
accordance with the appropriate standards and codes.
Problem: Which of the following is most likely not a result of providing conditioned fresh air to a
building in a hot and humid climate as opposed to not providing fresh air?
(a) Increased energy costs.
(b) Lower CO2 levels.
(c) Cooler temperatures
(d) Lower concentration of air contaminants.

Problem: Which of the following is true?
(a) Mechanical insulation shall have a maximum flame spread index of 25 and a maximum
smoke developed index of 50.
(b) Mechanical insulation shall have a maximum flame spread index of 50 and a maximum
(c) Mechanical insulation shall have a maximum flame spread index of 25 and a maximum
(d) Mechanical insulation shall have a maximum flame spread index of 50 and a maximum


Background: A new public toilet room is planned for a new theater. The toilet room will have 10
new toilets, 5 for women and 5 for men.
Problem: What is the minimum size of the exhaust system in accordance with ASHRAE 62.1.
(a) 350 CFM
(b) 500 CFM
(c) 700 CFM
(d) 1000 CFM
6.6 PROBLEM 6 – REFRIGERATION CODES

Background: A chiller has two separate refrigeration cycles, with independent refrigerant
charges. One charge has 50 lbs of refrigerant, the other has 75 lbs of refrigerant.
Problem: The refrigerant exhaust system must have a capacity of approximately, how much
CFM?
(a) 707
(b) 866
(c) 1120
(d) 1466

6.7 PROBLEM 7 – REFRIGERANTS

Problem: Which of the following best ranks refrigerants from most to least harmful to the ozone,
from left to right?
(a) R-11 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-22
(b) R-11 - R-134a - R-22 - Ammonia
(c) R-22 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-11
(d) R11 - R-22 - R-134a – Ammonia
6.8 PROBLEM 8 – SOUND

The current sound level is 90 decibels. If the sound pressure is halved, then what will be the
new sound level?
(a) 45 dB
(b) 75 dB
(c) 84 dB
(d) 87 dB

6.9 PROBLEM 9 – VIBRATION

As the disturbing frequency changes from 1.0 times the natural frequency to a value of 1.4 times
the natural frequency of a system, which of the following statements is true?
(A) The transmissibility increases.
(B) Vibration transmissibility will be less than 1.
(C) Attenuation will not occur.
(D) The amplification decreases.
6.10 PROBLEM 10 – VIBRATION

A system has a disturbing frequency of 1,800 RPM. The natural frequency of the system is 20
HZ. In order to decrease the transmissibility, which of the following statements is true?
(A) Decreasing the mass of the system will decrease transmissibility.
(B) Decreasing the stiffness of the vibration isolator will decrease transmissibility
(C) Decreasing the vibration isolator static deflection will decrease transmissibility
(D) Slowing down the disturbing frequency will decrease transmissibility

7.0 SOLUTIONS
7.1 SOLUTION 1 - REFERENCES/CODES
Background: A new chiller is being installed in a mechanical room. The chiller has two
separate refrigerant circuits. One refrigerant circuit has 100 lbs of R-134a and the second
circuit has 200 lbs of R-134a.
Problem: What value is most nearly the minimum refrigerant exhaust system capacity in CFM?
Take the largest refrigerant circuit (LBS) and use the following formula.
.
𝑄 = 100 ∗ 𝐺
𝐺 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑙𝑏𝑠)𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

.
𝑄 = 100 ∗ 200 = 1,414 𝐶𝐹𝑀
Correct Answer: C, 1,400 CFM
You won’t have the code in the exam, so you don’t need to have this equation memorized. This
problem is just here to show you that the exhaust fan is sized based on the largest circuit and
not the sum of all the refrigerant circuits.

Background: In the topic of thermal comfort, there are many factors that an HVAC engineer
must take into account.
Problem: Thermal comfort is a function of all of the following variables except for:
According to ASHRAE 55, Thermal Environment Conditions for Human Comfort, thermal comfort
is a function of many variables, including the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, clothing
level of the occupants, the air velocity of the conditioned air and the activity level of the
occupants.
ASHRAE 55, does not make mention of fresh air as a requirement for thermal comfort.
However, it is important in creating a better indoor environmental air quality.
Correct Answer: A, Fresh Air


Background: Air conditioned buildings serving occupants are required to have fresh air in
accordance with the appropriate standards and codes.
Problem: Which of the following is most likely not a result of providing conditioned fresh air to a
building in a hot and humid climate as opposed to not providing fresh air?
ASHRAE 62.1 is a standard that establishes criteria for maintaining acceptable indoor air
quality. As part of this standard, certain amounts of fresh air are required for each occupant of
various occupant types (office, reception, auditorium, etc.).
The standard requires fresh air to be regularly distributed to an occupied space in order to
reduce the concentration of CO2 expelled by the occupants and also other contaminants that
might be in the air.
In a hot and humid climate, the fresh air needs to be first cooled down appropriately, in order to
reduce the amount of water content that is distributed to the space. This amount of cooling will
increase energy costs.
The standard for fresh air quality does not affect the level of thermal comfort, which is governed
by ASHRAE 55. The cooling requirements of a space can be met without fresh air, thus providing
fresh air to a space does not necessary create cooler temperatures.
Correct Answer: C, Cooler temperatures
NFPA 90A provides the standard for fire protection requirements for air conditioning and
ventilating systems. It provides the maximum smoke developed index and flame spread index
for mechanical equipment, including insulation.
Correct Answer: A, Mechanical insulation shall have a maximum flame spread index of 25 and a
maximum smoke developed index of 50.


Background: A new public toilet room is planned for a new theater. The toilet room will have 10
new toilets, 5 for women and 5 for men.
Problem: What is the minimum size of the exhaust system in accordance with ASHRAE 62.1.
In accordance with ASHRAE 62.1, 70 CFM per unit (toilet or urinal) is required for a heavy
occupied public type space, like a theater.
Correct answer: C, 700 CFM
7.6 SOLUTION 6 – REFRIGERATION CODES

The refrigerant exhaust system, must be sized to exhaust the largest single compartment of
refrigerant by weight, in accordance with the following equation. The (2) compartments do not
need to be added.
.
𝑄[𝐶𝐹𝑀] = 100𝑋75 , where G = lbs of refrigerant.
𝑄 = 866 𝐶𝐹𝑀
7.7 SOLUTION 7 – REFRIGERANTS
(a) R-11 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-22
R-11 is the most harmful refrigerant because it contains chlorine, ammonia and R-134a do not
contain chlorine and are not harmful to the ozone. However R-22 does contain chlorine since it
is a HCFC. Thus this ranking is incorrect.
(b) R-11 - R-134a - R-22 - Ammonia

R-11 is the most harmful refrigerant because it is a CFC and was banned, R-134a is a HFC and
does not contain chlorine and has an ODP of 0, however R-22 does contain chlorine since it is a
HCFC. Thus this ranking is incorrect.
(c) R-22 - Ammonia - R-134a - R-11
R-22 is a HCFC and contains chlorine. Ammonia and R-134a both do not contain chlorine and
both have an ODP of 0. However, R-11 is a CFC and has a high ODP. Thus this ranking is
incorrect.
(d) R11 - R-22 - R-134a - Ammonia
R-11 is the most harmful refrigerant because it contains chlorine, R-22 does contain chlorine
since it is a HCFC, but to a lesser extent than R-11. Ammonia and R-134a both do not contain
chlorine and both have an ODP of 0. Thus this ranking is correct.
Correct Answer: D
7.8 SOLUTION 8 – SOUND

The current sound level is 90 decibels. If the sound pressure is halved, then what will be the
new sound level?
First, find the sound pressure, with the decibel equation.
𝑃
20 log = 90 𝑑𝐵
𝑃
𝑃
= 10
𝑃
𝑃 = 31,622.8 𝑃
After the sound pressure is halved, then find the new decibel level.
𝑃 = 15,811 𝑃
15,811 𝑃
20 log = 84 𝑑𝐵
𝑃

The correct answer is most nearly, (c) 84 dB.
7.9 SOLUTION 9 – VIBRATION

Attenuation occurs when the transmissibility is less than 1. However, when the disturbing
frequency and natural frequency are in the ratio described in this problem, the transmissibility
will always be greater than 1.0. Transmissibility will increase as shown below, when changing
the ratio from 1.0 to 1.4.
1
𝑇=
𝑓
1−
𝑓
1 1
𝑇= = ∞; 𝑇 = = 1.04
1.0 𝑓 1.4 𝑓
1− 1−
𝑓 𝑓
The amplification of the vibratory forces from the system will be decreased from infinity down to
1.04x.
The correct answer is most nearly, (D) The amplification decreases.
7.10 SOLUTION 10 – VIBRATION

Currently, the transmissibility can be found with the below equation, but first you need to find the
disturbing frequency.
𝑟𝑒𝑣 1 𝑚
𝑓 = 1,800 ∗ = 30 𝐻𝑧
𝑚 60 𝑠
1
𝑇= = 0.8
30 ℎ𝑧
1−
25 ℎ𝑧
In order to decrease the transmissibility, you must decrease the natural frequency of increase
the disturbing frequency. Thus (D) will not work. In order to decrease the natural frequency you
can increase the isolator static deflection.
3.13
𝑓 = ; 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝛿 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓
𝛿
You can also decrease the k-value (stiffness) of the vibration isolator or increase the mass of
the system.

1 𝑘
𝑓 = ; 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀, 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓
2𝜋 𝑀
The correct answer is most nearly, (B) Decreasing the stiffness of the vibration isolator will
decrease transmissibility.

L
A
LFL · 6
acoustics · 27
Acoustics · 27
air Class · 9 M
Air Quality · 13
ASHRAE · 4
Magnification Factor · 23
ASHRAE 15 · 4
MERV · 14
ASHRAE 34 · 5
Montreal Protocol · 12
ASHRAE 55 · 7
ASHRAE 62.1 · 8
ASHRAE 90.1 · 10 N
Natural Frequency · 16
C
NC Rating · 32, 34
NFPA 90A · 10
CFC's · 12
NFPA 90B · 11
clo · 7
NFPA 96 · 12
Combining Multiple Noise Sources · 30
Noise Rating Curves (NR) · 32
Coulomb Damping · 18
critical damping · 19
Critically Damped · 21 O
C-weighting · 30
OEL · 6
Overdamped · 21
D
Damping Ratio · 19 R
DBA values · 30
decibels · 28
Reducing Sound Levels · 31
deflection · 27
Room Criteria Curves (RC) · 32
E S
Equipment sound · 29
Sound frequencies · 29
Sound Level as a Function of Distance · 34, 38
Sound power · 28
F
Sound pressure · 28
Spring · 15
Forced Vibration · 18
stiffness · 15
Stiffness · 26
H
T
HCFC's · 12
Hysteresis · 19
total energy · 16
transmissibility · 25
Transmissibility · 22
I
Indoor turbulence sound calculations · 37
Inherent Damping · 19

U V
Undamped · 20 Ventilation · 13
Underdamped · 20 Vibration · 15
vibration control · 15
Vibration Isolation · 24
Viscous Damping · 19

12 - Conclusion
HVAC Textbook
12.0 CONCLUSION
If you have any questions on this product or any other Engineering Pro Guides product, then
please contact me at any of the websites or at my email address below.
Justin Kauwale at contact@engproguides.com
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I also make updates and changes to this product and all other Engineering Pro Guides
products. The errata for this product is located at the following webpage.
https://www.engproguides.com/hvacguideerrata.pdf
Hi. My name is Justin Kauwale, the creator of Engineering Pro Guides. I will be happy to
answer any questions you may have about the PE exam. Good luck on your studying! I hope
you pass the exam and I wish you the best in your career. Thank you for your purchase!
Conclusion -1 www.engproguides.com
13 - Checklists
Exam Day | Common Mistakes | Review the Basics
HVAC Textbook
EXAM DAY CHECKLIST

Are you ready? …almost there
1. Check out the location beforehand. Where to park, what room?
2. Arrive early!
3. Things to bring (Computer Based Test):

 Identification
 Exam Authorization Form (NCEES)
 (2) calculators
 Jacket without Hood
 Glasses (without case) – if needed
 Pack a lunch – store in locker
 Comfort Items (visually inspected): Cough Drops, Eye Drops, headache medicine (no container)
4. Test Center Provided Items:
 Test Center provided Tissue & Earplugs (confirm)
 Test Center Locker Key
 Test Center Booklet/Marker
5. Not allowed in exam room: most test centers will have lockers to store your personal items.
 Cell phones
 Wallets/Purses
 Bags
 Food/Drinks
 Tobacco
 Pens/Pencils/Paper/Erasers
 Hats/Hooded Jackets
 Pencils/Erasers
 Slide charts/wheels (i.e. ductulator, pipe wheel, motor chart)
 Straight edges
 Watches
Exam Day Checklists - 1 www.engproguides.com

COMMON MISTAKES
Double check before you submit your exam!
 Answer all questions before submitting

 Check your units!
 Inches vs Feet
 Minutes vs Hour: GPM, CFM, ACH, lb/min, lb/hr, Btu/h
 Month vs Year: Economics questions
 lbm vs lbf vs slugs
 Correct decimal place?
 Diameter vs Radius
 Insulation Thickness + Radius ‐ OR ‐ 2x Insulation Thickness + Diameter
 Calculating Area/Flow rate/Velocity
 Absolute vs Relative
 PSIA vs PSIG – NPSH in PSIA
 Fahrenheit vs Rankine – Reynolds # in Rankine
 Refrigeration Charts
 Did you use the correct refrigerant?
 Lookup with Temperature or Pressure column
 hf vs hfg
 Psychrometric Chart
 Correct Density (other than STP, 60F & 14.7 psia)
 Correct Elevation
 Heat Transfer
 K value (conductivity, use thickness) vs R value (thickness included)
 K value per inch or per ft
 Windows – Conductive + Radiative Heat
 Does your answer make logical sense?

Review the Basics!
I. Principles (28‐43)
A. Basic Engineering Practice (4‐6)
1. Units and conversions
∙
 Gravitational Constant: 𝑔 32.2
∙
 Convert between lbm and lbf
 Common conversions
 12,000 Btuh = 1 cooling ton
 15,000 Btuh = 1 nominal cooling tower ton
 3.412 Btuh = 1 Watt
 1 gallon = 8.34 pound water
 1 HP = 0.7457 kW
 1 psi = 2.31 ft head
 Common Constants
 Air density @STP = 0.075 lb/ft^3
 STP of Air: 60F, 14.7 psia
 Specific Heat Capacity
o 𝑐 , 1.0
∗
o 𝑐 , 0.240 @constant pressure
∗
o 𝑐 , 0.171 @constant volume (less used)
∗
2. Economic analysis
 Interest Rate Table
 Simple Payback
 Straight Line Depreciation
 MACRS
3. Electrical concepts (e.g., power consumption, motor ratings, heat output, amperage)
 Power Consumption:
 Demand (kW) * hours = Energy (kWh)
 Building Energy Indices:
 Energy Utilization Index (EUI) = Total Yearly Energy/Building Area
 Cost Utilization Index (CUI) = Total Yearly Energy Cost/Building Area
 Motor Ratings
 Power (comes in set increments): 0.5 HP, 0.75 HP, 1 HP, 2 HP, 3 HP, 5 HP,
7.5 HP, 10 HP, 15, HP 20 HP, 25 HP, 30 HP, 40 HP, 50 HP, 60 HP, 75 HP, 100
HP
 Amperage
o FLA = Full Load Current (Operating Amps, use in apparent power
calc)
o RLA = Running Load Amps (Similar to FLA)
o LRA = Locked Rotor Amps (startup current, disconnect sizing)

 Phases: 1 phase or 3 phase

 Frequency: 60 Hz (USA), frequency of AC power
 RPM: How fast the motor spins
 Service Factor: How much more the motor can temporarily operate
beyond its rating. Example, service factor of 1.15 can operate 15% beyond
its rated HP for a short period of time.
 Power Factor: to Find Real Power or to find Current
o Apparent Power, 1 phase (S) = Current (I)*Voltage (V)
o Apparent Power, 3 phase (S) = √3*Current (I)*Voltage (V)
o Real Power (P, KW) = Power Factor (PF) * Apparent Power (S)
 NEMA: efficiency rating and enclosure rating
 Efficiencies
 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃
% %∗ %
∗
o 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃 𝐹𝑎𝑛
∗
o 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝
 𝜂% releases heat. Determine heat to airstream or to space
B. Thermodynamics (4‐6)
1. Cycles
 Vapor Compression Cycle (Refrigeration)
 Terms: Net Refrigeration Effect, Superheat, Subcool
 Vapor Compression Cycle

 Pressure‐Enthalpy Diagram
 Overall Efficiency
o 𝐶𝑂𝑃 , typically COP > 2.5
o 𝐸𝐸𝑅 3.412 ∗ 𝐶𝑂𝑃
o 𝑘𝑊/𝑡𝑜𝑛 12/𝐸𝐸𝑅
 Part Load Chiller Efficiency
o IPLV, efficiency given at various % load at standard AHRI conditions
o NPLV, efficiency given at various % load at non‐standard
 Compressor Efficiency
,
o 𝜂 % , where h_ideal is enthalpy at leaving
compressor pressure after following constant entropy from entering
compressor pressure.
 Absorption Cycle (Refrigeration)

 Two Shells, Refrigerant + Absorber, Heat Source
o Refrigerant: Water
o Absorber: Lithium‐Bromide or Ammonia
o Heat Source: Hot Water/Steam, typically used with waste heat
 𝐶𝑂𝑃 , typically 1.5

 Absorption Cycle
2. Properties
 Terms
 Isentropic – Constant Entropy
o e.g. Ideal Compressor
 Adiabatic – heat does not enter/leave the system
o In psych chart  Constant Enthalpy
o e.g. Dehumidifiers, Evaporative coolers (mostly), Expansion Valve,
Throttling Valve
 Isothermal – Constant Temperature
 Isobaric – Constant Pressure
 Energy
 𝑄 𝑚∆ℎ, use for steam, refrigerant, and total heat equation

o Steam/Refrigerant: 𝑞 𝑚 ∗ ∆ℎ
o Total Heat (air): 𝑞 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
 𝑞 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇, no pressure change, use for sensible heat and water
o Water: 𝑞 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 [uses 𝑐 , 1.0 ]
∗
° If water temp starts to rise above 100F, use water property tables in
NCEES Mech PE Reference Handbook, Ch. 1 to find new density.
° 𝑞 𝑐 1.0 ∗𝜌 ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
.
° Example: at 200F, 𝜌 60.12 ⇒𝑞 482 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
o Sensible Heat (air): 𝑞 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 [uses 𝑐 , 0.24 ]
∗
 𝑞 𝑚ℎ , phase change, use for latent heat
o Latent Heat: 𝑞 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊 [uses ℎ@75𝐹 50𝐹]
 Partial Pressure
 Total Pressure = ∑Pressure of each gas
 Total Pressure Air = Water Vapor Pressure + Dry Air Pressure
 Vapor Pressure = Relative Humidity % * Saturated Vapor Pressure
 Energy:
o Convert between lbm and lbf
3. Compression processes
 Air/Gas
 Ideal Gas Law, PV=nRT
 Actual CFM to Standard CFM
C. Psychrometrics (e.g., sea level, 5,000‐ft elevation) (7‐11)

 Wet Bulb, Dry Bulb, Density, Relative Humidity, Humidity Ratio, Enthalpy, Dew
Point, Altitude/Pressure
1. Heating/cooling processes
 Total Heat = Sensible Heat + Latent Heat
 At standard temperature/pressure, 0.075 lb/cuft
 Total Heat: 𝑞 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
 Sensible Heat: 𝑞 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 𝐹
 Latent Heat: 𝑞 4,840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊

 At 5,000 ft elevation
 Total Heat @ 5000 ft: 𝑞 3.74 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
 Sensible Heat @ 5000 ft: 𝑞 0.92 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 𝐹
 Latent Heat @ 5000 ft: 𝑞 4027 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑊

 Non‐standard conditions (low or high temp, altitude change)

 “Temperature and Altitude Corrections” table in NCEES Handbook Ch. 7
 If air density changes drastically away from standard 0.075 lb/ft3 due to
temp/altitude use correction table to find density factor.
o 𝑞 , 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
o 𝑞 , 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 1.1 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇
o 𝑞 , 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4840 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 *
*In latent eqn, use DF for altitude changes only. Use long latent
equation for air temp change, since hfg might also change.
o Example: at 200F, 𝜌 0.0602 , 𝐷𝐹 0.803 ⇒
𝑞 , 0.803 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ 3.6 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆ℎ
 Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR) = Sensible Heat/Total Heat
 If given as room load SHR, based on load in space
 Figure below SHR in red, Cooling coil load in blue
 Heat of Vaporization = ℎ ℎ , energy to vaporize liquid to gas
 Lever Rule: 𝑋 𝑋 ∗ % , 𝑋 ∗% ,
 X can be DB temp, Humidity Ratio, or Enthalpy, NOT WB Temp
2. Humidification/dehumidification processes
 Chemical Dehumidification, adiabatic
 Evaporative Cooling, essentially adiabatic
 Steam humidification, follow enthalpy/humidity ratio angle or add lb/hr.
 Cooling Dehumidification, below dew point
 Airflow to moisture flow, 𝑚 𝑉 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ ∆𝑊
3. Altitude Correction
.
 𝑃 14.7 ∗ 1 6.8754 ∗ 10 ∗𝑍
 𝑇 59 0.003566 ∗ 𝑍
 Where Z is altitude in ft

D. Heat Transfer (6‐9)

1. Terms/Basics
 k, Conductive heat transfer coefficient, per thickness
∙
 Be aware of whether units are in per inch or per ft
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
∙ ∙
 R, resistance, includes thickness
∙
 U, overall heat transfer coefficient = 1/R
∙ ∙
 Conduction
 𝑞 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
o 𝑈
o 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 … 𝑅
o ⋯
 U, k, or R values in NCEES Handbook
 R value for air space also in NCEES Handbook
 Convection
 𝑞 ℎ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇
 h, convection heat transfer coefficient based on flow over surface
 NCEES Handbook for h value of vertical, horizontal surfaces with/without
wind.
 Radiation
 To surroundings: 𝑞 𝜀𝜎𝐴 𝑇 𝑇
 Black body, most efficient at emitting radiation and absorbing incident
energy.
o 𝜀 𝛼 1, where 𝜀 is emissivity and 𝛼 is absorptivity
 For any type of body, 𝛼 𝜌 𝜏 1, energy is either absorbed (𝛼),
reflected (𝜌), or transmitted (𝜏).
2. Building Envelope Loads
 R values of various materials in NCEES Mechanical PE Reference Handbook
 Walls/Roof:
 U values
o Include surface film coefficient, h: See “Surface Film
Coefficient/Resistances for Air” table in NCEES Handbook, Ch. 9.
o Example: 𝑈 1/ 𝑅 𝑅
 Space heat gain: thermal mass
o Use CLTD instead of ∆𝑇 [𝑄 𝑈 ∗ Σ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷 ]
 Windows (Fenestration): Radiative + Conductive Heat Gain
 Radiative Heat Σ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐼𝐴𝐶
 Radiative Heat, older version [𝑆𝐶 ∗ Σ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 ]
 Conductive Heat [𝑈𝐴∆𝑇]
3. Configurations
 Flat vs Cylinder Equations

 Round Pipe Equation

∗
 𝑄
⋯
 Solve for Surface Temperature

 Convection (Tsurf – Tin) = Conduction (Tamb – Tsurf)
E. Fluid Mechanics (3‐5)

 Find pressure drop 𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ ,
 Size pump pressure

o Closed system, all is equal except hf,
o Open system, hf + change in elevation, z.
 ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
 Darcy Weisbach ℎ 𝑓
 Find f on Moody diagram with Reynolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 and
 Either include equivalent length for fittings and other losses or find fitting
losses from the equation below
 Equivalent lengths from tables.
 ℎ , 𝑘 , where k is a loss factor
𝒇𝒕 𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟗∗𝑮𝑷𝑴
 Simplified GPM/Diameter  velocity conversion: 𝒗𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒔 𝑫 𝒊𝒏 𝟐
F. Energy/Mass Balance (4‐6)

 Steam quality 𝑥
 Steam quality by mass 𝑥

II. Applications (42‐64)

A. Heating/Cooling Loads (7‐11)
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 , how much of the air hits and is
cooled by the coil.
 𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, how much air goes around the coil.
 Apparatus Dew Point = Coil Temperature
 Cooling load:
 Lights, people, miscellaneous equipment; (adjust with usage factors)
 Envelope
o Walls/Roof use CLTD
o Windows use conductive + solar
 Heating loads do not take credit from the heat gain in the space or solar loads.
𝑄 ,
𝑄 , 𝑄 , 𝑄 ,
𝑄 , 𝑄 𝑄
 Wall/Roof: No time lag‐CLTD; Qheating=UAΔT
 Window: Conduction only; Qheating=UAΔT
 Ventilation/Infiltration
 No miscellaneous, people, lights
B. Equipment and Components (16‐24)

1. Cooling towers and fluid coolers
 Approach = CDW Out – Air in Wet bulb
 Range
 Cooling Tower: Range = CDW in Temp – CDW Out Temp
 Fluid Cooler
o Dry type: air flows over coil to cool the fluid
o Evaporative type: Cooling tower with heat exchanger to separate the
fluid that is cooled from the evaporated fluid
 Evaporative Cooler: Range = Return Air Temp – Supply Air Temp
 Types: Counterflow, Crossflow, Induced Draft, Forced Draft
 Makeup Water: make up loss from Drift, Evaporation, Blow Down
 Components: Fill, Louvers, Drift Eliminators, Nozzles
 Effectiveness = 100% * Range/(Range+Approach)
 𝑞 𝑞
𝑙𝑏𝑑𝑟𝑦 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
 500 ∗ 𝐺𝑃𝑀 ∗ Δ𝑇 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ ∗ Δ𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑓𝑡3 ℎ𝑟
2. Boilers and furnaces (e.g., efficiencies, fuel types, combustion)

 Higher Heating Value, gross heat in the fuel, (Btu/lb or Btu/ft^3)
 Lower Heating Value, heat in fuel without latent heat.
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛 ∗ 𝜂% 𝐻𝐻𝑉 ∗ 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ 𝜂%

 Combustion stoichiometric equations to find excess air.
3. Heat exchangers (e.g., shell and tube, plate and frame)

 LMTD, parallel vs counterflow
 Effectiveness: Actual Heat Transfer/Maximum Heat Transfer
 Fouling factor
 Approach
 Heat transfer rate: 𝑞 𝑈𝐴𝐹∆𝑇
 F = correction factor, for counter flow F=1.
4. Condensers/evaporators (e.g., chillers, variable refrigerant flow, heat pumps)

 Chiller Type: Scroll, Screw, Centrifugal, Reciprocal, Rotary
 Air cooled vs Water cooled Chiller
 Variable Refrigerant Flow: Inverter
 Heat Pump: Reversing Valve
 Fouling factor
5. Pumps/compressors/fans (e.g., laws, efficiency, selection)

 Types
o Pump: End Suction, Split Case, Inline
o Fan: Centrifugal (Forward Inclined, Backward Inclined, Backward Inclined
Airfoil), Propeller, Axial
° Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure
° Velocity Pressure [in wg] = (FPM/4005)^2
o Different Types and Curves in ASHRAE
 Pump/Fan Laws
o Speed = Flow (impeller/wheel diameter constant)
° 𝑜𝑟
o Pressure = (Flow)^2 (speed constant)
° 𝑜𝑟
o Power = (Speed)^3 = (Flow)^3 (impeller/wheel diameter constant)
°
 Pump/System Curve
o System: Need one operation point (Pressure & Flow), then plot the
parabolic curve with the relationship,
o Pump Curve: Based on pump type, given by manufacturer
o Operation Point: Intersection of System & Pump Curve

 Pumps in Parallel: Add Flow
 Pumps in Series: Add Pressure

 Lower (Pump/Fan) Flow Rate

o Throttle: reduce flow by closing valve/damper, same power. Adding
pressure to the system, so system curve changes.
o VFD: reduce flow by reducing frequency, which reduces RPM and the
power of the motor. RPM changes so pump curve changes, parallel to the
old curve.
 Power
∗
o 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃 𝐹𝑎𝑛
∗
o 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝
 Pressure
o Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure
o Velocity Pressure Fan (in wg) = (FPM/4005)^2
o Velocity Pressure Pump (ft hd) = V^2/(2g)
 Efficiencies
o 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐻𝑃
%
o 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑃
% %∗ %
 Net Positive Suction Head

o NPSHA (available): Calculated from System

o Open System: 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
o Closed System: 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
o NPSHR (required): From Pump Manufacturer
 Compressor: Hermetic – Fully Sealed, Semi Hermitic
6. Cooling/heating coils
 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 , how much of the air hits and is
cooled by the coil.
 𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, how much air goes around the coil.
 Apparatus Dew Point = Coil Temperature
7. Control systems components (e.g., valves, dampers)

 Actuators to control opening/closing
 Valves
 2‐way/3‐way valves
 Cv, valve coefficient
∆
o 𝐺𝑃𝑀 𝐶
 Quick closing valve vs Multi turn
 Valve authority
 Damper Copyright © 2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC. Licensed for individual use only.
 Damper: Parallel/Opposed Blade, pressure drop calculations, Fire Damper,
Fire‐Smoke Damper
 VAV box type: Single Intake, Dual Intake, Parallel Fan Powered, Series Fan
Powered
 Damper authority
 Normally Open vs Normally Closed
 Sensors: Sensitivity, Repeatability
 Transmitters: transmits signal from sensor to the control panel

8. Refrigerants (e.g., properties, types)

 Global Warming Potential (GWP)
 Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)
 Flammability/Safety Properties – see table in NCEES handbook, Ch. 8
 Pressure‐Enthalpy Diagrams: for refrig. cycles/calculations
 Performance: COP, pressures, compression ratios. See comparison table in NCEES
handbook, Ch. 8
 Common types:
 R‐22: old type, no longer used for poor GWP and ODP
 R‐410A/R‐134A: low ODP, high GWP, A1 safety, will eventually be phased
out due to GWP.
 R‐32/R‐1234yf/R‐1234ze: low GWP and ODP, A2L safety, being phased in.
9. Refrigeration components (e.g., expansion valves, accumulators)

 Components of refrigerant cycle
 Accumulator, Filter/Dryer, Receiver, Sight glass, oil separator, expansion valve,
condenser, compressor, evaporator, hot gas bypass (optional)
C. Systems and Components (16‐24)
1. Air distribution (e.g., air handlers, duct design, system type, terminal devices)
 Duct friction loss: equivalent length
 Equivalent Diameter
 Equal friction vs Static Regain
 Air Devices
 select based on noise, throw, velocity
 Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI): relates temperature, speed, and
thermal comfort. Higher ADPI is better
 Air Diffusion Performance Index Table (T50/L)
 System: Variable, Constant, Zoning

2. Fluid distribution/piping (e.g., hydronic, oil, fuel gas, compressed air, steam, system
type)
 Friction loss: factors, equivalent length
 Fuel gas piping by pressure drop: use HHV to find distance to maintain maximum
pressure drops. Include entire length of piping from start to each branch for
sizing.
 Compressed air piping by pressure drop: Ensure the last outlet has sufficient
pressure.
 Steam and Compressed Air produce Condensation.
 Expansion loops: elbow, Z, U loop. Calculate using thermal expansion coefficient.
 Expansion Tank Calculation: Open, Diaphragm, Bladder
3. Refrigeration (e.g., food storage, cooling and freezing)

 Food Storage
 Specific Heat above/below freezing
o 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑚 𝑙𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 ∗ Δ𝑇
∗
 Latent Heat of Fusion
o 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝑚 𝑙𝑏 ∗ Δℎ
 Locate different food properties in your reference.
4. Energy recovery (e.g., enthalpy wheels, heat pipes, run‐around systems, condenser
heat recovery)
 Effectiveness = Actual Energy Transfer/Max Possible Energy Transfer
 Actual Energy Transfer = Flow Rate1*Δ Conditions1 = Flow Rate2*Δ
Conditions2
 Max Possible Energy Transfer = Smallest Flow Rate between stream 1&2 *
Difference between incoming conditions of stream 1&2
 Where “conditions” are temperature‐sensible energy recovery, humidity
ratio‐latent recovery, enthalpy‐total energy recovery type)
5. Basic control concepts (e.g., economizer, temperature reset)

 Direct Digital Control
 Input/Output.
o Inputs and outputs are relative to the control panel. i.e. sensor is an
input, adjusting valve position is an output
 Digital/Analog
o Digital means a binary input or output. Like, open/close or off/on
o Analog means an input or output that is variable, like position.
 Energy Management System (EMS)
 Protocol: BACnet, Lonworks – the controller software language
 Gain: % change in control signal/% change in control variable (ratio of
change in output signal to change in input signal)
 Chilled Water Reset

 Slowly increase chilled water temperature as load conditions fall (based on

return air or outside air).
 Supply Air Reset
 Slowly increase supply air temperature if return air conditions or outside
air conditions are met.
 Variable Airflow
 Pressure sensor in duct to vary fan speed as VAV boxes close
 VAV Box types: single, dual, parallel fan powered, series fan powered
 Variable Chilled Water Flow
 Variable Primary – two way valve control, pressure sensor at the farthest
coil to vary the pump flow.
 Primary‐Secondary – Primary flow circulates to chillers at a constant rate,
secondary flow circulates to air handlers at variable rate.
 Economizer – Use outside air instead of conditioning. Exhaust fan required.
 Energy Recovery – various control schemes
 Valves: Authority, Cv Rating, Cavitation
 Damper: Parallel vs Opposed, Authority
D. Supportive Knowledge (3‐5)

1. Codes and standards
 Know generally what is in these standards
 ASHRAE 15: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems
o Lists allowable refrigerant quantities per room volume and other
safety considerations.
o Know the Safety Groups for each ref. (also listed in ASHRAE)
Higher Flammability A3 B3
Lower Flammability A2 B2
No Flame Propagation A1 B1
Less Toxic More Toxic
 ASHRAE 34: Safety Class of Refrigerants

o Lists refrigerant safety groups, concentration limits, other
refrigerant info
 ASHRAE 55: Thermal Environment for Human Occupancy
o Human comfort limits: draft, temperature, clothing
 ASHRAE 62.1: Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality
o Ventilation/exhaust rates
 ASHRAE 62.2: Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality in Low Rise Residential
 ASHRAE 90.1: Energy Standard for Building, except Low Rise Residential
o Zoning based on weather data, building envelope requirement,
HVAC equipment efficiency, HVAC system requirements, lighting
efficiency, duct/pipe insulation, energy saving controls (e.g.
economizer, temperature reset, variable volume), energy calculation
requirements, and other energy requirements.

 ASHRAE 90.2: Energy Standard for Low Rise Residential

 ASHRAE 189.1: Standard for High‐Performance Green Building, except
Low Rise Residential
o More stringent requirements than ASHRAE 90.1
 NFPA 90A: Standard for Air Conditioning and Ventilation
 NFPA 90B: Standard for Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning
2. Air quality and ventilation (e.g., filtration, dilution)
 Filter ‐ MERV Rating
 Adding fresh air for Dilution
 Velocity of exhaust for Dilution
 ASHRAE 62.1 ventilation rate
3. Vibration control (e.g., transmission effect, isolation)
 Isolate Vibration from Equipment
 Spring Isolation
 Flexible Pipe
 Base/Isolator Types, see “Selection Guide for Vibration Isolation” table in NCEES
Handbook, Ch. 9
4. Acoustics (e.g., sound control, absorption, attenuators, noise‐level criteria)
 Noise Level at distance or for multiple sound sources
 Sound attenuation by decibel
 Different Sound Rating Methods: NC, dBA, RC
 Noise Ratings by room type

14 - Index
HVAC Textbook
A
absolute pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
absolute pressure HVAC Systems - 31
Absorption Chiller HVAC Equipment - 38
Absorption Cycle HVAC Equipment - 39
Accumulator HVAC Equipment - 94, 95
Acoustics Supportive Knowledge - 27
Adiabatic fluid coolers HVAC Equipment - 17
adiabatic humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
ADP HVAC Equipment - 73
ADPI HVAC Systems - 13, 14
Affinity Laws HVAC Equipment - 52
AFUE HVAC Equipment - 22
Air HVAC Equipment - 24
air Class Supportive Knowledge - 9
Air cooled chillers HVAC Equipment - 37
Air Distribution HVAC Systems - 6
Air Filter HVAC Systems - 7
Air Handling Units HVAC Systems - 6
Air Mixtures Psychrometrics - 46, 52
Air Mixtures Energy/Mass Balance - 14
Air Quality Supportive Knowledge - 13
Air to Fuel Ratio HVAC Equipment - 25
Air Washer Psychrometrics - 29, 30, 31
Air Washer HVAC Equipment - 106
Air-Conditioning, Heating &
37
Refrigeration Institute HVAC Equipment -
Air-Cooled Chiller HVAC Systems - 36
Airfoil HVAC Equipment - 63
Air-Side Economizer HVAC Systems - 60
amperes Basic Engineering Practice - 31
Analog HVAC Systems - 63
Anchors HVAC Systems - 35
annual value Basic Engineering Practice - 5, 34, 36
Annualized Value Basic Engineering Practice - 9
Annuities Basic Engineering Practice - 5
Apparatus Dew Point Psychrometrics - 27
Apparatus Dew Point HVAC Equipment - 73
Apparent power Basic Engineering Practice - 21, 25
approach HVAC Equipment - 10
ASHRAE Supportive Knowledge - 4
Index - 1 www.engproguides.com
ASHRAE 15 Supportive Knowledge - 4

ASHRAE 62.1 Supportive Knowledge - 8
ASHRAE 90.1 Supportive Knowledge - 10
Axial Fans HVAC Equipment - 60
B
Backward inclined HVAC Equipment - 62
Ball valve HVAC Equipment - 84
Bernoulli’s Equation Fluid Mechanics - 17
blow-down HVAC Equipment - 13
boiler Thermodynamics - 57
Boiler energy balance HVAC Equipment - 21
boiler horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 38
Boilers Energy/Mass Balance - 4
boiling Thermodynamics - 8
Brake Horsepower HVAC Equipment - 46, 59
Branch Length Method HVAC Systems - 50
Brazed Plate Thermodynamics - 12
Buoyancy Fluid Mechanics - 15
Butterfly valve HVAC Equipment - 85
bypass factor HVAC Equipment - 73
C
cavitation HVAC Systems - 30
centipoises Fluid Mechanics - 4
Centrifugal HVAC Equipment - 69
Centrifugal Fans HVAC Equipment - 62
Centrifugal Pump HVAC Equipment - 47
CFCs HVAC Equipment - 91
CFC's Supportive Knowledge - 12
Chilled Beam: Active/Passive HVAC Equipment - 76
Chilled Beams HVAC Equipment - 74
Chilled Water System HVAC Systems - 36
Chillers HVAC Equipment - 36
CLF Heating/Cooling Loads - 4
clo Supportive Knowledge - 7
Closed system HVAC Systems - 26
CLTD Heating/Cooling Loads - 4, 5
CO2 HVAC Systems - 6
Coil HVAC Systems - 7
Coils HVAC Equipment - 104

Combining Multiple Noise Sources Supportive Knowledge - 30
Combustion HVAC Equipment - 23
combustion system HVAC Equipment - 18
Compressible Fluids Fluid Mechanics - 11
Compressor Thermodynamics - 12, 21, 50, 51
Compressor efficiency HVAC Equipment - 70
compressor work Thermodynamics - 27
compressors Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Compressors HVAC Equipment - 68
Condensate Psychrometrics - 51
Condensation Psychrometrics - 45
Condensation Energy/Mass Balance - 6, 14
Condensation Resistance Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Condenser Thermodynamics - 12, 24, 52, 53
condensers Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Condensers HVAC Equipment - 36
condensing Thermodynamics - 8
Condensing boiler HVAC Equipment - 20
Conduction Heat Transfer - 4
conduction Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
Conservation of Energy Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Conservation of Mass Energy/Mass Balance - 3
Constant entropy Thermodynamics - 33
constant temperature Thermodynamics - 32
Constant Volume System HVAC Systems - 16
contact factor HVAC Equipment - 74
Control Dampers HVAC Equipment - 87
Control Valves HVAC Equipment - 83
Controlling Surface Temperature Heat Transfer - 19
Convection Heat Transfer - 7
Convective Heat Transfer Heat Transfer - 8
Cooling & Heating Coil HVAC Equipment - 73
Cooling & Heating Coils HVAC Equipment - 71
Cooling Coil Psychrometrics - 27, 47
cooling humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Cooling Load Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
Cooling Load Calculation Heating/Cooling Loads - 28
Cooling Load Temperature
Heating/Cooling Loads -
Difference 5
Cooling tower ton HVAC Equipment - 14
Cooling Towers HVAC Equipment - 7, 106
COP Thermodynamics - 28, 55
Coulomb Damping Supportive Knowledge - 18

Counter-flow HVAC Equipment - 8, 27
critical damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
Critical point HVAC Equipment - 87
Critically Damped Supportive Knowledge - 21
Cross-flow HVAC Equipment - 8
Current Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 19
C-weighting Supportive Knowledge - 30
D
Damper Authority HVAC Equipment - 88
Damping Ratio Supportive Knowledge - 19
Darcy Equation HVAC Systems - 8
Darcy Weisbach Fluid Mechanics - 18
Darcy Weisbach Equation HVAC Systems - 8
DBA values Supportive Knowledge - 30
DC Circuits Basic Engineering Practice - 17
DDC HVAC Systems - 62
decibels Supportive Knowledge - 28
deflection Supportive Knowledge - 27
Dehumidification Psychrometrics - 17
Dehumidification Energy/Mass Balance - 6
Dehumidifier Psychrometrics - 49
Dehumidifier Energy/Mass Balance - 14
Dehumidifier HVAC Systems - 7
De-Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Density Psychrometrics - 12
Density Fluid Mechanics - 4
Desiccant Dehumidifier Psychrometrics - 33
Desiccant de-humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 82
Dew Point Psychrometrics - 13
Different Elevations Psychrometrics - 33
Diffusers HVAC Systems - 77
Digital HVAC Systems - 63
Direct digital control (DDC) HVAC Systems - 62
Direct-Return HVAC Systems - 42
discharge Thermodynamics - 22
Drag Fluid Mechanics - 24
drift HVAC Equipment - 13
Dry Bulb Temperature Psychrometrics - 5
Dry type fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 16
dryness fraction/steam quality Thermodynamics - 30
Dual temperature systems HVAC Systems - 45

Duct Design HVAC Systems - 16, 76
Duct Fitting Losses HVAC Systems - 11
Duct Friction Losses HVAC Systems - 10
Duct Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Dynamic Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4
E
Economic Analysis Basic Engineering Practice - 4
Economizer HVAC Systems - 63
Economizer cycle HVAC Systems - 62
EER Thermodynamics - 28
Effective Surface Temperature HVAC Equipment - 73
Effectiveness HVAC Systems - 54
efficiencies of motors Basic Engineering Practice - 24
Efficiency of a boiler HVAC Equipment - 18
efficiency of the Pump/Fan Basic Engineering Practice - 23
Electric boilers HVAC Equipment - 21
Electric Heater Psychrometrics - 46
Electrical Power Basic Engineering Practice - 25
Electrical Power HVAC Equipment - 46, 60
Emissivity Heat Transfer - 12
End-Suction Pump HVAC Equipment - 47
Energy Recovery Device HVAC Systems - 7, 78
Energy Recovery Devices HVAC Systems - 54, 55, 61
Enthalpy Thermodynamics - 6, 12
Enthalpy Psychrometrics - 11, 44, 45
Enthalpy Mixing Psychrometrics - 27
enthalpy of evaporation Thermodynamics - 58
enthalpy of vaporization Thermodynamics - 31, 57
Enthalpy Wheel Psychrometrics - 50
Entropy Thermodynamics - 6, 12
ENVELOPE LOAD - HEATING Heating/Cooling Loads - 20
Equipment sound Supportive Knowledge - 29
Equipment Surface Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Equivalent Length Method Fluid Mechanics - 21
Evaporation Energy/Mass Balance - 5
Evaporative cooling HVAC Equipment - 7
Evaporative fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 15
Evaporative Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 81
Evaporator Thermodynamics - 10, 18, 48, 49
evaporators Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Excess Air HVAC Equipment - 26

Expansion HVAC Systems - 35
Expansion Device Thermodynamics - 13, 25, 53, 54
Expansion Valve HVAC Equipment - 94
External loads Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
F
Factor Tables Basic Engineering Practice - 10
Fahrenheit Thermodynamics - 5
Fahrenheit Fluid Mechanics - 6
Fan Affinity Laws HVAC Equipment - 66
Fan Curves HVAC Equipment - 64
Fan/Pump Brake horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 22
Fan/Pump Horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 23
Fans HVAC Equipment - 102, 103
Fans in parallel HVAC Equipment - 67
Fans in series HVAC Equipment - 68
feedwater heaters Energy/Mass Balance - 5
feed-water system HVAC Equipment - 17
Filter/Dryer HVAC Equipment - 95
Firetube HVAC Equipment - 19
Flat Surface Heat Transfer - 19
Fluid coolers HVAC Equipment - 14
Fluid Distribution HVAC Systems - 22
Fluid Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 11
Fluid Properties Fluid Mechanics - 3
Fluid Statics Fluid Mechanics - 11
Forced convective Heat Transfer - 9
Forced Draft HVAC Equipment - 8
Forced Vibration Supportive Knowledge - 18
Forward Curved HVAC Equipment - 62
Fouling HVAC Equipment - 34
freezing food HVAC Systems - 53
Friction Charts HVAC Systems - 8
Friction Coefficient, K-factor Fluid Mechanics - 22
Friction head HVAC Systems - 25
Friction Loss HVAC Systems - 79, 80
Friction Loss Tables Fluid Mechanics - 23
Fuel HVAC Equipment - 23
Fuel Gas Distribution HVAC Systems - 48
Furnaces HVAC Equipment - 22
Future Value Basic Engineering Practice - 9
G
Gas-gas mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 8
gauge pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
Globe valve HVAC Equipment - 84
Gravitational Constant Fluid Mechanics - 4
GWP HVAC Equipment - 92
H
Hazen-Williams Equation Fluid Mechanics - 22
HCFCs HVAC Equipment - 91
HCFC's Supportive Knowledge - 12
heat capacity Thermodynamics - 7
Heat Exchanger Effectiveness HVAC Equipment - 33
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance HVAC Equipment - 34
Heat Exchanger Plate and Frame HVAC Equipment - 29
Heat Exchanger Shell and Tube HVAC Equipment - 28
Heat exchangers Energy/Mass Balance - 5
Heat Exchangers HVAC Equipment - 27
Heat Load From Motors Heating/Cooling Loads - 26
Heat Load From People Heating/Cooling Loads - 25
Heat Load From Windows Heating/Cooling Loads - 27
Heat Load Through Wall Heating/Cooling Loads - 25
Heat Pump HVAC Equipment - 43
Heat Transfer For Pipes Heat Transfer - 8
Heating Coil Psychrometrics - 28
Heating Coil HVAC Equipment - 72
Heating control HVAC Systems - 62
Heating Loads Heating/Cooling Loads - 19
Heating Value HVAC Equipment - 23
Hermetic HVAC Equipment - 70
HFCs HVAC Equipment - 91
HHV HVAC Systems - 49
Higher heating value HVAC Equipment - 18, 24
Hot Water Coils Thermodynamics - 58
Humidification Psychrometrics - 17, 20
Humidification Energy/Mass Balance - 6
Humidifier Psychrometrics - 48
Humidifier Energy/Mass Balance - 13
Humidifier HVAC Equipment - 105
Humidifier HVAC Systems - 7
Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 80
Humidity Ratio Psychrometrics - 9, 44, 45

Humidity Ratio Mixing Psychrometrics - 27
Hybrid fluid cooler HVAC Equipment - 16
Hydraulic Diameter Fluid Mechanics - 22
Hydraulic Radius Fluid Mechanics - 23
Hydrocarbons HVAC Equipment - 91
Hydronic Hot Water System HVAC Systems - 44
Hysteresis Supportive Knowledge - 19
I
Incompressible Fluid Mechanics - 17
Indoor turbulence sound calculations Supportive Knowledge - 37
Induced HVAC Equipment - 8
Infiltration Heating/Cooling Loads - 15
Inherent Damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
In-Line Pump HVAC Equipment - 47
Inner Diameter tables HVAC Systems - 28
Insulation Heat Transfer - 18
Interest Rate Basic Engineering Practice - 4
internal energy Thermodynamics - 6
Internal loads Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
IPLV HVAC Equipment - 37
isentropic compression Thermodynamics - 21
isothermal humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 80
K
kilowatt-hour Basic Engineering Practice - 40
kinematic viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4
Kinematic Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 5, 19
Kinematic viscosity tables HVAC Systems - 28
KITCHEN EQUIPMENT Heating/Cooling Loads - 14
Kitchen Equipment Hooded
Appliance 14
Kitchen Equipment Unhooded
Appliance 14
L
Laminar Flow Fluid Mechanics - 8
Latent Cooling Psychrometrics - 17, 34
Latent Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 4
Latent heat of evaporation Energy/Mass Balance - 5
Latent Heating Psychrometrics - 17
L-Bend HVAC Systems - 35
LFL Supportive Knowledge - 6

LHV HVAC Systems - 49
Li-Cl HVAC Equipment - 83
lifetime Basic Engineering Practice - 6, 29
Lift Fluid Mechanics - 24
Lighting Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Lighting Space Fraction Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Lighting Special Allowance Factor Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Lighting Usage Factor Heating/Cooling Loads - 10
Liquid-liquid mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 10
Lithium bromide (LiBr) HVAC Equipment - 40
Lithium-Chloride HVAC Equipment - 83
LMTD HVAC Equipment - 30
LMTD Correction Factor HVAC Equipment - 31
Lower heating value HVAC Equipment - 24
M
Magnification Factor Supportive Knowledge - 23
Make-up HVAC Equipment - 12
Manometer Fluid Mechanics - 13
Mechanical HVAC Equipment - 8
Mechanical Equipment Heat Output Basic Engineering Practice - 27
Mechanical Horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 22
Mechanical Horsepower HVAC Equipment - 46, 59
MERV Supportive Knowledge - 14
minimum attractive rate of return Basic Engineering Practice - 36, 38
minimum rate of return Basic Engineering Practice - 29, 35
Miscellaneous Equipment Heating/Cooling Loads - 11
Miscellaneous Equipment Friction
Losses HVAC Systems - 12
Mixing Psychrometrics - 25
Mixing Energy/Mass Balance - 5, 7
Mixing Box HVAC Systems - 7
Moist Air Psychrometrics - 5
Mollier Diagram Thermodynamics - 38
Montreal Protocol Supportive Knowledge - 12
Moody Diagram Fluid Mechanics - 20
Moody Diagram HVAC Systems - 29
Motor Equipment Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 13
Motor Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 11, 13
Motor Heat Gain to Space Heating/Cooling Loads - 13
Motor Horsepower Basic Engineering Practice - 23, 24
Motor Horsepower HVAC Equipment - 46, 60
Motor Ratings Basic Engineering Practice - 26

Motor Total Heat Gain Heating/Cooling Loads - 12
Multiple Fans HVAC Equipment - 67
N
natural convection Heat Transfer - 7
Natural Draft HVAC Equipment - 8
Natural Frequency Supportive Knowledge - 16
NC HVAC Systems - 13
NC Rating Supportive Knowledge - 32, 34
NEMA 4X Basic Engineering Practice - 27
NEMA standards Basic Engineering Practice - 27
net condenser effect Thermodynamics - 27
Net Positive Suction Head HVAC Systems - 81
Net Positive Suction Head Available HVAC Systems - 30
net refrigeration effect Thermodynamics - 26
neutral pressure level Heating/Cooling Loads - 18
NFPA 90A Supportive Knowledge - 10
NFPA 90B Supportive Knowledge - 11
NFPA 96 Supportive Knowledge - 12
NFRC Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Noise Criteria HVAC Systems - 13
Noise Rating Curves (NR) Supportive Knowledge - 32
Non-condensing boiler HVAC Equipment - 19
NPL Heating/Cooling Loads - 18
NPLV HVAC Equipment - 37
NTU Method HVAC Equipment - 32
Nusselt Heat Transfer - 10
O
ODP HVAC Equipment - 92
OEL Supportive Knowledge - 6
Ohm's Law Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 18
Open Drive HVAC Equipment - 70
Open system HVAC Systems - 24
outside air Heating/Cooling Loads - 3
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Heat Transfer - 15, 25
Overdamped Supportive Knowledge - 21
P
parallel Heat Transfer - 16
parallel and opposed blade dampers HVAC Equipment - 87
parallel flow HVAC Equipment - 27

People Heating/Cooling Loads - 9
Pipe Roughness HVAC Systems - 29
pipe roughness factors Fluid Mechanics - 20
Pitot Tube Fluid Mechanics - 25, 27
Power Basic Engineering Practice - 21
Power Factor Basic Engineering Practice - 21
Prandtl Heat Transfer - 10
present value Basic Engineering Practice - 35, 38
Present Value Basic Engineering Practice - 8
Pressure Thermodynamics - 4
Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 7
pressure loss HVAC Systems - 23
Pressure loss HVAC Systems - 78
pressure-enthalpy Thermodynamics - 14
Primary-Secondary System HVAC Systems - 41
Propeller Fans HVAC Equipment - 60
Properties of Steam Thermodynamics - 39
psychrometer Psychrometrics - 6
Psychrometric Chart Psychrometrics - 4
Pump Curves HVAC Equipment - 48
Pump Operation Point HVAC Equipment - 51
Pump VFD HVAC Equipment - 54
Pump with Modulating Valve HVAC Equipment - 53
Pumps Energy/Mass Balance - 4
pumps HVAC Equipment - 46
Pumps HVAC Equipment - 105
Pumps HVAC Systems - 22
Pumps in Parallel HVAC Equipment - 55
Pumps in Series HVAC Equipment - 57
Q
quality Thermodynamics - 15
R
Radial Heat Transfer - 20
Radial HVAC Equipment - 63
Radiation Heat Transfer - 11
Radiative Heat Heat Transfer - 12
range HVAC Equipment - 10
Rankine Thermodynamics - 5
Rankine Fluid Mechanics - 6
Rate of Return Basic Engineering Practice - 12, 13

Real power Basic Engineering Practice - 21, 25
Reciprocating HVAC Equipment - 69
Reducing Sound Levels Supportive Knowledge - 31
Refrigerant Components HVAC Equipment - 93
Refrigerants HVAC Equipment - 90
Refrigeration HVAC Systems - 53
Refrigeration Cycle Thermodynamics - 17
Reheat System HVAC Systems - 18
Relative Humidity Psychrometrics - 7, 51
resistance Basic Engineering Practice - 41
Resistance Basic Engineering Practice - 17
resistors Basic Engineering Practice - 41
Resistors in Parallel Basic Engineering Practice - 20
Resistors in Series Basic Engineering Practice - 20
Reverse-Return HVAC Systems - 43
Reynolds number Heat Transfer - 10
Reynolds Number Fluid Mechanics - 7, 9, 33, 34, 35
Reynold's number HVAC Systems - 29
Room Criteria Curves (RC) Supportive Knowledge - 32
Rotary HVAC Equipment - 69
Rotary Enthalpy Wheel HVAC Systems - 57
rotary sensible wheel HVAC Systems - 56
Rotary Sensible Wheel HVAC Systems - 56
Run-Around Loop HVAC Systems - 59
R-Value Heat Transfer - 6, 17, 18
S
Salvage value Basic Engineering Practice - 6
Saturation Tables Thermodynamics - 34
Screw HVAC Equipment - 69
Scroll HVAC Equipment - 69
Semi-Hermetic HVAC Equipment - 70
Sensible Cooling Psychrometrics - 16, 34
sensible heat ratio Psychrometrics - 23
Sensible Heat Ratio Psychrometrics - 50
Sensible Heating Psychrometrics - 14, 16
series Heat Transfer - 16
Shell and Tube Thermodynamics - 11
SHR Psychrometrics - 23
Sight Glass HVAC Equipment - 95
Similarity Laws HVAC Equipment - 53, 66
simple payback Basic Engineering Practice - 36

Solenoid Valve HVAC Equipment - 95
Sound frequencies Supportive Knowledge - 29
Sound Level as a Function of
-
Distance Supportive Knowledge 34, 38
Sound power Supportive Knowledge - 28
Sound pressure Supportive Knowledge - 28
Specific Gravity Fluid Mechanics - 6
Specific Heat Thermodynamics - 7
specific heat HVAC Systems - 53
specific volume Thermodynamics - 34
Specific Volume Psychrometrics - 11, 44
Specific Volume Fluid Mechanics - 4
Spring Supportive Knowledge - 15
Stagnation Pressure Fluid Mechanics - 26
static head HVAC Systems - 24
Static Pressure HVAC Equipment - 60
Steam Thermodynamics - 29, 56, 57
Steam Boilers HVAC Equipment - 17
Steam heating coils HVAC Equipment - 78
Steam Humidifier Psychrometrics - 31
Steam Humidifiers HVAC Equipment - 80
Steam Piping HVAC Systems - 79
steam system HVAC Equipment - 18
Steam System HVAC Systems - 51
Steam Tables Thermodynamics - 34
stiffness Supportive Knowledge - 15
Stiffness Supportive Knowledge - 26
Stoichiometry HVAC Equipment - 24
sub-cooled region Thermodynamics - 15
Submerged Surface Fluid Mechanics - 14
suction Thermodynamics - 22
super-heated region Thermodynamics - 15
Superheated Steam Tables Thermodynamics - 34
Supply Air Diffusers HVAC Systems - 13
System Curve HVAC Equipment - 50
system resistance curve HVAC Equipment - 64
T
TDS HVAC Equipment - 13
Temperature Thermodynamics - 5
Temperature Fluid Mechanics - 6
Temperature reset HVAC Systems - 63
Terminal Units HVAC Systems - 12

Thermal Conductivity Heat Transfer - 5
thermal expansion coefficient HVAC Systems - 34
Thermodynamics Properties Thermodynamics - 4
Throws HVAC Systems - 13
Time value of Money Basic Engineering Practice - 4
Total Cooling Psychrometrics - 22, 34
total dynamic head HVAC Systems - 23
total energy Supportive Knowledge - 16
Total Head HVAC Systems - 23
Total Heating Psychrometrics - 22
Total Pressure HVAC Equipment - 60
TOTAL STATIC PRESSURE HVAC Systems - 10
transmissibility Supportive Knowledge - 25
Transmissibility Supportive Knowledge - 22
Tube in Tube Thermodynamics - 11
Tube-Axial Fans HVAC Equipment - 61
Turbines Energy/Mass Balance - 4
Turbulent Flow Fluid Mechanics - 9
TXV Thermodynamics - 14
U
U-Bend HVAC Systems - 36
U-Factor Heat Transfer - 5
Undamped Supportive Knowledge - 20
Underdamped Supportive Knowledge - 20
V
Valve Coefficient HVAC Equipment - 86
Valve: Flow characteristics HVAC Equipment - 85
Vapor Compression Cycle Thermodynamics - 10
Variable Refrigerant Flow HVAC Equipment - 42
Variable Volume System HVAC Systems - 18
Variable-Primary System HVAC Systems - 40
VAV HVAC Systems - 12
VAV cooling HVAC Systems - 62
VAV cooling with reheat HVAC Systems - 62
velocity head pressure HVAC Systems - 33
Velocity in Ducts HVAC Systems - 8
Velocity Pressure HVAC Equipment - 60
Ventilation Supportive Knowledge - 13
Venturi Meter Fluid Mechanics - 28
Vibration Supportive Knowledge - 15

vibration control Supportive Knowledge - 15
Vibration Isolation Supportive Knowledge - 24
Viscosity Fluid Mechanics - 4
Viscous Damping Supportive Knowledge - 19
Voltage Basic Engineering Practice - 17, 18
Volumetric flow rate HVAC Systems - 9
VRF HVAC Equipment - 43
W
Water Cooled Chiller HVAC Equipment - 37
Water Cooled System HVAC Systems - 38
Water Loss HVAC Equipment - 12
Watertube HVAC Equipment - 19
Watertube HVAC Equipment - 19
Wet Bulb Psychrometrics - 44
Wet Bulb Temperature Psychrometrics - 6
work Thermodynamics - 22
Wrap-Around Heat Pipe HVAC Systems - 57
Z
Z-Bend HVAC Systems - 36

Hvac & Refrigeration: PE PE

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Hvac & Refrigeration: PE PE

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Buyer: Caleb R Kreeger (calebkreegz@hotmail.

by Justin Kauwale, P.E.

Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook

Published by Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

Copyright © 2012-2023 Engineering Pro Guides, LLC

Spring 2023 Edition

ISBN 978-0-9887372-4-2 (ebook)

HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook

Main Table of Contents -1 www.engproguides.com

Section 1.0 - Introduction

1.1 KEY CONCEPTS AND SKILLS

1 Basic Engineering Practice - (4-6 questions)

1 Heating/Cooling Loads - (7-11 questions)

(4) Teaching the application of the skill and concept.

1.3 COMPUTER BASED TEST (CBT)

1.4 NCEES PE MECHANICAL REFERENCE HANDBOOK

3.0 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

 Section 1.0: Introduction

4.0 SAMPLE EXAM TIPS

1. Religious head coverings

4. Hats and hoods

If you are stuck on a question, seek the following avenues.

Typical Exam Verbiage/Design:

2. Irrelevant Information: The exam is intended to test your overall understanding of

4. Do Not Overanalyze: The exam questions are meant to be completed in 6 minutes.

Review the Solutions:

5.0 RECOMMENDED REFERENCES

Complete List of References for the HVAC & Refrigeration PE Exam

By Engineering Pro Guides www.engproguides.com

Topic 2.0 Basic Engineering Practice 4 of 80 problems

Topic 8.0 Heating/Cooling Loads 8 of 80 problems

Boilers (efficiencies, fuels, ASHRAE Systems 2016 Ch 32 Boilers

The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) is

Amazon Linki: 2016 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment

Amazon Linki: 2017 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals

5.2 ASHRAE CODES & STANDARDS

Amazon Link: ASHRAE 15, Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems

5.3 NFPA CODES

List of NFPA Codes and Standards

5.4 MECHANICAL PE: HVAC & REFRIGERATION TEXTBOOK

Mechanical PE: HVAC & Refrigeration Textbook

Additional free material is available at www.engproguides.com

5.5 COMMON PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS

6.0 QUICK EQUATION CONSTANTS

6.1 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF ENTHALPY FOR AIR EQUATION

𝑙𝑏𝑚 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑡𝑢

Total Heat Equation for Air

0.084 60.000 5.040

𝑙𝑏𝑚 0.24 𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡

𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 → 𝑸 𝑩𝒕𝒖𝒉 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 ∗ 𝑪𝑭𝑴 ∗ ∆𝑻 °𝑭 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑖𝑟

Sensible Heat Equation for Air

6.3 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF HUMIDITY RATIO FOR AIR EQUATION

Air Heat of Minutes Air Heat of Minutes

0.086 1,080 60 5,573 0.074 1,048 60 4,653

This table is used if your humidity ratio is in grains.

𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ

Latent Heat Equation for Air (grains)

6.4 DENSITY FACTORS (AIR)

𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝐻 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹

𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝐻 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝑄 𝐵𝑡𝑢ℎ 𝐷𝐹 ∗ 1.08 ∗ 𝐶𝐹𝑀 ∗ ∆𝑇 °𝐹

6.5 POWER AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE FOR WATER EQUATION