LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL ~ If PUC PHYSICS CHAPTER-3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY Current Electricity It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of electric charges in motion. Electric current or strength of current It is the rate of flow of charges through a conductor of any cross-section. Steady current a 1 where q is the charge which flows through conductor of any cross-section in time t. If the flow of charges is uniform, then the current is steady. It is given by, 1= Instantaneous current It is the current at a given instant of time. If the flow of charges is non-uniform, then instantaneous current is given by, dq t= 49 dt where dq is the small amount of charge which flows through a conductor of any cross-section in small interval of time dt. NOTE: Unit of current: ampere is the SI unit of current. Consider, I= ., Ifq=1 coulomb, t=1 second, thenI= 1 ampere, symbol is A Define ampere. Electric current is said to be 1 ampere, when 1coulomb of charge flows in one second through a conductor of any cross section. Current carriers The charged particles whose flow in a given direction constitutes clectric current are called current carriers or charge carriers. 1) In metals, free electrons are the charge carriers. 2) In electrolytic conductors, both positive and negative ions are the charge carriers 3) In gases, positive ions and electrons are the charge carriers. 4) In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the charge carriers. DERT} Current Electricity io] ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and und. 1) Convention for the direction of current By convention, the direction of flow of positive charge gives the direction of current. This current is called conventional current. The direction of flow of electrons gives the direction of clectronic current. The direction of electron current is opposite to the conventional current. The direction of conventional current is indicated using arrows in a circuit from Positive terminal of a cell to negative terminal standing theLEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL It PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Blectrcity Ee ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understandii ject 2) If n is the number of free electrons that flows in a conductor of any cross section in time ne t 3) If q is the total positive charge moving in the forward direction and q: is the total negative charge moving in the forward direction in a time during the same time interval t, Gey Ss t t 4) If q, is the total positive charge moving in the forward direction and q is the total negative charge moving in the backward direction in a time during the same time interval t, then the current is I= a a §) The current in domestic appliances is of the order of an ampere while in electronic circuits it is in the range of microampere to milliampere. © The currents through our nerves are in microampere. 7) Blectric current is a scalar quantity. Even though, electric current has both magnitude and direction, it is a scalar quantity. This is because the value of electric current does not depend on its direction. ‘That is, the current in a wire remain unchanged if it is bent, tied with a knot. interval t, then the current is given by, then the current is I= Current density It is the current per unit area of cross-section of the wire. Current I ‘Current density = ——_+- "3S __s Area of cross-section A NOTE Conductor Ca 0 os 1) Current density is a vector quantity. 2) Its direction is same as that of current. 3) Its SI unit is A/m? or Am”. Its dimensional formula is [Me T» A! L?] 4) Current density in vector form I= JeA where I is the dot product of J and A. A is the area vector which represents cross- sectional area of the conductor. 5) If A makes an angle 0 with the direction of current, then, I = J A cos0. where Acos0 is the component of A perpendicular to direction of flow of current 6) Current density in terms of charge and number of charge carriers, eo A At At” 7) Current density in terms of drift velocity and number density of charge, 1 _nAvge eee 8) If the current flows through a conductor of varying cross-section, the current is same at all points along its length. If this is not true, the charge will not be conserved. But current density is different at different points along its length. This is because area of cross-section is different at different points. >I vae since I= nAwe ‘aLEGENDS" (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL ~ II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT)- Current Electricity Mechanism of flow of current in a metallic conductor Saas e oe i Figure-2 Figure-1 Vv Figure-3 The free electrons will be in random motion within the conductor (Similar to that of molecules of a gas inside a container). Due to the random motion, the free electrons collide with positive ions/atoms and undergo change in direction at each collision as shown in the figure-1 The average thermal speed of the free electrons is of the order of 10°m/s. But the average thermal velocity is zero because of random motion. That is, free clectrons in the conductor do not move in any specific direction. Therefore, the net flow of electrons (charges) inside the conductor in any direction is zero. Hence, net current in the conductor is zero. Maintaining of steady current in a conductor Consider a cylindrical conductor and two identical discs of dielectric having the radii equal to that of cylinder. Put the charges +Q and -Q on the two discs and attach them to two ends of the cylinder as shown in the figure-2. Due to this, a potential difference is developed across the ends of the conductor. Then, an electric field will be set up in the conductor and its direction is from positively charged disc to negatively charged disc. Due to this ficld, the free electrons accelerate towards +Q and neutralize the charges on the discs. The free electrons flow as long as there is electric field inside the conductor. In this situation, there will be a current for a short time and no current thereafter. In order to maintain a steady current in a conductor, a continuous flow of charges is required. This is possible if the two ends of the conductor are maintained at different potentials. To maintain potential difference across a conductor, we can use the battery or dynamo. It is shown in the figure-3. State and explain Ohm’s Law. Statement. ‘The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature & other physical conditions of the conductor are kept constant. Explanation. Ohm's Law is given by, IV => I= % where I is the current in the conductor, R is the resistance of the conductor, V is the potential difference applied across ends of the conductor. Limitations of Ohm’s Law. 1) It is not applicable for semiconductors, 2) It is not applicable for superconductors, 3) It is not applicable for vacuum tubes, 4) It is not applicable for metallic conductors at very low and very high temperatures.} i acnnos" mucDN STUDY MATERIAL =I PUC PHYSICS (NCERD Current Mécrity How does the resistance of a conductor depend on applied voltage? | Resistance of a conductor is independent of applied voltage. Ohmic devices or ohmic substances j ‘These are the devices which obey Ohm’s Law. Example: Metallic conductors, voltmeter and ammeter, Draw V-I graph for ohmic devices For Ohmic devices, current increases linearly with increase in voltage y Non-ohmic devices or Non-ohmic substances These are the devices which do not obey Ohm’s law. Example: semiconductors, triodes, diodes etc. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) Draw V-I graph for non-ohmic Draw V-I graph for non-ohmic device such as p-n unction device such as GaAs (Gallium (semiconductor diode) arsenide-LED). 41 Forward bias curve wv + V (volt) Reverse bias curve a : The voltage verses current curve is non- (wa) linear. Therefore, GaAs is non-ohmic device Resistance of a conductor Resistance =~ > R Electric current Potential difference v I Define resistance of a conductor. It is defined as the ratio of potential difference applied across the ends of the conductor to the current flowing through it. What is meant by resistance of a conductor? It is the amount of opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of electric current through it. Unit of resistance: ohm or {is the SI unit of resistance. v (consider R TW Vervolt, T=tampere, then R= ohm.) Define ohm. ‘The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if 1A of current flows through it when a potential difference of 1V is applied across its endsLEGENDS’ (MODN STUDY MATERIAL - I! PUC PHYSICS (NCERT Current Electricity ne Explain the origin of resistivity/resistance Ton/atom, Free electron When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, an electric field is set up in it. This electric field accelerates the free electrons. As the electrons move through the conductor, they collide with the fixed positive ions/atoms free electrons. This opposition to the motion of free electrons is the origin of resistivity/resistance. When the temperature of the conductor increases collisions and hence resistance increases. A wire is carrying a current. Is it charged? No, the current in a wire is due to flow of free electrons in a definite direction. But the number of protons in the wire at any instant is equal to number of electrons and charge on the electron is equal and opposite to that of proton. Hence net charge on the wire is zero. Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depend 1) Length of the conductor 3) Nature of the conductor. 2) Area of cross section of the conductor. 4) Temperature of the conductor. How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length and area of cross. section? ‘The resistance of a conductor is 1) Directly proportional to length of the conductor. 2) Inversely proportional to area of cross-section of the conductor. Mention the expression for resistance in terms of resistivity and explain the symbols. It can be shown that, Rat BR where R is the resistance of the conductor, p is the resistivity of the material of conductor, L is the length of the conductor and A area of cross-section of the conductor. Define resistivity of a conductor. It is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross- section. (Consider a when A=1m?, L=1m, then p=R) Mention the SI unit of resistivity. The SI unit of resistivity is Qm.LEGENDS’ (MGDN STUDY MATERIAL — 11 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Electricity ces ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) Expression for resistivity of a conductor pL. RA ge Sh ot de oP L (1) For a metallic cylindrical wire with radius r, A= x12 @= p= k= L 1) Resistivity is constant for a given material. It is independent of dimensions (length and area of cross-section) of the conductor. It indicates the nature of the material. 2) For good conductors like copper, its value is of the order of 10%Q-m and for insulator like quartz it is of the order of 10162-m. 3) For perfect conductors, the resistivity is zero and for perfect insulator the resistivity is infini 4} Greater the value of resistivity, stronger the electric field required to establish a given current. 5) Factors affecting the resistivity > We have, Conductivity, c= “© (it will be proved later) m But resistivity, P ~ Conductivy Resistivity is inversely proportional to the number of free electrons per unit volume (n) of the conductor and relaxation time (1) of the electrons in a conductor. But for a given conductor, n is constant and it depends on the nature of the material. So, resistivity of a conductor depends on the nature of the material. But relaxation time decreases with increase in temperature. So, resistivity increases with increase in temperature. It is discussed below. A wire of resistivity p is stretched to three times to length what will be its new resistivity? Resistivity will be same. This is because the resistivity depends on the nature of the material and temperature. It does not depend on the dimensions of the wire. How does the resistivity of metals vary with temperature? The resistivity of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the temperature. For a conductor, it can be shown that, p, =p,(1+at) where p: is the resistivity at a temperature tC. Po is the resistivity at a temperature 0°C is the temperature co-efficient of resistivity. NOTE Manganin and Constantan coils are used in making of standard resistors because they are having very low temperature co-efficient of resistivity. le their resistivity is very slightly affected by changes in their temperature when current flows through them. How does the resistivity of a semiconductor vary with temperature? The resistivity of a semiconductor is inversely proportional to the temperature. aiLEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL ~ II PUC PHYSICS INCERT) Current Electricity oy Draw the graph which shows the variation of resistivity of copper with temperature. ae The curve shows that, as the temperature me increases the resistivity also increases. ol —_-+ tg Draw the graph which shows the variation of resistivity of nichrome, manganin and constantan with temperature. pt 5 The curve shows that, as the temperature increases the resistivity increases linearly. oL—_—_+ tc Does the value of temperature coefficient of resistance always positive? No. the value of temperature coefficient of resistance is positive only for metals and alloys. It is negative for semiconductors, Draw the graph of resistivity verses temperature for a semiconductor. Pp ‘The curve shows that, as the temperature increases the resistivity decreases, 3 tec. Conductance. It is defined as the reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor. Conductance = RES Gane NOTE 1) Its SI unit is 1. It is read as per ohm 2) It’s another unit is S. It is read as siemen Conductivity: It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor. 1 1 Conductivity = age uctivity = Resitivity P NOTE 1) Its SI unit is 1 mt. Itis read as per ohm per metre 2) Another unit is Sm“. It is read as siemen per metreLEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL U1 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Bectrcity oa Drift velocity It is an average velocity with which free electrons drift in a metallic wire opposite to the electric field when potential difference is applied across its ends. Explanation of drift velocity Ion/Atom, Free Electron When potential difference is applied across a conductor, an electric field is set up in it. This electric field accelerates free electrons. Then the free electrons drift in a metallic wire as shown in the above figure. Mention the expression for drift velocity and explain the symbol where E is the electric field, ¢ is the charge of an electron. + is the average relaxation time, m is the mass of the electron. Negative sign indicates that the drift velocity and electric field are in opposite direction. Relaxation time It is an average time interval between two successive collisions of free electrons with fixed atoms/positive ions in a metal. Mobility of free electrons It is the drift velocity acquired by free electrons per unit electric field. Mobility, 1 = “t, where vy is the drift velocity and E is the electric field. Mention the SI unit of mobility. The SI unit of mobility is_ m?/Vs. Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor. Let m be the mass of an electron, -e be the charge of the electron, socnch u be the average initial velocity of all the free electrons, E. E be the field in the conductor, e v_ be the average final velocity of all the free electrons, Lele tete a be the acceleration of the electrons, : + be the relaxation time of the electrons. adi We have, v=utat (1) Vv In the absence of electric field, u = 0 In the presence of electric field, v = drift velocity = va 2. (1) 3 vas at (2)LEGENDS’ (MGD1) STUDY MATERIAL — Ul PUC PHYSICS (CERN, Current Electricity ButF=mas> a= == m m eEt (2)= va =- where negative sign indicates that the directions of va and E are opposite as shown in figure NOTE The random motion of free electrons does not contribute to the drift of these electrons, Also, the average collision-time (relaxation time) is constant for a given material at a given temperature. Therefore when no electric field exists in a conductor, the free electrons stay Clee at rest or va = 0 and when a field exists, they move with a constant velocity vq = m where k is a constant depends on the material of the conductor and its temperature, ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) 1) The order of the relaxation time is 10-4 2) Mobility is independent of applied electric field. It decreases with increase in temperature. 3) The magnitude of drift velocity is of the order of 10°m/s. With this velocity, the free electron will take nearly 17minutes to drift through a wire of length 1m. It is surprising that the electric bulb glows as soon as switch is on, whatever may be its distance from ‘switch. The fact is that the electric impulse (wave) propagates in the wire with a velocity almost equal to the velocity of light (c = 3«10'm/s) and so takes negligible time. Distinguish between thermal velocity and drift velocity. ‘Thermal Velocity Drift velocity T It is the velocity acquired by the electron due to thermal energy. It is the velocity acquired by the electron due to external electric field. 2 | It increases with increase in | It decreases with increase in temperature. temperature, 3 | It is independent of applied | It increases with applied voltage. voltage. 4 | "TItis of the order 105 m/s. It is of the order 103m/s. Derive an expression for current in terms of drift velocity of the free electrons. oe E 1 7 Vv Consider a cylindrical metal wire of length | and uniform cross-sectional area A. The conductor is connected to a battery as shown in the figure. When a potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, an electric field E will be set up in the conductor. Due to this electric field, the electrons drifts with a velocity va in a direction opposite to the direction of electric fieldLEGENDS’ (GDN) STUDY MATERIAL —Il_PUC PHYSICS (NCERD) Current Becrcty | But, 1- 2 t Total free charge, q = Number of free electrons x Charge on each electron q=Nxe—>(2) Number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor is given by _ Number of free electrons N Volume of the conductor v =N=nxV N=nxAxl since V = Area of cross-sectionxLength (3) (1) «Qa=nAle Al Gmosn = I=nAwe Mention the expression for current in terms of drift velocity of the free electrons and explain the symbols. 1=nA we where n is the number of electrons per unit volume of the conductor A. is the area of cross-section of the conductor, va is the drift velocity of free electrons ande is the charge on the electron. Derive the relation between current density and conductivity of a conductor or Derive the relation J =o E Soha In the figure, E 1 is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, eaat A_ is the area of cross-section of the wire, 1 as ae V is the potential difference applied across the wire, E_ is the electric field set up in the wire, jj. va is the drift velocity of the electrons, ie I is the current in the wire, We have, I pl But R= 2" (ij> T= ut led .Q)33 =o E> J =soE In the above relations, R_ is the resistance of the wire, J _ is the current density, pis the resistivity of material of the wire, ois the conductivity of the wire.LEGENDS: (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL 11 PUC PHYSICS (CERT, Current Elecriey _ a Derive an expression for conductivity of a material in terms of relaxation time. or ne*r “ Derive o m E oe if ( /y—e ee % In the figure, 1 is the length of the cylindrical metallic wire, A. is the area of cross-section of the wire, V is the potential difference applied across the wire, E_ is the electric field set up in the wire, va is the drift velocity of the electrons, I is the current in the wire, Wehave J => But J- 1, A But I=nA ye In the above relations, J is the current density, _ is the conductivity of the wire n_ is the number of electrons per unit volume, +t _ is the relaxation time, e is the charge on the electron, m_ is the mass of an electron. NOTE z Resistor; It is a material of known resistance or It is a component of known resistance. Wire wound resistors. These are made by winding the wire of alloys such as nichrome, manganin and constantan. They are used in resistance boxes. Carbon resistors: These are the resistors made up of carbon. Carbon resisters are cylindrical in shape and provided with two wires for electrical connection. They are cheap and compact. Therefore, they are widely used in electrical circuits. Carbon resisters are cylindrical in shape. Their length is few centimeters and diameter is few millimeters. Because of small size of resistor, colour code is used to find the resistance value.LEGENDS" (MODI) STUDY MATERIAL — Il PUC PHYSICS NCBRN/-Current Electricity [7scrn| Define potential difference between two points in a circuit. Potential difference in a circuit is the work done to drive unit positive charge from one point to another point in a circuit. Potential difference = Workdone _, y. W Charge a Define e.m.f of a cell or Define electromotive force of a cell. e.m4 of a cell is the work done by a cell to drive a unit positive charge throughout the circuit. Workdone w = Workdone <5. Charge q emf Mention the SI unit of e.m. ‘The SI unit of e.m.f. is volt. Define the SI unit of e.m.£ ‘The e.m.f. of a cell is said to be 1 volt, when 1 joule of work is done by the cell to drive 1coulomb of charge throughout the circuit. (Consider, E = Ww orw- ljoule, qo = coulomb, then E = Ivolt } q Internal resistance of a cell It is the amount of opposition to the flow of current offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of the cell . ‘ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) Electrolytic cell ss Cell in the circuit In the above figure, P and N are the electrodes of electrolytic cell. Ris the external resistance and I is the current in the circuit. em4, is not a force, it is energy spent or work done. It is called e.m.f as this energy motivates the electric charges to flow with force, What is meant by short circuiting of a cell? Why should it not be done? If the electrodes of the cell are connected from outside in a circuit having negligible resistance, it is said to be short circuited. If a cell is short circuited, it gets discharged because a very heavy current will be drawn from the cell. This causes sulphating, disintegrating of lead oxide and ultimately buckling of the electrodes. In a conductor, a point P is at a higher potential than another point Q. In which direction do the electrons move? Ans: From Q to PLEGENDS: (MGDIY STUDY MATERIAL PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Blecrty [74] ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) Comparison between e.m.f. and_p.d. Potential difference (p.d ) Electromotive force (e.m.f.) 1 |Tt is the work done to drive unit | It is the work done or energy spent by a cell Positive test charge from one point to| to drive a unit positive test charge another point in a circuit. completely round the circuit. 2//it is the potential difference across|It is equal to the sum of the potential any one component of circuit, differences across all the components of circuit. 3'| It depends on the resistance between | It depends on the nature of electrodes and two points in the circuit. the nature of electrolyte of the solution. 4 | Ttis less than or equal to the emf _| It is greater than or equal to the potential oe difference. 5 | itis an effect. ILis the cause. = ‘The value of internal resistance of a freshly prepared cell is generally low and its value goes on increasing as the cell is used more and more. Internal resistance of cell depends on the following factors. 1) Distance between the electrodes 2) The nature, concentration and temperature of the electrolytes. 3) The nature of electrodes. 4) Area of electrodes .As the area increases, internal resistance decreases. What isa cell? It is a source of em. What is a battery? It is a source of e.m-f. consisting of number of cells. What is a circuit? It is the combination of sources of e.m.fs and electrical components such as resistors, capacitors, conducting wires etc.. What is an external resistance? It is the amount of opposition to the flow of current outside the cell. When do you say the cell is in open circuit? ‘The cell is said to be in open circuit, if no current is drawn from the cell. or The cell is said to be in open circuit, if an external resistance of infinite value is connected to a cell. When do you say the cell is in closed circuit? ‘The cell is said to be in closed circuit, if the current is drawn from the cell. or The cell is said to be in closed circuit, if an external resistance of finite value is connected to a cell. Derive expressions for current drawn by an.external resistor and terminal potential differenc: a In the figure, Eis the emf of the cell, Sm 1 is the current in the circuit, : + R_ is the resistance of the external resistor, Er V is potential difference across R, i r_ is the internal resistance of the cell, Mi V" is potential difference across r._LEGENDS' (GDN) STUDY MATERIAL. It_PUC PHYSICS (NCERT)- Current Blectricty fis | From Ohm’s law, Potential difference across R, V = IR Potential difference across r, V = Ir By the definition, e.m.f. of the cell, E = V+V E = IR+Ir E =1R+nH>|1- = Rer ‘Terminal potential difference It is the potential difference across the electrodes of the cell in the closed circuit. Itis given by, V = 1R ER . Ret fo Res => Ve When does the terminal potential deemebebecine equal toe.m.f of a cell Wehave, V = ae If R=, then VE. Also if r=0, then VE. Terminal p.d. of a cell is equal to e.m.f of the cell, if the external resistance R = Merely er cell ace unl ty eget of tne ete retin pee ‘Terrainal idle Gel n Gaal so'e salt ot callie ctirrant is aPacadr Ramat ath ‘Tete pd. of 9 cell in equal to em. of cull ifthe internal teaistance of the cull is eer, Terminal p.d. of a cell is always less than its actual e.m.f. Explain why? or Reading of the voltmeter connected across the cell is always less than the actual e.m.f. of the cell. Explain. When a voltmeter is connected across a cell, part of the energy is used to overcome the internal resistance of the cell. Hence the’ reading of a voltmeter is always less than actual e.m-.f. NOTE: Resistors in series Resistors are said to be connected in series 1) When they are connected end to end such that, the same current flows through each resistor. 2) The total potential difference across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential differences across each resistor. 3) Equivalent resistance or effective resistance For n different resistors in series , Ry = Ri+ Ry +Ry+.....+Re For n identical resistors each of resistance R in series, R.= nR For two resistors in series, R,= Ri + Ro 4) Law of resistances in series When a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, 5) This combination increases the effective resistance. 6) In series combination of resistors, the effective resistance is greater than the highest value of individual resistances, 7) Series combination of resistors is potential divider circuit. 8) Series combination of resistors helps to maintain constant current at high potential.LEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL — Il PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Electricity 6 NOTE: Resistors in parallel Resistors are said to be connected in parallel 1) When they are connected between two common points such that the potential difference across each resistor is same. 2) The main current is equal to the sum of currents through each resistor. 3) Equivalent resistance or effective resistance For n diferent resistors in parallel, = P For n identical resistors of resistance R in parallel, Ry = RR> For two resistors in series, R,, RR, 4) Law of resistances in parallel. When a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of each resistance. 5) The effective resistance is lesser than the lowest value of individual resistances. 6) The parallel combination of resistors decreases the effective r2sistance. 7) The parallel combination of resistors is a current divider circuit. 8) The parallel combination of resistors is used to maintain large current at constant potential, Tsk Branch currents When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the current through each resistor is called branch current 1 It can be shown that, le Main currentxResistanceof other branch Vv Currentin one branch = Main currents Resistanceof other branch Total resistance Similarly 1,-—/ 2° RFR, 2 1a ehd je -ul<- Vac ——+ Figure-1 In the figure-1, P and Q are the two cells connected in series, E; and E2are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r1 and rz are the internal resistances of P and Q respectively, 1 is the current send by the two cells. Let Vas, Vac and Vac be the potential differences between the points A & B, B & C and A & C respectively. By the definition, emf of the cell, E = V+Ir => V =E-Ir For the cell P= Van = E1-Irt For the cellQ = Vac = E2-Im >(3) But Vac = Vas + Vac ~ (1jand (2) in (3) > Vac = (E1-Iri) + (E2-I ra) Vac = Ei-In + E2-Ira Vac = Ei +E2-Irj-Irz Vac = (21 +E2)-I(ri + m2) — When the combination is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf E. and an equivalent internal resistance r, (figure -2), -> (4) we get, Vac= Es-I rs ~ On comparing (4) and (5), we get, Es= Ei+E2 [@nd| n= n+n ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) 1) For n cells of different internal resistance in series, Ey Ei + Bot Bat vt Bn and ty" mera tr + 2) For n identical cells in series each of emf E and internal resistance r, Totalemf,E.-E+E+E+...... upto nterms > E = nE Total internal resistance, r, = r+r+r+.... Upto n terms m= nr 3) In series combination of cells, a) The total emf across the combination is equal to the sum of the emfs of all the cells. b) Total internal resistance is equal to the sum of all the internal resistances.LEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL Il PUC PHYSICS (NCBRT)- Current Blecercty ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) Expression for current in a circuit containing cells in series across a resistor of| resistance R 2 Currentin thecircuit-——Totalemf____E,_ ae lee Total resistance | R+q Fi " For n identical cells in series each of emf E and internal resistance r, nE ne Series combination of cells is preferred when the external resistance is very much larger than the total internal resistance. Cells in parallel Cells are said to be connected in parallel when negative terminals of all the cells are connected to one common point and positive terminals connected to another common point. Two cells of different emfs and different internal resistances are connected in parallel. Find the expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination. h sf eS : P 1 Bote DB oe B Ei, re ay eee Figure-1 bh Q aaa In the figure-1, P and Q are the two cells connected in parallel, E) and E2are the emfs of P and Q respectively, r, and rp are the internal resistances of Pand Q respectively, li and I are the currents send by the cells Pand Q respectively, I_ is the main current send by the two cells (I = hi + I2), Vis the potential difference between the points A & B. It is same for both P & Q. By the definition, emf of the cell, E = V+ir>Ir=E-V >I= E-V E, -V Current send by the cell P, (1) = I = —4 Current send by the cell Q, (1) > bz The total current, I = I: (2) and (3) in (4) > 1 = ———LEGENDS’ (GDN) STUDY MATERIAL — Il PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Sletricty Ts Eyr, — Vr, +Ean - Vn hy Eyry + En - Nt Ey, +E. Vin +m) firme tt When the combination is replaced by an equivalent cell of emf Ep and an equivalent internal resistance tp (figure -2), Ep -V tp rw Vin +12) T= --->(5) we get I= ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) 1) We can express the above results in a simple way as follows, me hail: 2 eae are bo he boa 2 2) For n cells of different resistances in parallel, and H=4,1,1, bik & 3) For'n identical cells in parallel, Ep = and ry= + 4) In parallel combination of cells !a) The total emf of the combination of cells is equal to the emf of one cell. b) The reciprocal of total internal resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of internal resistance of each cell. 5) Expression for current in a circuit containing cells in parallel across a resistor of resistance R th tp I, Ey Totalemf E, Conedenumecact = —olemt see Gane eee Totalresistance | R+r, t For n identical cells in parallel each of emf E and peaks nE internal resistanc ss ¥ Cae resistance r, BS Parallel combination of cells is preferred R when the external resistance is very much less than the internal resistance.LEGENDS’ (MODW) STUDY MATERIAL —11 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT}-Current Electricity 80 ‘Series-parallel combination of cells or mixed grouping of cells or Cells in multiple arc ‘The above figure shows N identical cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘” ‘connected in series-parallel combination. The arrangement consists of n cells in series and m such series combinations in parallel. The arrangement is connected to a resister of resistance R. Therefore, total number of cells in the combination, N = mn ‘The total emf of the cells, Ex; =nE and the total internal of the cells, ray = = m mnE mR +nr Total emf, ,__nE Total resistance Re m We have, Current in the circuit It can be shown that the current is maximum when mR=nr > R = = m To get maximum current from the cells in series-parallel combination, an external resistance should be equal to the total internal resistance. Igy =" Of Imax -= f Electrical energy: It is the energy dissipated in a resistor or in a circuit. Formula for electrical energy dissipated in a resistor Ww = Vit, where V is the potential difference across a resistor, I is the current that flows in the resistor in time t. Formula for electrical energy dissipated in a circuit W-=EIt, where E is the emfof the cell, I is the current that flows in the circuit in time t. NOTE 1) Energy dissipated in the resistor, W=VIt=PRt £2 2), Energy dissipated in a circuit. W = BEtE P (Rer)t = Et where E is the emfof the cell, 1 is the current in the circuit r_is the internal resistance of the cell. Electrical power It is the electrical energy dissipated per second in a resistor or in a circuit.| LEGENDS" MODI) STUDY MATERIAL =Il_PUC PHYSICS INCERT-Current Electricity Expression for electric power in a resistor P=VI where V is the potential difference applied across a resistor, I is the current in the resistor. Expression for electrical power in a circuit P=EI where E isthe emf of the cell and I is the current in the circuit. NOTE v2 1) Power in the resistor, P = VI = PR = E? 2) Eneruy dissipated per second in a circuit, P = EI = P(R+r) = =~ Where E is the emfof the cell / battery I is the current in the circuit 1_is the internal resistance of the cell Power loss ‘The power generated at power station must be transmitted to consumer through transmission cables. Then there is power loss in the transmission cables due to resistance. This loss is called transmission loss. Mention the expression for transmission power loss and explain the symbols. P?Re v where Po is the power dissipated in the transmission cables, Re is the resistance of transmission cables, I is the current flowing in the transmission cables, P is the power to be delivered, Vis the p.d across transmission cables. Pes 2 Re ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject) We have Pe = IRe ---->(1) Let P be the power to be delivered to a device of resistance R through the cables. Let V be potential difference across R and I be the current passing through P Then, P=Vi=I=— Vv . Thus, to transmit a power P to a device, the power wasted Po is inversely proportional to V2, To reduce power loss, the transmission cables must carry current at high voltages. Using step-up transformers, the power from generation station is transmitted at very high voltages. But using electricity at such high voltages is not safe. Therefore, step-down transformers are used at the receiving end to decrease the voltage to a suitable value. >(2). (2) in (1) > Pe= Pee Kirchhoff rules of electrical network ‘Ohm's law can be used to analyze simple circuits. Complex circuits cannot be analyzed using Ohm's law easily. Such circuits can be analyzed using Kirchhoff's laws which can be applied to both AC and DC circuits. The following terms are used in the study| of Kirchhoff’s rules.LEGENDS" (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL 11 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT)- Current Blctity _ a Current is allowed to flow in a metallic wire at constant potential difference when the wire becomes hot, cold water is poured on half of its portion. By doing so, its other portion becomes still more hot. Explain its reason. When cold water is poured on half portion of heated metal wire, the temperature of that portion of wire falls and hence its resistance becomes less. Due to which the current in the circuit rises, causing more heating effect as heat « (current)2. Electrical network It is the complicated arrangement of circuit elements such as resistors and cells. Junction in an electrical network or Node in an electrical network It is a point in an electrical network at which more than two currents meet. Electrical loop or mesh It is the closed path for circulation of current in an electrical network. State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule of electrical network. Statement: The sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. Explanation: ji ly In the figure, I; and Ip are the currents entering the junction 2 O and Is and Is are the currents leaving the junction O. 2 From Kirchhoff’s junction rule, I: + Iz = Is + I4 fs State and explain Kirchhoff’s loop rule of electrical network. Statement: The algebraic sum of the IR (current and resistance) products is equal to the algebraic sum of the emfs in an electrical loop. Fy Ry Explanation: eee ‘On applying the loop rule to the loop ABCD, : oy A Se we get, LRi- bRe=Ei-Es ulnemas Ea ‘NOTE: Sign conventions for above loop rule. 1) The directions of currents are indicated arbitrarily. 2) The IR product is taken as positive, if the direction of observation is in the direction of current through given resistor. 3) The IR product is taken as negative, if the direction of observation is in opposite to’ the direction of current through given resistor. 4) The e.mf. of the cell is taken as positive, if the direction of observation across the cell is fcom negative terminal to positive terminal. 5) The e.m-f. of the cell is taken as negative, if the direction of observation across the cell is from positive to negative terminal. NOTE: Alternate Sign conventions. 1) The directions of currents are indicated arbitrarily. 2) V or E_ is positive if.the direction of observation is from lower potential to higher potential and vice versa. NOTE: Alternate statement of Kirchhoff’s voltage law ‘The algebraic sum of the changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells is zeroLEGENDS" (MGDN) STUDY MATERIA~ If PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Current Blecrcty ‘What is the principle involved in the Kirchhoff’s junction rule? Or What is the significance of Kirchhoff’s junction rule? Law of conservation of charge What is the principle involved in the Kirchhoff’s loop rule? Or What is the significance of Kirckhoff’s loop rule? Law of conservation of energy Construction of Wheatstone bridge (It was designed by Wheatstone in 1843.) It is the combination of four resistances P, Q, R and S in the form of quadrilateral ABCD. A galvanometer is connected between junctions B and D. The line BD is called galvanometer arm. A battery is connected between junctions A and C. This AC is called the battery arm. Mention balancing condition for Wheatstone network R 1,=0 or =~ or voltage across galvanometer = 0 Q Deduce (obtain) the condition for balance of a Wheatstone bridge using Kirchhoff's rules. B 1-y) From Kirchhoff’s junction rule From Kirchhoff’s junction rule In the circuit diagram, P, Q, Rand S are the resistances connected in the form of quadrilateral ABCD, li, by, Is and Is are the currents through P,R,Q and S respectively. G is the resistance of the galvanometer, Ig is the current in the galvanometer, E is the emf of the cell. On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop ABDA, we get hP+lG-bR = 1) For balance of network, I,=0 ..(1) = P-bR = 0 => hP=bR ----->(2) On applying Kirchhof’’s loop rule to the loop BCDB, we get (li-l) Q - (at+ig)S-1;G = 0 (2)> hQ-kQ-hS-kS-1,G=0 @)=> hQ-bS = 0 >(3) For balance I= 0LEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL II PUC PHYSICS INCERT)-Current Electricity ca => NQ = bS ---->(4) © _ WLR PLR @~ 19° 1s 7 Q's This is the condition for balance of Wheatstone bridge Applications (uses) of Wheatstone network 1) It is used to find the resistance of a wire. 2) It is used to compare the resistances of two wires. QUESTION BANK 1 & 2 mark questions 5 8) Define current density. 1) What is electric current’ 9) Is current density scalar or vector? 2) Define strength of electric current. 1) What is steady current? 2) What is instantaneous current? 3) Is current scalar or vector? 10) What is the SI unit of current density? 11) State and explain Ohm’s Law.{M-17,J-18,A-23] 12) Mention the SI unit of electric current. tion 4) Define resistance of a conductor. eee ee 5) What is resistance of a conductor? _*4) Define ‘ohm’. 15) Mention any one/two limitations of Ohm’s Law [M-15,J-15, J-19] 16) Mention the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. 17) How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length? [3-19] 18) How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its area of cross section? 19) Mention the expression for resistance in terms of resistivity and explain the symbols. 20) Represent graphically the variation of resistivity with absolute temperature for copper and nichrome metals. [J-18, A-2022] 21) Define resistivity of material of the conductor? [I-19] 22) Mention the SI unit of resistivity. 23) How does the resistivity of a conductor vary with temperature? Explain. 24) How docs the resistivity of a semiconductor vary with temperature? Draw graph.(A-22) 25) Define conductance of a conductor. 26) Mention the SI unit of conductance. 27) Define conductivity of a conductor. 28) Mention the SI unit of conductivity. 29) Mention the relation between resistance and conductance. 30) Define drift velocity. [J-14,M-18] 31) Mention the expression for drift velocity in terms of current and explain the symbols. [M-19] 32) Mention the expression for drift velocity in terms of relaxation time and explain the symbols. 33) Define relaxation time. 34) Define mobility of free electron. [M-14,M-17,J-17] 35) Mention the SI unit of mobility of free electrons. [-17] 36) Mention the expression for current in terms of drift velotity and explain the symbols. 37) Define is potential difference in a circuit. 38) What is e.m.f ofa cell ? 39) Is emf of a cell scalar or vector? 40) Mention the SI unit of emf of a cell. 41) What is internal resistance of a cell? 42) What is terminal potential difference? 43) When does the terminal potential difference become equal to e.m.f of a cell? 44) When is the cells are said to be connected in series? 45) When is the cells are said to be connected in parallel? 46) What is electrical energy?LEGENDS: MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL ~ Il PUC PHYSICS INCERT Current Bloctricity 47) Mention the formula for electrical energy dissipated in a resistor and explain the symbols. = 48) Mention the formula for electrical energy dissipated in a circuit and explain the symbols. 49) What is electrical power? 50) Mention the expression for power dissipated in a resistor and explain the symbols. 51) Mention the expression for power dissipated in a circuit and explain the symbols. 52) What is power loss? 53) Mention the expression for transmission power loss and explain the symbols. 54) What is junction in an electrical network? 55) What is electrical loop or mesh in an electrical network? 56) State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule. [J-17,M-18] 57) State and explain Kirchhoff’s loop rule. [M-18] 58) What is the principle involved in the Kirchhoff’s junction rule? 59) What is the principle involved in the Kirchhoff’s loop rule? 60) Draw Wheatstone bridge and explain. [M-14,J-15] 61) What is the condition for balance of Wheatstone bridge? [M-14] 62) Mention the applications (uses) of Wheatstone bridge. 3 & 5 MARK QUESTIONS 1) Obtain the relation between current density and conductivity or Derive J = (5-17) 2) Derive an expression for conductivity of a conductor in terms of relaxation time. or Derive o = 22% [3-15,9-18] m 3) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor. [M-16,J-16, A-22] 4) Deduce the relation between the drift velocity and relaxation time. 5) Derive an expression for current in terms of drift velocity of the free electrons. 6) Derive an expression for current drawn by an external resistance and terminal potential difference. 7) Two cells of different emfs and different internal resistances are connected in series. Find the expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination. 8) Two cells of different emfs and different internal resistances are connected in parallel. Find the expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the combination. [M-18, M-19] 9) State and explain Kirchhof's rule of network. 10) Deduce the condition for balance of a Wheatstone bridge using Kirchhoff's laws. [J-14, M-16, J-16, M-17, J-19, A-22] QUESTION BANK GIVEN BY DEPARTMENT OF PU EDUCATION One mark questions 1) In the nature where do the free charged particles exist? (K) Ams: Ionosphere. 2) Write the relation between coulomb and ampere. (U) Ams: A =C/s 3) How many electrons per second constitute a current of one micro ampere? (U) Maser? ro RIL Gee IRs 08 Seaseio™ ce fo a 16x10, t 4) Define free electron density of a conductor. (U) Ans: it is defined as number of free electrons per unit volume of a conductor. 5) What is the net charge conducted across any section at zero potential difference? (U) Aas: zeroLEGENDS’ (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL ~ Il PUC PHYSICS (NCERT-Current Bletrcity 86 ©) What is the net flow of electric charges in any direction inside the solid conductor? (U) Ans: zero 7) Awire of given resistivity is stretched to three times its length .What will be its new resistivity? (A) Ans: no change in the resistivity. 8) What is the average velocity of free electrons in a metal at room temperature? (K) Ans: zero 9) What is the effect of temperature on the drift speed of electrons in a metallic conductor? (U) Ans: drift speed is inversely proportional to the temperature 10)What is the effect of relaxation time of electrons on the conductivity of a metal? (K) Ans: conductivity is directly proportional to the relaxation time. 11)Write the expression for mobility in terms of relaxation time. (U) Ans: » = & m 12)Name a material whose resistivity decreases with the rise of temperature. (K) Ans: semiconductor (silicon, germanium). 13) How does the resistance of an insulator change with temperature? (K) Ans: resistance of insulator decreases with increase of temperature. 14)Name a material which exhibits very weak dependence of resistivity with temperature? (K) Ans: Nicrome, manganin. 15) Why manganin or constantan are used to make resistance coils. (U) Ans:Resistance of these materials almost remain constant with variation of temperature. 16)3@ and 5® resistors are connected in series, if the rate of flow of charge in 3@ resistor is 5A, what is the rate of flow of charge in 5Q resistor? (A) Ans: 5A. 17)If V; and Vs be the potential difference across resistors R; and R: in series, then what is the potential difference across the combination? (A) Ans: total potential difference = Vi + V2 18)What happens to the effective resistance of the combination when two or more resistors are connected in series? (K) Ans: effective resistance increases. 19)What happens to the effective resistance when two or more resistors are connected in parallel? (K) Ans: effective resistance decreases. 20)Two equal resistors are connected in parallel to the main current 3A source. What is the value of current through each resistor? (A) Ans: 1.5A 21)Write the expression for equivalent emf when two cells of emf E; and E2 connected in series. (U) Ans: equivalent emf = E: + E2 22)Write the expression for equivalent emf when two cells of emf E; and B2 connected in series stich that negative electrode of E1 to negative electrode of E2. (U) Ans: equivalent emf = E; ~ Ex 23)What happens to the balancing condition of a balanced Wheatstone’s network, if the galvanometer is replaced by a voltmeter of resistance 50009? (U) Ans: no change in the balancing condition. 24)What happens to the balancing condition of Wheatstone’s network, if the position of galvanometer and battery are interchanged? (U) Ans: no change in the balancing condition. TWO mark question: 1) Write the expression for resistivity in terms of number density and relaxation time. (U) m i Ans: p=—"- where, m - mass of electron, n - number density and t- relaxation time. ne?tLEGENDS" (MGDN] STUDY MATERIAL ~ If PUC PHYSICS (NCERM-Curront Bloctriity he 2) Write any two differences between resistance and resistivity. (U) Ans: Resistance Resistivity 1 T [Depends on dimensions of the conductor | Itdoes not depend on the dimensions | 2 | Unit: 0 Unit: Om 3 | itis the opposition offered by the eis the resistance offered by the j material to the flow of electric current, _| conductor of unit length and unit area | of cross section. | 3) State another equivalent form of ohm’s law in terms of current density and conductivity and explain the terms. (K) Ans: J =oE where. J - current density, o- conductivity. 4) A cell of emf 2V and internal resistance 1 @ is connected across a resistor of 9 Q. find the terminal potential difference of the cell. (A) 2x9 ER Rer’ 941 ; 5) Which are the two major types of resistors commercially made? (Kk) Ans: wire wound resistors and carbon composition resistors. 6) To make resistors of high range which material is used and why? (U) Ans: carbon. Because they are compact and inexpensive. 7) Is terminal potential difference equal to the emf of a cell? Justify your answer. (U) Ans: no. because of internal resistance. 8) Mention the factors on which internal resistance of a cell depend. (K) Ans: i) nature of the electrolyte and ii) electrodes of a cell, 9) For what basic purpose, the cells are connected (1) in series (2) in parallel? (U) Ans: to draw maximum current Series combination of cells is prepared when the external resistance is very much larger than the effective internal resistance. Parallel combination of cells is prepared when the external resistance is very much less than the effective internal resistance. 10)A large number of free electrons are present in metals, But there is no current in the absence of electric field across. Why? (U) ‘Ans: in the absence of electric field average velocity of free electrons is zero. 11) Why high voltage power from power generating station is preferred than high current for transmission of electrical power. (U) Ans: to minimize power loss in the transmission cables by reducing the current. Ans: V 8Vv.