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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The electron, its
isolation and measurement and the
determination of some of its properties
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The electron, its isolation and measurement and the

determination of some of its properties

Author: Robert Andrews Millikan

Release date: March 30, 2024 [eBook #73297]

Language: English

Original publication: Chicago: The University of Chicago press, 1924

Credits: Laura Natal Rodrigues (Images generously made available

by The Internet Archive.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

ELECTRON, ITS ISOLATION AND MEASUREMENT AND THE
DETERMINATION OF SOME OF ITS PROPERTIES ***
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
SCIENCE SERIES

Editorial Committee
ELIAKIM HASTINGS MOORE, Chairman
JOHN MERLE COULTER
PRESTON KYES
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO SCIENCE SERIES,
established by the Trustees of the University, owes its origin to a
belief that there should be a medium of publication occupying a
position between the technical journals with their short articles and
the elaborate treatises which attempt to cover several or all aspects
of a wide field. The volumes of the series will differ from the
discussions generally appearing in technical journals in that they will
present the complete results of an experiment or series of
investigations which previously have appeared only in scattered
articles, if published at all. On the other hand, they will differ from
detailed treatises by confining themselves to specific problems of
current interest, and in presenting the subject in as summary a
manner and with as little technical detail as is consistent with sound
method. They will be written not only for the specialist but for the
educated layman.
THE ELECTRON
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY

NEW YORK

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI

THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY

SHANGHAI
 THE ELECTRON
ITS ISOLATION AND MEASUREMENT AND THE
DETERMINATION OF SOME OF
ITS PROPERTIES

by

Robert Andrews Millikan

Formerly Professor of Physics, the University of Chicago

Director Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics
California Institute of Technology

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
 COPYRIGHT 1917 BY
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

All Rights Reserved

Published August 1917

Second Impression February 1918
Third Impression November 1918
Fourth Impression December 1910
Fifth Impression February 1921
Second Edition October 1924

Composed and Printed By

The University of Chicago Press
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
 TO
ALBERT A. MICHELSON
AND
MARTIN A. RYERSON
THIS SMALL OUTGROWTH OF THEIR
INSPIRATION AND GENEROSITY
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
 PREFACE
It is hoped that this volume may be of some interest both to the
physicist and to the reader of somewhat less technical training. It has
been thought desirable for the sake of both classes of readers, not to
break the thread of the discussion in the body of the book with the
detailed analyses which the careful student demands. It is for this
reason that all mathematical proofs have been thrown into
appendixes. If, in spite of this, the general student finds certain
chapters, such as VII and VIII, unintelligible, it is hoped that without
them he may yet gain some idea of certain phases at least of the
progress of modern physics.
R. A. MILLIKAN
May 18, 1917
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
In the present edition of this book I have endeavored to present a
simple treatment of all the developments in physics to date which
have caused a modification or extension of any of the viewpoints
expressed just seven years ago. In its preparation I have been very
much impressed to find how uniformly the changes represent
additions rather than subtractions—a striking illustration of the great
truth that science, like a plant, grows in the main by the process of
accretion. If I have succeeded in interesting some old friends and
making a few new ones for one of the most fascinating of subjects, I
shall be content.
ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN
NORMAN BRIDGE LABORATORY OF PHYSICS
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
PASADENA, CALIFORNIA
MAY 18, 1924
 CONTENTS
page
INTRODUCTION 1
chapter
I. early views of electricity 6
II. the extension of the electrolytic
25
laws to conduction in gases
III. early attempts at the direct
45
determination of
IV. general proof of the atomic nature
66
of electricity
V. the exact evaluation of 90
VI. the mechanism of ionization of gases
125
by x-rays and radium ray
VII. brownian movements in gases 145
VIII. is the electron itself divisible? 158
IX. the structure of the atom 182
X. the nature of radiant energy 232
APPENDIX A. from mobilities and diffusion
262
coefficients
APPENDIX B. townsend’s first attempt at a
265
determination of
APPENDIX C. the brownian-movement equation 268
APPENDIX D. the inertia or mass of an electrical
272
charge on a sphere of radius
APPENDIX E. molecular cross-section and mean 275
free path
APPENDIX F. number of free positive electrons in
the nucleus or an atom by 277
rutherford’s method
APPENDIX G. bohr’s theoretical derivation or the
282
value or the rydberg constant
APPENDIX H. a. h. compton’s theoretical derivation
of the change in the wave-length or
284
ether-waves because or scattering by
free electron
APPENDIX I. the elements, their atomic numbers,
286
atomic weights, and chemical position
INDEXES. 287
 INTRODUCTION
Perhaps it is merely a coincidence that the man who first noticed
that the rubbing of amber would induce in it a new and remarkable
state now known as the state of electrification was also the man who
first gave expression to the conviction that there must be some great
unifying principle which links together all phenomena and is capable
of making them rationally intelligible; that behind all the apparent
variety and change of things there is some primordial element, out of
which all things are made and the search for which must be the
ultimate aim of all natural science. Yet if this be merely a
coincidence, at any rate to Thales of Miletus must belong a double
honor. For he first correctly conceived and correctly stated, as far
back as 600 B.C., the spirit which has actually guided the
development of physics in all ages, and he also first described,
though in a crude and imperfect way, the very phenomenon the
study of which has already linked together several of the erstwhile
isolated departments of physics, such as radiant heat, light,
magnetism, and electricity, and has very recently brought us nearer
to the primordial element than we have ever been before.
Whether this perpetual effort to reduce the complexities of the
world to simpler terms, and to build up the infinite variety of objects
which present themselves to our senses out of different
arrangements or motions of the least possible number of elementary
substances, is a modern heritage from Greek thought, or whether it
is a native instinct of the human mind may be left for the philosopher
and the historian to determine. Certain it is, however, that the
greatest of the Greeks aimed at nothing less than the complete
banishment of caprice from nature and the ultimate reduction of all
her processes to a rationally intelligible and unified system. And
certain it is also that the periods of greatest progress in the history of
physics have been the periods in which this effort has been most
active and most successful.
 Thus the first half of the nineteenth century is unquestionably a
period of extraordinary fruitfulness. It is at the same time a period in
which for the first time men, under Dalton’s lead, began to get direct,
experimental, quantitative proof that the atomic world which the
Greeks had bequeathed to us, the world of Leucippus and
Democritus and Lucretius, consisting as it did of an infinite number
and variety of atoms, was far more complex than it needed to be,
and that by introducing the idea of molecules built up out of different
combinations and groupings of atoms the number of necessary
elements could be reduced to but about seventy. The importance of
this step is borne witness to by the fact that out of it sprang in a very
few years the whole science of modern chemistry.
And now this twentieth century, though but twenty-four years old,
has already attempted to take a still bigger and more significant step.
By superposing upon the molecular and the atomic worlds of the
nineteenth century a third electronic world, it has sought to reduce
the number of primordial elements to not more than two, namely,
positive and negative electrical charges. Along with this effort has
come the present period of most extraordinary development and
fertility—a period in which new viewpoints and indeed wholly new
phenomena follow one another so rapidly across the stage of
physics that the actors themselves scarcely know what is happening
—a period too in which the commercial and industrial world is
adopting and adapting to its own uses with a rapidity hitherto
altogether unparalleled the latest products of the laboratory of the
physicist and the chemist. As a consequence, the results of
yesterday’s researches, designed for no other purpose than to add a
little more to our knowledge of the ultimate structure of matter, are
today seized upon by the practical business world and made to
multiply tenfold the effectiveness of the telephone or to extract six
times as much light as was formerly obtained from a given amount of
electric power.
It is then not merely a matter of academic interest that electricity
has been proved to be atomic or granular in structure, that the
elementary electrical charge has been isolated and accurately
measured, and that it has been found to enter as a constituent into
the making of all the seventy-odd atoms of chemistry. These are
indeed matters of fundamental and absorbing interest to the man
who is seeking to unveil nature’s inmost secrets, but they are also
events which are pregnant with meaning for the man of commerce
and for the worker in the factory. For it usually happens that when
nature’s inner workings have once been laid bare, man sooner or
later finds a way to put his brains inside the machine and to drive it
whither he wills. Every increase in man’s knowledge of the way in
which nature works must, in the long run, increase by just so much
man’s ability to control nature and to turn her hidden forces to his
own account.
The purpose of this volume is to present the evidence for the
atomic structure of electricity, to describe some of the most
significant properties of the elementary electrical unit, the electron,
and to discuss the bearing of these properties upon the two most
important problems of modern physics: the structure of the atom and
the nature of electromagnetic radiation. In this presentation I shall
not shun the discussion of exact quantitative experiments, for it is
only upon such a basis, as Pythagoras asserted more than two
thousand years ago, that any real scientific treatment of physical
phenomena is possible. Indeed, from the point of view of that ancient
philosopher, the problem of all natural philosophy is to drive out
qualitative conceptions and to replace them by quantitative relations.
And this point of view has been emphasized by the far-seeing
throughout all the history of physics clear down to the present. One
of the greatest of modern physicists, Lord Kelvin, writes:
When you can measure what you are speaking about
and express it in numbers, you know something about it,
and when you cannot measure it, when you cannot
express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and
unsatisfactory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge,
but you have scarcely in your thought advanced to the
stage of a science.
Although my purpose is to deal mostly with the researches of
which I have had most direct and intimate knowledge, namely, those
which have been carried on during the past fifteen years in this