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 Fig. 56.—Plastic form of infectious
rheumatism (pseudo-anchylosis).

Exudative arthritis is the form usually seen at first. It may preserve

its primary characteristics, but only too often proves to be the
forerunner of the plastic form, which develops with the lapse of time.
If nothing is done wasting becomes more marked, and is
accompanied by cachexia. The animals are unable to rise, the
complications inseparable from decubitus occur, and wasting or
secondary purulent infection sets in.
Lesions. In the exudative form the changes are confined to
inflammation and thickening of the synovial membranes, intra-
articular exudation, and sometimes grooving of the cartilages
without ulceration of the articular surfaces and without
disorganisation of the joint.
The plastic form, on the other hand, leads to destruction of the
cartilages, ligaments, and sub-cartilaginous bony layers, induration
and calcification of the walls of the synovial cavity, and even
periostitis of the ends of the bones, with the formation of false joints.
The internal surface of the inflamed synovial membranes begins to
granulate, the fibrous clots distending the articular dilatations are
perforated by these extending granulations, and fibrous tracts soon
develop even in the articulation itself, undergo calcification, and
produce complete anchylosis.
Diagnosis. The diagnosis is easy. The animal’s history and
symptoms, and the stationary character of the pain in the earlier
stages are sufficient to prevent any error.
Prognosis. The prognosis is grave, but not fatal. In the exudative
form recovery may follow early treatment. In the plastic form,
however, the chances of success are extremely meagre.
Treatment. It is easier to prevent than cure, particularly in these
forms of arthritis. The means are simple, and consist in always
treating the post-partum infection as soon as it is recognised. The
animals can be effectively safeguarded against later articular
complications by the free use of intra-uterine antiseptic injections,
until the uterine injuries have wholly healed, and by the
administration of saline purgatives and diuretics.
When infectious arthritis is diagnosed, it is still necessary to resort
to the same methods if the uterine symptoms persist, and to
complete the treatment by local applications.
The best method of local treatment seems to consist in puncturing
the articulation aseptically, removing almost all of the liquid exudate,
and immediately thereafter firing the skin covering the joint in
points or lines.
If treatment has been invoked too late, if plastic arthritis with the
formation of fibrous bands within the joint and destruction of the
cartilages and calcification of ligaments, etc., already exists, there is
no economic object in undertaking treatment. Fattening may be
attempted, or the animals may be handed over to the butcher, if
wasting is not too far advanced.
The use of cold douches, plaster bandages, blisters containing
nitrate of mercury, painting with sulphuric acid, etc., are too
inconvenient and too inefficient to be recommended in actual
practice. Similarly, the salicylate of soda, which is so useful in simple
rheumatism, has no real superiority over diuretics in this condition.

SCURVY-SCORBUTUS.

Definition. “Scurvy is a subacute or chronic trophic disorder

characterised by debility, inanition, anæmia, swelling and bleeding of
the gums, gingival ulceration, dropping of the teeth, and petechial or
more extensive hæmorrhages and exudations in the skin, serosa, and
solid tissues.”
Causes. “Among the lower animals, pigs especially suffer, when
kept in close, foul quarters and fed on a monotonous and insufficient
ration. Formerly scurvy ... was attributed to an exclusive diet of salt
food; to excess of sodium and deficiency of potassium salts; to the
absence of fresh vegetables; to tainted food, etc. In pigs the food and
environment are usually chiefly at fault, the subjects have been
kept ... in foul buildings, in a hot, moist atmosphere, and with an
uniform diet of maize or other unvarying and insufficient ration. Röll
attaches great importance to putrid food. Benion has found the
affection mainly in obese swine, the forced feeding and intestinal
fermentations manifestly operating as factors. Hess and others
attribute the disease in pigs to the germ of erysipelas. Stengel has
produced purpuric disease in animals by inoculation of the
extravasated blood from human scurvy patients. Muller and Babès
found a slender bacillus and streptococci in the tissues of scorbutic
gums.... There is considerable presumption of the existence of a
microbian cause, the efficiency of which is dependent on the
unhygienic conditions above stated, while these unwholesome
conditions are equally non-pathogenic in the absence of the
microbe.”
Lesions. “The blood is black and incoagulable or clots loosely,
rigor mortis is slight, changes may be found in the number and
character of the white and red blood globules, but are not constant;
there is usually an excess of sodium salts and deficiency of potassium
ones, and there is marked petechiation of the skin, mucosæ and
serosæ. The bone marrow may be abnormally red and the bones
fractured at the epiphyses, or carious.... The gums are softened,
swollen, red and uneven, with hæmorrhagic discoloration, erosions,
necrotic areas and ulcers.”
Symptoms. “Anorexia or fastidious appetite, prostration, debility
and sluggish, indifferent movements, are followed by the local
lesions on the skin and gums. On the skin appear petechiæ and
extravasations, which often implicate the bristles, so that they may
be shed or pulled out with ease, the bulbs appearing dark and blood-
stained (bristle rot). These may be followed by necrotic sloughs, and
deep ulcers that are slow to heal. The gums are red and swollen, with
hæmorrhagic spots, and bleed on the slightest touch. Erosions, sores,
and ulcers are not uncommon; the tongue is dry and furred, and the
mouth exhales a fœtid odour. The teeth may become loose in their
sockets. Swelling of the joints ... may be noticed, and lameness or
stiffness from muscular or intermuscular extravasation. Blood
effusions into ... the eye have been noticed, and paralytic or comatose
symptoms from similar effusions on the brain. In the absence of
improvement the patient becomes more and more debilitated and
exhausted, and death may be preceded by profuse exhausting
diarrhœa.”
“Prognosis is unfavourable in advanced cases, and when the
faulty regimen cannot be corrected.”
Treatment. “The first consideration is to correct the
unwholesome conditions of life, purify the building and its
surroundings, and allow a free range on pasture. Subject each patient
to a thorough soapy wash, and if possible allow clean running water
in which a bath may be taken at will. Access to green food and
invertebrates (slugs, larvæ, etc.) is important, or a varied diet of
grain, middlings, bran, roots, fruits, tubers, cabbage, silage, etc.,
must be furnished. Iron and bitters (gentian, nux vomica) are useful,
and sometimes small doses of arsenite of soda solution or cream of
tartar are useful. Acorns or horse-chestnuts are recommended. For
the mouth a wash of potassium chlorate, soda biborate, or potassium
permanganate may be resorted to.... In the case of fat pigs it is more
profitable to butcher at once, as soon as early symptoms appear.”
From Law’s “Veterinary Medicine,” p. 558, Vol. III.
 SECTION II.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.

SEMIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.

The group of diseases which affect the digestive apparatus is one of
the most important in bovine pathology, because almost all animals
of the bovine species are bred with the object of utilising to the full
their powers of digestion and assimilation.
Whether we consider adult fat animals, calves intended for
slaughter or milch cows, the object sought is always the same—i.e., to
secure the greatest possible economic return through the medium of
the digestive functions.
Even although in working oxen there is no tendency to
overfeeding, the animals remain none the less predisposed to
diseases of the digestive apparatus; the meal times are often too
short, and rumination has to be performed under the yoke or during
work—in a word, under unfavourable physiological conditions.
Semiology. To ensure correct diagnosis it is necessary here,
perhaps more than in any other department of pathology, to be
capable of grasping the symptoms or syndromes and signs afforded
by the different parts of the digestive apparatus; to know how to co-
ordinate and group them so as logically to deduce the final synthesis,
the diagnosis. The diagnosis proving correct, the prognosis becomes
easy, and this is the chief object from the economic standpoint. The
practitioner who undertakes treatment knows how to deal with the
case, and the owner likewise knows what he undertakes to do.
Although this classification may appear arbitrary, we shall
consider successively diseases of the mouth, of the pharynx,
œsophagus, stomach, intestines, etc., firstly describing the symptoms
characterising these diseases. At the same time we should state that
many symptoms are common to a large number of diseases and in
themselves have absolutely nothing characteristic. They are simply
sign-posts capable of showing the way.
Mouth. External examination reveals the condition of the muzzle,
the lips and their commissures, and the surroundings of the buccal
opening, and detects the existence of any desquamation, rents,
eruptions, ulcerations, etc., which may be present.
In quiet animals the practitioner can examine the cavity of the
mouth single-handed, but in troublesome animals it becomes
necessary to have an assistant, who seizes the muzzle with one hand
and the tongue with the other, or who simply fixes the animal’s head.
In exceptional cases it will be necessary to secure the patient to a
post, tree, or wall. The mere attempt at examination will show
whether there is trismus or absolute freedom of movement in the
jaws.
By introducing the
fingers between the
commissures and
applying them to the
bars or to the free
portion of the tongue,
the practitioner will be
able approximately to
estimate the local and
general temperature.
The sensations
experienced will also
inform him of the
degree of moisture or
dryness of the mouth
and of its sensibility.
On separating the
jaws, he will note the
odour exhaled and its
possible abnormalities—
its acid, sourish, fœtid,
or putrid character. He Fig. 57.—Examination of the mouth.
will directly observe any
anæmia or hyperæmia
of the mucous membrane, from the inner surface of the lips and
cheeks up to the soft palate, although owing to the thickness of the
buccal epithelium it is not always easy to estimate anæmia or
hyperæmia in the ox. The surface of the tongue should also be
examined, and a note made whether it appear dry, pasty, dusty,
sooty, etc., though these appearances are occasionally apt to lead one
astray. The observer should also inquire regarding want of appetite,
depraved or exaggerated appetite, etc.
Even the manner in which the animal picks up its food will serve to
direct his attention to the development, or possible existence, of
some disease of the mouth, although want of appetite is not always
characteristic of a lesion in the pharynx or œsophagus, but
sometimes of a lesion in its neighbourhood, like hypertrophy of the
retro-pharyngeal or bronchial lymphatic glands.
This examination will also detect the existence on the lips of
wounds, cuts, injuries or specific eruptions (aphtha, tuberculous
ulcerations, the ulcerations of gangrenous coryza, etc.) on the gums
indications of gingivitis, periostitis, mercurial poisoning,
actinomycosis of the maxilla, and ulcerations of all kinds; on the
tongue, of wounds, of simple or specific inflammatory eruptions
(aphtha, the ulcerations of actinomycosis, tuberculosis, gangrenous
coryza, etc.), as well as the swellings due to superficial or deep-seated
glossitis. By the same method of examination, though with somewhat
more difficulty, one can detect abnormal mobility, irregularity of
development, caries, etc., of the teeth, the condition of the excretory
ducts of the salivary glands, the state of the hard and soft palate, and
the existence of fissures, vegetations, polypi and tumours.
Salivary glands. The salivary glands, particularly the parotid
and submaxillary, should be examined by direct inspection and
palpation.
Direct inspection reveals the existence of swellings, deformity of
parts, increase in salivation, or ptyalism, which sometimes occur in
conjunction with foot-and-mouth disease, actinomycosis, acute
stomatitis and mercurial poisoning, as well as increase in size of the
salivary ducts.
 Palpation reveals the
degree of sensibility of
the parts, the existence
of œdema, induration,
cysts, and, more
frequently, distension
of the salivary ducts as
well as the presence of
calculi, tumours, the
direction of fistulæ,
etc.
Difficulties may
occur, particularly
when the submaxillary
and parotid glands are
affected; but
methodical and
complete examination
will usually enable one
to differentiate the
conditions.
Fig. 58.—Examination of the mouth. Pharynx. The
pharynx may be
examined externally by
inspection and palpation, and internally by direct digital palpation.
Inspection reveals possible deformities of the region of the gullet,
palpation the condition of the tissues as well as abnormal sensibility
and infiltration. Internally, digital examination must be cautiously
conducted, and after a strong gag has been securely inserted in the
mouth. Under such conditions it is without danger. The hand being
inserted exactly in the median line will detect obstructions which
may already have been partly identified by external palpation, as well
as the existence of inflammation with or without the formation of
false membranes, and of ulcerations, polypi, etc.
Œsophagus. In consequence of its anatomical formation,
situation and course, the œsophagus may be divided into two distinct
parts—viz., the cervical, which can be examined from the outside,
and the thoracic, which cannot so be examined.
 The cervical part may be examined by inspection, by palpation
from one side, or by palpation with both hands and from both sides.

Fig. 59.—Examination of the pharynx.

Inspection leads to the detection of changes in the shape of the

œsophagus and of the jugular furrow. In fat subjects, however, it is of
little value. As the position and the course of the œsophagus are
known, unilateral palpation, or, better still, bilateral palpation,
employing both hands, is of very much greater service. These
methods reveal the presence of swellings, infiltrations, changes in
shape and sensibility, the presence of foreign bodies, the existence of
dilatations or contractions of the tube, etc.
Auscultation and percussion, though recommended by some
practitioners, are not of much service.
Inability to swallow, due to change in the œsophagus, is also
detected by inspection. Its existence suggests a number of possible
conditions, such as fissure or ulceration of the œsophagus,
compression in the mediastinal region as a result of tuberculous or
other disease, contraction or dilatation of the œsophagus, etc.
Furthermore, inspection will betray the existence of dilatation of the
tube, to which vomiting and regurgitation of food are sometimes due.
Internal exploration is the only method of detecting changes in the
thoracic portion, and may also be utilised to locate lesions in the
cervical region. It is practised by passing a sound of small calibre or
any flexible cylindrical object, such as a cart rope, etc. The patient
must be fixed with the head extended on the neck and a proper gag
or speculum introduced into the mouth. Exploration assists us in
recognising the existence of inflammation of the œsophagus, true or
false contraction, dilatation and the presence of obstructions.
In animals of the bovine species all these lesions—viz.,
inflammation of the œsophagus, fissuring and ulceration,
obstructions, compressions, dilatations and contractions of the tube
—although not very frequent, are nevertheless from time to time
encountered.
Stomach. Exploration of the stomach or of the different gastric
compartments presupposes an exact knowledge of the respective
positions of the different reservoirs. Topographical anatomy shows
that the rumen is situated in the left flank, and that it occupies the
whole of the left abdominal region from the diaphragm to the pelvic
cavity. As a consequence, it may be explored from the region of the
twelfth rib; it is inclined slightly from above downwards, and from
left to right, its extreme right border extending as far as, or a little
beyond, the white line.
The reticulum, the smallest of the four reservoirs, is situated in the
sub-ensiform region at right angles to the median plane of the body.
On the left it touches the rumen and the diaphragm; on the right side
it is in contact in front with the diaphragm, above with the omasum,
and to the right and towards the rear with the abomasum. The
omasum is situated above the reticulum and conical right portion of
the rumen; in front it touches the liver, and towards the back and left
the rumen. The abomasum is situated obliquely in the right
hypochondriac region, its anterior surface resting on the lower wall
of the abdomen towards the middle and right side of the body, its
pyloric portion extending upwards, behind the right hypochondriac
region.
Rumen. The rumen can be examined by inspection, palpation,
percussion, and auscultation. The use of the œsophageal sound and
of the trocar and canula is also of value in diagnosis.
Inspection affords information of a varying character, according to
the moment when it is practised, even in a condition of health. It
only extends to the condition of the flank before or after a meal, etc.,
emptiness of the rumen being accompanied by hollowness of the
flank, and distension, following an abundant meal, by fulness in this
region.
When digestion is not proceeding normally, the flank may be
distended unduly by gaseous accumulations or by the presence of
solid food. In abdominal and mediastinal tuberculosis and in gastro-
enteritis there may be simple tension or slight dilatation. When
indigestion or enteritis is entering on a favourable stage, the flank
may appear hollow, and in cases of chronic diarrhœa it may appear
retracted.

Fig. 60.—Position of the thoracic and abdominal viscera of the left side. A,
posterior aorta; P, paunch or rumen; Id, line of insertion of the diaphragm; C,
heart and pericardium; Pd, anterior lobe of right lung; Pg, left lung; D, diaphragm;
Rg, left kidney.

Digital examination or palpation may be practised over the entire

region of the flank. It shows whether the rumen is full or empty,
reveals the consistence of the contained food in cases of chronic
indigestion, the sensibility of the walls, and the rate and order of the
muscular contractions. Direct or indirect percussion may be carried
out on a horizontal line from the twelfth rib as far back as the flank,
and vertically from the lumbar vertebræ to the white line. In health
one discovers in young animals an upper zone of normal resonance
due to gas, a zone of semi-dulness and an inferior zone of absolute
dulness, due to the liquids in the rumen. The spleen, which is
attached to the supero-anterior surface of the left side of the rumen,
does not seriously restrict the area open to percussion.
In pathological conditions percussion from above downwards may
produce a tympanitic sound, due to gaseous indigestion or a clear
sound throughout the greater portion of the vertical diameter
suggestive of acute gastro-enteritis with the formation of gas in the
rumen, or of adhesive peritonitis preventing the rumen from
collapsing. Indigestion due to excess of solid food, on the contrary, is
characterised by a dull sound throughout the entire region from
above downwards. Percussion along a horizontal line permits of the
delimitation of certain zones which vary a great deal in area,
according to the case.
Auscultation is more instructive than percussion. Like percussion,
it may be practised throughout the entire depth of the abdomen,
from the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ as far as the
white line, and in a horizontal direction from the eleventh rib to the
region of the flank.
Auscultation of the upper zone enables one to detect sounds of
deglutition, gurgling sounds (glou-glou), and a sound resembling
falling water, due to the movement of solids or liquids in the rumen
and reticulum. The sounds heard vary in different cases, and depend
on the state of repletion or of emptiness of the rumen.
Auscultation of the middle zone reveals:
Firstly, a very special crepitation sound, which may be compared
to the deflagration of a handful of salt thrown on burning coal. It is
believed to result from the bursting of bubbles in the contents of the
rumen under the action of normal digestion.
Secondly, a churning sound produced by the rhythmic peristaltic
contractions of the rumen, by which the substances ingested are very
intimately mixed. By applying the ear over the flank region or by
palpation the rhythmic contractions of the rumen, two per minute in
most cases, can readily be perceived.
In practice examination of the rumen is confined to these four
methods.
Puncture. From an exclusively scientific point of view,
exploration of the rumen also comprises analysis of the gas collected
through puncture and analysis of the liquids removed by aspiration
(first stages of gastric digestion). Normally, these gases, in the order
of their abundance in the mixture, consist of the following: Carbonic
acid, carburetted hydrogen and nitrogen.
In disease, and in most cases of abnormal fermentation, the
carburetted hydrogen is greatly in excess of the carbonic acid. In
chronic gastro-enteritis, ammonium sulphide and other offensive
gases are found in addition.

Chemical analysis. In the rumen the ingested food is macerated

in an alkaline liquid at a temperature of 100° to 101° Fahr. (the
alkalinity is due to the saliva). This process markedly modifies the
composition of the ingested matter. Nevertheless, the upper portion
in contact with the gas sometimes presents a slightly acid reaction,
probably due to carbonic acid. The sugary and fatty materials
contained in the food respectively undergo lactic and butyric
fermentation. Only a small quantity of the starch, however, is
transferred into sugar. In the calf, and in very young animals, the
reaction of the rumen is acid throughout the entire period of sucking.
In disease, when rumination has long been suspended and chronic
loss of appetite or gastro-enteritis exists, the reaction is generally
acid. The sugars, gums, and soluble salts of forage, roots, etc., are
dissolved in the rumen, but fatty materials undergo no modification.
The reticulum, which is the smallest of the gastric compartments,
is situated in the sub-ensiform and retrodiaphragmatic regions,
extending right and left of the middle line to a nearly equal distance.
Above and to the left it communicates freely with the rumen, to the
right with the omasum.
In practice it can only be examined in two ways: inspection and
palpation.
 By inspection changes in the configuration of the ensiform region
may sometimes be detected. Such changes are rare, and must be
distinguished from congenital deformity. They sometimes
accompany inflammation of the reticulum produced by a foreign
body, when the lower abdominal wall is directly perforated by such
body.
In cases of inflammation of the reticulum due to foreign bodies,
abscess formation, perforation, etc., it is possible to detect
œdematous infiltration, abnormal sensibility, fluctuation and
increased heat, etc., by manipulating the parts with the fingers or the
clenched fist.
If the evidence pointing to the presence of a foreign body in the
reticulum is considered sufficient, gastrotomy may be performed and
the interior of the viscus examined with the hand, but although the
operation is possible it is very rarely practised.
Omasum. The omasum occupies, so to speak, a position inverse
to that of the reticulum, lying deep down on the right side, behind
the diaphragm, under the hypochondrium, and above the abomasum
and reticulum.
It is the only gastric compartment which cannot be examined,
although when impacted it may be felt on the right side.
Abomasum. The abomasum is lodged in the lower part of the
right flank under the circle of the hypochondrium. It extends
obliquely from below, upwards from the sub-ensiform to the
sublumbar region. The smaller curvature is turned towards the
rumen on the left side; the larger curvature is in contact with the
abdominal wall. In spite of what has so often been stated by those
who have never seen it, the abomasum can be examined and is
accessible along the circle of the hypochondrium.
In adults useful information can rarely be obtained by inspection;
but in sucking calves the abomasum, if distended by indigestion,
gastro-enteritis, etc., sometimes appears prominently in the right
abdominal region. Palpation with the fingers or with the fist will
detect exaggerated sensibility, irritation, inflammation, or
distension.
Percussion and auscultation furnish no very precise information.
The information obtained by the above-described examination of the
stomach is in practice amplified by a search for certain symptoms
which are usually easy to detect. They comprise:
(a) Suppression or irregularity of rumination. This very important
symptom suggests the degree of gravity of the digestive disturbance,
and to some extent the gravity of the general condition. Suppressed
rumination is a common symptom in many diseases, some of which
are purely digestive, though all are not. It is, however, a grave sign in
most cases.
(b) Eructation, which is usually frequent, may be regarded as
normal provided the exhaled gas preserves the fresh odour of grass
or of the food swallowed, like brewers’ grains, turnips, etc.
Sometimes the gas is sour, acid, fœtid, or putrid, all of which
conditions indicate disease.
(c) Yawning is not common. It becomes frequent and attracts
attention in certain abnormal conditions; in others, again, it may be
completely suppressed.
(d) Nausea and vomiting are rare. Vomiting is commoner in calves,
and results from inability to digest the milk, or simply to over-
distension of the abomasum. The matter vomited by adults usually
consists of partly masticated food, and is derived from the rumen;
while the contents of the abomasum are occasionally rejected, in
which case the material is of pulpy consistence and has an acid smell.
(e) Digestive disturbance is sometimes accompanied by various
modifications in the breathing, such as immobilisation of the
hypochondriac region and of the diaphragm; abnormal sensibility
and reflex coughing on palpation, and, in inflammation of the
reticulum due to foreign bodies, costal respiration.
 Fig. 61.—Position of the abdominal viscera,
seen from below. Gi, large intestine; V.c.g.,
left pouch of the rumen; E, E, epiploon (line
of insertion); P, paunch or rumen; Ax,
xiphoid appendix of the sternum; R,
reticulum; C, abomasum; V.c.d., right pouch
of the rumen; Ig, small intestine.

It is by methodically observing, grouping, and classifying the

symptoms presented that one is enabled to detect the links
connecting them.
Intestine. The intestinal mass is contained in the right half of the
abdomen above the compartment of the stomach. The large intestine
occupies the upper zone, corresponding externally with the hollow of
the flank from the thirteenth rib to the haunch. The small intestine
occupies the middle zone from the thirteenth rib to the entrance to
the pelvis and the stifle region; the inferior zone is occupied by the
rumen and abomasum, and in pregnant females by the gravid uterus.
 Notwithstanding these indications it is somewhat difficult to
examine the mass of the large intestine, separated as it is from the
abdominal wall by the U-shaped inflection of the duodenal loop, of
which the deep retrograde branch is in contact with the terminal
portion of the floating colon.
Inspection of the right flank furnishes no information of value in
diseases of the intestine, nor is auscultation of much service beyond
enabling one to detect the frequency, diminution, or absence of
borborygmus. Palpation alone is really of service. Practised gently
and superficially with the tips of the fingers it detects abnormal
sensibility in acute cases of enteritis; when with more energy,
palpation reveals whether the bowel be full or empty, provided that
the muscular resistance be not too marked.
Colic. In colic the clinical signs, their varieties, and the lesions
which give rise to them are of much more importance. When it
results from intestinal congestion à frigore (due, for example, to the
ingestion of cold water), colic is usually violent, sudden, and of
relatively short duration. In other cases it is violent and prolonged
for several hours, a whole day, or even two days, and may be
followed by coma and suppressed peristalsis; it then indicates
invagination, volvulus, or strangulation. Sometimes, on the contrary,
it remains dull and is slow and continued (acute gastro-enteritis,
hæmorrhagic gastro-enteritis, etc.).
Finally, colic of the latter character may, in addition, be
accompanied by icterus, in cases of retention of bile, biliary calculi,
hepatitis, etc.
Anus. Examination of the anus is easy. Simple inspection reveals
its presence or absence, and consequently the existence of congenital
rectal atresia, which is somewhat common in calves and colts. Digital
exploration is, however, sometimes useful, for in occasional cases an
anus may exist, which externally appears normal, but terminates in a
sac, the rectum being closed by a membranous partition.
Nothing is easier to recognise than tenesmus; it occurs in cases of
profuse diarrhœa, diarrhœa of calves, and dysentery in newly-born
animals.
 Fig. 62.—Position of the thoracic and abdominal viscera as seen from the right
side. ID, insertion of the diaphragm; V, gall bladder; C, abomasum; I, small
intestine; D, duodenum; GC1—GC2, large intestine (colon); Co, cæcum; Pc, point of
the cæcum; CF, floating colon (first part); P, pancreas; R, right kidney; F, liver; Di,
diaphragm (line of projection towards the front); Pd, right lung.

Rectal exploration. Exploration of the rectum is a last and most

valuable means of confirming the diagnosis in all visceral diseases of
the pelvis and abdomen. To utilise this method to the full, the rectal
pouch should first be thoroughly emptied by the free use of enemata,
the subsequent examination being made with great care. The
animal’s hind legs being secured, the operator smears his hand and
forearm with some fatty substance, and, forming the fingers into a
cone, introduces them with gentle pressure through the anus, the
palm of the hand being turned downwards. Passing the hand gently
along the rectum, the operator will be able to distinguish the conical
posterior pouches of the rumen, the loop of the duodenum, the mass
of convolutions of the small intestines and of the colon, etc. Next, he
will examine the vagina, uterus, bladder, ureters, kidneys, aorta, and
the pelvic and sublumbar lymphatic glands. He may be able to
recognise distension of the rumen with food, twists of the intestine,
herniæ, mesenteric or diaphragmatic invagination or volvulus of the
bowel, etc.
 In other cases he may be able to discover lesions of the kidney, of
the uterus, of the broad uterine ligaments, of the ovaries, or of
vessels.
In all cases it is desirable to make a methodical and complete
examination, whatever the primary object may have been. Such an
examination may be carried out as follows: The operator having
introduced his hand into the rectum, begins by examining the state
of the pelvic organs, the rectum, base of the vagina, the body and
horns of the uterus, the bladder and the lymphatic glands and
ligaments of the pelvis.
By laying the hand flat in the rectum and pressing gently
downwards the anterior border of the pubis may be felt, somewhat
more deeply placed. The rectum is then thrust slightly to the right,
and the ascending branch of the right ilium, as high as the sacro-iliac
articulation, and the lower surface of the sacrum, are directly
examined; lastly, the hand is directed towards the left, gliding down
the left ilium, and returning to the point of departure. In this way the
state of the pelvic floor, of the arteries, veins, and lymphatic glands,
etc., the degree of mobility, tension, or fulness of the uterus, as well
as the condition of the broad ligaments, are all ascertained.
Still more deeply placed, and at the extreme limit to which the arm
can be introduced, will be found some or all of the above-mentioned
organs—viz., the small intestine, large intestine, kidney, etc.
Defæcation: Examination of the fæcal material. The
character of the fæces is very important in certain diseases; e.g.,
diarrhœa assumes a varying importance, according as the discharges
are of an alimentary, serous, mucous, or sanguinolent type, and are
slight, temporary, intense, profuse, or continued. In other cases
defæcation is slow, becomes difficult, and various degrees of
constipation exist. Defæcation may be completely suppressed, as in
invagination or strangulation of the intestines; on the other hand,
one may observe diarrhœa, dysentery (microbic or sporozoic
diarrhœa), and intestinal hæmorrhage. The last named may be of
varying degrees of acuteness, from the passage of simple drops or
streaks of blood, distributed over almost normal excreta, to the
passage of unchanged blood in liquid jets or in clots.
Macroscopic examination. Macroscopic examination takes
cognisance, firstly, of the quantity (40 to 80 lbs.), consistence
(firmness or softness), colour (olive green, blackish green, greyish
black, sooty, or tarry) and odour (normal, fœtid, putrid, etc.) of the
fæces.
Sometimes the excreta are moulded and covered with glairy
mucus, or contain such abnormal products as undigested food (a
sign of chronic diarrhœa), false membranes, false membranes due to
pseudo-membranous enteritis, fibrinous clots, or parasites like liver
flukes, tæniæ and strongyles.
Microscopic examination. Microscopic and bacteriological
examination is sometimes useful; and even when macroscopic
examination has revealed nothing, it is possible to detect the
presence of the eggs of parasites like flukes, strongyles, hooked
worms, etc., the presence of sporozoa (as in intestinal coccidiosis)
and of specific microbes, as in the diarrhœa of calves, etc.
It is only by the synthesis of methodically collected signs that one
finally succeeds in exactly diagnosing the numerous diseases which
may affect the intestine: intestinal congestion, invagination,
volvulus, intestinal strangulation (mesenteric or diaphragmatic
herniæ, etc.), atresia of the anus, acute or hæmorrhagic enteritis, or
intestinal helminthiasis.
Liver. The liver is situated in the right sublumbar region. It is
fixed behind the diaphragm and under the hypochondriac region,
and extends from the ninth to the thirteenth rib. It can be examined
by palpation through the last intercostal spaces and behind the
thirteenth rib. In health it is difficult to pass the fingers sufficiently
under the hypochondriac circle to reach the liver; but in case of
morbid hypertrophy it extends more or less beyond the last rib, and
palpation between the last ribs sometimes reveals abnormal
sensibility.
Percussion better than palpation enables one to delimit the space
occupied by the liver, particularly towards the back, where there is
no interposed layer of lung. Percussion is especially useful in
detecting hypertrophy due to cancer, tuberculosis, echinococcosis of
the liver, etc., or hepatic atrophy. In isolated cases icterus may exist,
confirming the conclusions otherwise arrived at.
Pancreas. The pancreas is situated rather deeply in the right
sublumbar region, below the kidney, behind the liver, above the