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Thomson, Wyville, on Calcaromma, 83
Thorax = second chamber of Monaxonic Radiolarian shell, 84
Thyone, 573
Tiara, 273
Tiarechinidae, 557
Tiarechinus, 557
Tiaridae, 273
Tick, intermediate host of Karyolysus, 102;
of Piroplasma, 120;
of Treponema, 121 n.;
Persian, 120;
Zambezian, 121 n.
Tick fever, 120
Tiedemann's bodies, 442, 444, 458;
represented by so-called Polian vesicles of Echinus esculentus,
516
Tinctin bodies, 161
Tinerfe, 417
Tintinnidae, 155;
tests of, 152
Tintinnus, 137
Tissues (definition), 3
Tolerance, induced, of a higher temperature, 118
Tone, 519
Tooth, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 482;
of Echinus esculentus, 505, 524, 525;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546
Tooth-papilla, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 482;
of Ophiocoma, 493;
of Ophiocomidae, 499
Topsent, 196, 218 n.
Tornaria, 616
Torquatella typica (= Strombidium), 155 n.
Torus angularis, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 482
Toxa (= a bow-shaped spicule without spiral twist), 222
Toxaspire (a spiral rod in which the twist a little exceeds a single
revolution. The pitch of the spiral being great the spicule
 appears bow-shaped), 222
Trabeculae, traversing ampullae of tube-feet of Echinus esculentus,
517;
traversing coelom of Echinarachnius parma, 545;
traversing coelom of Antedon rosacea, 585
Tracheae of Chondrophoridae, 309
Trachelius, 137, 152 n.;
T. ovum, 153;
endosarc of, 144
Trachelomonas, 110, 112;
galvanotaxy of, 22
Trachomedusae, 288 f.
Trachynema, 294;
T. funerarium, 294
Trachynemidae, 294
Tractellum, 18, 114
Tragosia, 224
Transverse fission, of Flagellata, 109 f.;
of Dinoflagellata, 110, 131;
of Polykrikos, 131;
of Ciliata, 147;
of Suctoria, 161
Transverse flagellum and groove, in Dinoflagellata, 110, 130 f.;
multiple, in Polykrikos, 132
Transverse (= tentacular) plane, 414
Transverse section, of the arm of an Asteroid, 443;
of the arm of an Ophiuroid, 480;
of the radius of an Echinoid, 518;
of the radius of a Holothuroid, 562;
of body of a Holothuroid, 563;
of arm of Antedon, 586
Trembley, 254, 255
Trepang, 571
Treponema, 111, 121;
T. obermeieri, 121;
T. pallidum, 121;
T. zeemannii, 120
Triaene, 183, 224, 233
Triaxon, 184
Trichaster, 501
Trichasteridae, 501
Trichites (hair-like spicules often occurring in sheaves or clusters),
234
Trichocysts, 142 f.;
of Chloromonadaceae, 113 n.;
Mitrophanow on, 142 n.;
adoral, of Gymnostomaceae, 145
Trichodina, 138, 158
Trichodragmata (a sheaf of straight spicules of hair-like fineness),
222
Trichogorgia, 355
Trichomonas, 111, 115;
conjugation, 116 n.;
T. vaginalis, 119
Trichonympha, 111
Trichonymphidae, 111, 123 f.;
flagella, 114
Trichosphaerium, 51, 53 f.;
test, 53;
life-cycle, 54, 56
Trichostemma, 216
Trichostomata, 137
Tridactyle pedicellariae, of Echinus esculentus, 506, 507;
of E. acutus, 509;
of E. elegans, 510;
of Echinarachnius parma, 544
Trifoliate pedicellariae, of Echinus esculentus, 507, 508;
of E. acutus, 509;
of E. alexandri, 510;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 550;
absent in Cidaridae, 534
Trigonocidaris arbacina, 539
Triloculina, 59, 66
Trimastigidae, 111, 112
Tripedalia cystophora, 319
Tripedaliidae, 319
Triplechinoid type of ambulacral plate, 531, 539
Tripod, 83;
-shaped spicule of Radiolaria, 76
Tripolis, 87
Tripylaea, 76
Trivium, of Echinarachnius parma, 543;
of Holothuria nigra, 561
Trochammina, 59
Trochocyathus, 399;
T. hastatus, 398
Trochocystis, 597;
T. bohemicus, 597
Trochoderma, 577
Trochodota, 577
Trochosmilia, 401
Trochostoma, 575;
T. violaceum, 575
Trophodisc, 284
Trophozooid, 388
Tropical Africa, Trypanosomic diseases of, 119 f.
Trout, black-spotted, destroyed by Hydra, 256 n.
Trypanosoma, 111, 115 f., 119 f., 120;
podoplast or blepharoplast of, 19 n., 109 n.;
undulating membrane of, 115;
Halteridium, a supposed state of, 103 n., 120;
affinities to Acystosporidae, 106;
morphology of, 120, 121;
T. brucei infests hoofed quadrupeds, 119;
T. evansii causes Surra disease in Ruminants, 119;
T. gambiense, cause of sleeping-sickness, 120;
T. lewisii, infests Rodents, 119;
T. noctuae, 120;
conjugation in, 116 n.
Trypanosomoid character of blasts of Acystosporidae, 106
Tsetse Flies, intermediate hosts of Trypanosomes of Nagana and
sleeping-sickness, 119 f.
Tube, of Phalansterium, 113;
of certain Ciliates, 152;
of Maryna socialis, 152;
of Schizotricha socialis, 152;
of Stentor, 154;
of Vorticellidae, 158;
fertilising in Chlamydomonas, 125
Tube-foot, 428;
of Asterias rubens, 441 f.;
of Echinus esculentus, 517 f.;
of Endocyclica, 532;
of Arbaciidae, 532;
of Cidaridae, 532;
of Diadematidae, 532;
of Echinothuriidae, 532;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 551;
of Echinarachnius parma, 545, 546, 547;
of Palaeodiscus, 557;
of Holothuria nigra, 561
Tubipora, 329, 336, 343, 344;
T. musica, 338, 343
Tubiporidae, 344
Tubularia, 268, 271;
T. larynx, 263;
T. parasitica, 268
Tubulariidae, 271
Tumour, malignant, associated with Leydenia, 91
Tunicata, 621
Tuning-fork, 192, 193
Turbellaria, fresh-water, distribution of, 48;
symbiotic with Zoochlorella, 126
Turbinaria, 396
Turbinolia, 399
Turbinoliidae, 398
Turritopsis, 273, 295
Tuscarora, 79, 85
Tylostyle (a style in which a knob surrounds the origin), 224
Tylote, 183, 224
Tylotoxea (a rhabdus of which one actine is tylote or knobbed, the
other oxeate, the latter directed towards the surface of the
Sponge), 224
Tyrosin, 15

Uexküll, on function of pedicellariae of Echinus, 508;

on physiology of nervous system of Echinoidea, 519;
on vision of Echinoidea, 522;
on respiratory function of Aristotle's lantern, 527;
on pedicellariae of Sphaerechinus, 541
Uintacrinus, 588
Ulmaridae, 324
Ulmaris, 314, 324;
U. prototypus, 315, 324
Umbellula, 331, 359, 360, 363;
U. gracilis, 359
Umbellulidae, 362
Umbrella of Medusae, 251
Uncinataria, 203
Under arm-plate of Ophiuroidea, 491
Under basal-plate of Crinoidea—see Infra-basal plate
Undulating membrane, of Flagellata, 111, 115, 123;
of Trypanosoma, 121;
of Dinenympha, 123;
of Stylonychia mytilus, 139 f.;
of Ciliata Trichostomata, 137 f., 145;
of Glaucoma, 153;
of Pleuronema chrysalis, 153, 154;
of Caenomorpha uniserialis, 155;
of Vorticella, 156, 157
Unequal fission in Spirochona, 147
Upper arm-plate, of Ophiuroidea, 491;
of Ophioteresis, 491;
absent in Cladophiurae, 491, 500
Urechinidae, 554 n.
Urine, 13
Urocentrum, 137, 141 n.
Uronema, 137, 141 n.
Urticina, 379, 382;
U. crassicornis, 379, 382
Ussov, 257 n.
Ute, 189, 190, 192, 221

Vacuole, 5 f.;
of Collozoum inerme, 76;
of Oikomonas, 112;
contractile or pulsatile, 14 f.—see Contractile vacuole;
formative, 14 f.—see Alveole, Food-vacuole, Formative vacuole,
Ingestion, vacuole of
Vaginicola, 138, 158
Valvata, 461, 471 f.
Valvate, pedicellariae, of Antheneidae, 456, 471
Vampyrella, 89
Vaney, 292 n.
Variation in character of Foraminiferal shell at different stages of
growth, 66
Vegetative, growth, in coloured Flagellates, 115;
rest, 37
Velata, 461, 464 f., 466
Velella, 301, 302, 309;
V. spirans, 304
Veley, Lilian, on Pelomyxa, 53 n.
Ventriculites, 208, 208
Venus's Flower-basket (= Euplectella aspergillum), 197
Venus's girdle, 420
Veretilleae, 364
Veretillum, 364
Vermicles, of Gaule, a name for Lankesterella, 102
Verrucae, 331
Verrucella, 357;
V. guadaloupensis, 357
Vertebra, of Ophiuroidea, 481, 491;
of Streptophiurae, 491, 494;
of Ophioteresis, 481, 491;
of Ophiohelus, 491, 493;
of Zygophiurae, 491;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 480;
of Ophiarachna, 481;
of Cladophiurae, 491, 500;
of Astroschema, 481;
of Gorgonocephalus, 491;
of Astrophyton, 491;
of fossil Ophiuroidea, 501, 502
Vertebrates, cold-blooded, hosts of Haemosporidae, 102
Verticilladeae, 363
Verworn, on general physiology and protoplasm, 3 n.;
on protoplasmic movements, 16 n., 17;
on regeneration, 35 n.;
of Thalassicolla nucleata, 79 n.
Vesicular nucleus, 25
Vestibule, of Peritrichaceae, 145;
of Carchesium, 146;
of Vorticella, 156, 157
Vexillum, 421
Vibratile styles of Rotifers, 141
Villogorgia, 356
Virgularia, 339, 362;
V. juncea, 360;
V. mirabilis, 362;
V. rumphii, 330, 360
Virgulariidae, 362
Vision, of Asteroidea, 446;
of Echinoidea, 522
Vital forces, 12 f.;
processes, 11 f.
Vitreous Foraminifera, 58, 62
Voluntary muscles of Mammals infested by Sarcosporidiaceae, 108
Volvocaceae, 110, 111, 125 f.;
 literature of, 119
Volvocidae, 111, 126 f., 127, 129;
theca, 113
Volvox, plasmic cell connexions of, 37 n.;
a true vegetable Protist, 130;
V. globator, 127 f.
Vorticella, 138, 155 f., 157;
V. sertulariae, symbiotic Zooxanthella in, 125
Vorticellidae, 157 f.;
fission, 158;
colonies, 158
Vosmaer, 187 n., 212, 234 n., 237

Wager, on Euglenaceae, 125

Wagner, 256 n.
Wallich, on Protozoa, 45
Walteria, 199, 202;
W. flemmingi, 206;
W. leuckarti, 206
Wasielewski, on Sporozoa, 94 n.
Water in protoplasm, 12
Water-Fleas, Vorticellidae found on, 158;
rheotaxy of (small Crustacea), 21
Water-vascular system, 428;
of Asterias rubens, 441;
of Asteroidea, 457;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 486;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 551;
of Holothuria nigra, 564;
of Holothuroidea, 568;
of Synaptida, 568;
of Molpadiida, 568;
of Elasipoda, 568;
of Psolus, 569;
of Antedon rosacea, 583;
 of Carpoidea, 597
Weltner, 177, 178
White Ants, hosts of Trichonymphidae, 123
White Man's Grave, 106
Wille, on Volvocaceae, 119
Willey, 194 n., 248, 421, 422
Williams, on density of living protoplasm, 13 n.
Williamson, on structure of Foraminifera, 62
Wilson, on protoplasm, 3 n.;
on syngamy, 34 n.
Wilson, on Sponges, 171, 231
Woltereck, 302
Wolters, on reproduction of Monocystis, 96 n.
Woodcock, on association and conjugation in Gregarines, 99 n.;
on Haemoflagellates (= Trypanosomidae), 119 n.
Worms, Earth-, hosts of Monocystis, 95
Wreath, adoral, peristomial, of cilia or membranellae of Ciliata
Trichostomata, 137 f.;
of Stylonychia mytilus, 139 f.;
of Metopus, 154;
of Caenomorpha uniserialis, 155;
of Vorticella, 156, 157;
posterior, of Vorticella, 156, 157
Wrightella, 351
Wrisburg, on organisms of putrefaction, 43
Würmchen, of Gaule, a name for Lankesterella, 102

Xenaster, 476
Xenia, 331, 335, 346, 348
Xeniidae, 348
Xenospongia patelliformis, 216
Xiphacantha, 78, 78
Xiphigorgia, 357

Yaws, 121 n.
Yellow-cells (= Zooxanthella), 80, 86, 125, 261, 373, 396
Yolk-granules of ovum of Sea-urchin, 7
Young state of one pairing-nucleus essential, 34
Yvesia, 224

Zambezian Tick, infects man with Treponema, 121 n.

Zaphrentidae, 406
Zaphrentis, 407
Zederbauer, on syngamy in Dinoflagellates, 131 n.
Zittel, 241 n.
Zoantharia, 329, 365 f.;
age, 375;
food, 373;
form, 366;
gonads, 369;
mesenteries, 366 f., 368;
mesenteric filaments, 369;
reproduction, 371;
skeleton, 370;
stomodaeum, 369;
tentacles, 366
Zoanthidae, 404
Zoanthidea, 370, 404 f.
Zoanthus, 405;
Z. macgillivrayi, 406;
Z. sulcatus, 406
Zonarial Radiolaria, 75
Zoochlorella, 111;
a Chlamydomonad, 126;
symbiotic, in Heliozoa, 73;
in Paramecium bursaria, 153;
in Stentor polymorphus, 154;
in Ophrydium, 158;
in Ephydatia, 175;
in Hydra viridis (= chlorophyll corpuscles), 256
Zooids of Volvox globator, 127
Zoosporeae, 89
Zoospores, of Algae and Fungi, possess contractile vacuole, 15;
of Lower Plants, 17 f.;
of Sarcodina, 49;
of Trichosphaerium, 54;
of Microgromia socialis, 60;
of Foraminifera, 67 f.;
of Clathrulina, 73;
 of Radiolaria, 85 f.;
of Zooxanthella, 86;
of Acrasieae, 90;
of Didymium, 92;
of Paramoeba eilhardii, 116 n.
Zoothamnium, 138, 158
Zooxanthella, 110;
a Chrysomonad, 125;
in Radiolaria, 80, 86;
in Vorticella sertulariae, 125;
in Millepora, 261;
in Zoantharia, 373 f.;
in Madrepores, 396
Zopf, on Monadineae (Flagellates and Proteomyxa), 40
Zoroaster, 474
Zoroasteridae, 454, 474
Zostera, 422
Zygophiurae, 491, 494, 495 f., 502
Zygophylax, 280
Zygote, 37 f.;
Amoeba coli, 57;
Centropyxis aculeata, 57;
Chlamydophrys stercorea, 57;
Foraminifera, 69;
Actinophrys sol, 72;
Actinosphaerium, 75;
Gregarinidaceae, 95 f., 97;
Coccidiaceae, 97, 100 f.;
Coccidium, 100, 101 f.;
Acystosporidae, 97, 104 f.;
Flagellata, 116 n., 117 f.;
Bodo saltans, 117 f.;
Dinoflagellata, 131 n.;
Ciliata, 148 f.
—see also Coupled cell, Fertilised egg, Ookinete, Oosperm,
Oospore, Zygotospore
Zygotoblasts of Acystosporidae, 104 f.
Zygotomeres (= naked spores of Acystosporidae), 104 f.
Zygotonucleus (= Fusion-nucleus, a nucleus formed by fusion of two
gametonuclei), 33 f.
Zygotospore (= resting zygote), 97
Zykoff, 178
Zymase (= chemical ferment), 15;
in relation to brood-division, 32 f.
 END OF VOL. I
Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.

[1]

For detailed studies of protoplasm see Delage, Hérédité, 2nd ed.

1903; Henneguy, Leçons sur la Cellule, 1896; Verworn, General
Physiology, English ed. 1899; Wilson, The Cell in Development
and Inheritance, 2nd ed. 1900. All these books contain full
bibliographies.

[2]

As we shall see later, it is by no means easy to separate sharply

Protozoa and Protophyta, the lowest animals and the lowest
plants; and therefore in our preliminary survey to designate lowly
forms of life, not formed of the aggregation of differentiated cells,
we shall employ the useful term "Protista," introduced by Haeckel
to designate such beings at large, without reference to this difficult
problem of separation into animals and plants (see also p. 35 f.).

[3]

The "micron," represented by the Greek letter µ, is 1⁄1000 mm.,

very nearly 1⁄25,000 of an inch, and is the unit of length commonly
adopted for microscopic measurements.

[4]

A solid substratum is required, to which the lower surface adheres

slightly: that movement is complicated by a sort of rolling over of
the upper surface, constantly prolonging the front of the
pseudopodium, while the material of the lower surface is brought
up behind. H. S. Jennings, Contr. to the Study and Behaviour of
the Lower Organisms, 1904, pt. vi. p. 129 f., "The Movements and
Reactions of Amoeba."
[5]

If the protoplasm contains visible granules, as it usually does,

within a clear external layer, we see that these stream constantly
forwards along the central axis of each process as it forms, and
backwards just within the clear layer all round, like a fountain
playing in a bell-jar. This motion is most marked when a new
pseudopodium is put forth, and ceases when it has attained full
dimensions.

[6]

We use as a corresponding adjective the term "plasmic."

[7]

For the study of the structure of protoplasm under the microscope

it is necessary to examine it in very thin layers, such as can for the
most part be obtained only by mechanical methods (section-
cutting, etc.). These methods, again, can only be applied to fixed
specimens, for natural death is followed by rapid changes, and
notably by softening, which makes the tissue less suitable for our
methods. We further bring out and make obvious pre-existing
differentiations of our specimens by various methods of staining
with such dyes as logwood and cochineal and their derivatives,
and coal-tar pigments (see also p. 11 n.).

[8]

In many Protista these granules have been shown by Schewiakoff,

in Z. wiss. Zool. lvii. 1893, p. 32, to consist of a calcium phosphate,
probably Ca3P2O8.

[9]

It is not always possible to tell how much of these structures

represents what existed in life (see p. 11).

[10]
The chromatin and nucleoles are especially rich in phosphorus,
probably in the combination nucleinic acid.

[11]

In chemical phrase the process is "exothermic."

[12]

The growth of crystals is a mere superficial deposit, and cannot at

all be identified with protoplasmic growth.

[13]

A. Bolles Lee, in his Microtomist's Vade Mecum, 1st ed. (1885),

pointed out that "Clearing reagents are liquids whose primary
function is to make microscopic preparations transparent by
penetrating amongst the highly refractive elements of which the
tissues are composed, having an index of refraction not greatly
inferior to that of the tissues to be cleared" (p. 213). We showed
later ("The State in which Water exists in Live Protoplasm," in Rep.
Brit. Ass. 1889, p. 645, and Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc. 1890, p. 441)
that since the refractivity of living protoplasm is only 1.363-1.368, it
follows that the water in the living protoplasm is in a state of
perfect physical combination, like the water of a solution of gum
[read a "mucilage"] or of a jelly. Now the phenomena of
protoplasmic motions as studied in the Rhizopoda and in the
vegetable cell, seem absolutely to preclude the jelly supposition,
and for these cases we must admit that living protoplasm is a
viscid liquid whose refractivity is probably the mean of the two
constituents separated by death, the one solid, the other a watery
solution: and death is for us essentially a process of precipitation
(or better, "desolution"). For further work on these lines see Hardy
in Journ. Physiol. vol. xxiv. 1899, p. 158, and Fischer, Fixirung u.
Färbung, 1900.

[14]

In its original use "automatism" designates the continuous

sequence and combination of actions, without external
interference, performed by complex machines designed and made
for specific ends by intelligent beings: thus we speak correctly of
"automatic ball bearings" that tighten of themselves when they
become loose; but even these cannot take up fresh steel and
redeposit it, either to replace the worn parts or to strengthen a tube
that is bending under a stress.

[15]

Proteids are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen,

nitrogen, and oxygen, of which white of egg (albumen) is a familiar
type. Nucleo-proteids are compounds of proteids with nucleinic
acid, which in addition to the above elements contain phosphorus.

[16]

The specific gravity of living protoplasm has been estimated by

determining the density of a solution of gum in which certain
Infusoria float freely at any depth. It was found by the concurrent
results of Julia B. Platt and Stephen R. Williams (see Amer.
Natural. xxxiii. 1899, p. 31, xxxiv. 1900, p. 95) to be from 1.014 to
1.019, while the Metazoon Hydra was found to give a density of
only 1.0095 to 1.0115. The difference of about 0.006, it is easy to
show, is of the correct "order of magnitude," if we admit that the
actual substance of the Hydra has about the same specific gravity
as the Infusorian, while the density of the whole is lightened by the
watery contents of the internal cavity, etc. Jensen obtained a much
higher result for Paramecium, using a solution of the crystalloid
substance, potassium carbonate; but it is almost certain that this
would be readily absorbed by the organism, and so raise its
density in the course of the experiment.

[17]

Energy may be derived from the mere splitting up of complex

substances within the cell: when such a splitting involves the
liberation of CO2 the process is (mis-)called "intramolecular
respiration."
[18]

A similar organ, but with cellular walls, is the bladder of the

Rotifers and certain Platyhelminthes, in connexion with their renal
system (vol. ii. pp. 53, 199, and especially pp. 213-5).

[19]

In Rep. Brit. Ass. 1888, p. 714; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), iii. 1889,
p. 64. This view has been fully worked out, mainly on Ciliates, by
Degen in Bot. Zeit. lxiii. Abt. 1. 1905.

[20]

See Hartog, "On Multiple Cell-division, as compared with Bi-

partition as Herbert Spencer's limit of growth," in Rep. Brit. Ass.
1896, p. 833; "On a Peptic Zymase in Young Embryos," ibid. 1900,
p. 786; "Some Problems of Reproduction," ii. Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci. xlvii. 1904, p. 583.

[21]

"On the Digestive Ferment of a large Protozoon." Rep. Brit. Ass.

1893, p. 801.

[22]

See for studies of the movements of Protoplasm, Berthold,

Protoplasmamechanik (1886); Bütschli, Investigations on
Microscopic Foams and on Protoplasm, English ed. 1894;
Verworn, General Physiology, 1899; Le Dantec, La Matière
Vivante, 1893?; and Jensen, "Unters. ueb. Protoplasmamechanik,"
in Arch. Ges. Phys. lxxxvii. 1901, p. 361; Davenport, Experimental
Morphology, i. 1897; H. S. Jennings, Contr. etc. 1904.

[23]

The terms "expansion" and "contraction" refer only to the

superficial area: it is very doubtful whether the volume alters
during these changes.
[24]

For discussions on the mechanism of ciliary action, see Schäfer,

Anat. Anz. xxiv. 1904, p. 497, xxvi. 1905, p. 517; Schuberg, Arch.
Protist. vi. 1905, p. 85.

[25]

Like the line of most rapid growth in a circumnutating plant-stem.

[26]

A similar body lies at the centre to which the axial filaments of the
radiating pseudopodia of the Heliozoa converge, and might be
termed by parity a "podoplast"; but "centrosome" is a convenient
general term to include all such bodies. It is clearly of nuclear
origin in Trypanosoma (Fig. 39, p. 120).

[27]

See for development of this view W. M‘Dougall in Journ. Anal.

Physiol. xxxi. 1897, pp. 410, 539. I put it forward in the first draft of
this essay in 1894.

[28]

The best general account is to be found in Davenport,

Experimental Morphology, 1897.

[29]

See Jennings in Woods Holl. Biol. Lect. 1899, p. 93.

[30]

It is not always easy to distinguish these two classes of

phenomena.

[31]

Jennings, in his studies on Reactions to Stimuli in Unicellular

Organisms (1899-1900), has shown that whatever be the nature of
the repellent stimulus, chemical or mechanical or thermal, the