AIR-FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

FIRST SEMESTER 2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION

LECTURE NOTE

FOR

AUE505 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS, DYNAMICS AND CONTROL (2 UNITS)

BY

ENGR. DR. NUHU MOHAMMED

JANUARY, 2024
COURSE OUTLINE
Automobile Systems:
✓ Introduction
✓ Tyre and Rim Fundamentals
✓ Forward Vehicle Dynamics
✓ Tyre Dynamics
✓ Driveline Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Kinematics
✓ Applied Mechanisms
✓ Steering Dynamics
✓ Suspension Mechanisms
✓ Speed Limiting Devices

Vehicle Dynamics:
✓ Applied Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Planar Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Roll Dynamics
✓ Vehicle Vibration
✓ Suspension Optimization
✓ Control of Road Vehicle Dynamics

Rollover of Heavy Commercial Vehicle:

✓ Rollover Accidents and Vehicle Roll Stability
✓ The Mechanics of Static and Roll Stability
✓ Dynamic Considerations in Rollover of Heavy Vehicles
✓ The Influence of Sloshing Liquids and Other Moving Loads
✓ Rollover and The Intelligent Highway/Vehicle System
✓ On-Board Stability Control Devices for Trucks

Page 1 of 93
 1.0 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS
1.1 Introduction
Definition of Automobile or Automotive: The term “automotive” or “automobile” is used to refer to a vehicle
which can be moved by itself. In other words, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the
transportation of passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. It consists of a frame supported
by a body and power-producing and power transmitting units. These units are further supported by tyres and
wheels, which are connected by springs and axles.

Definition of Automobile Engineering: is a branch of engineering which deals with designing, manufacturing
and operating automobiles. It is a segment of vehicle engineering which deals with motorcycles, buses, trucks, etc.
It includes mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety elements.

1.2 Wheels, Rims and Tyres Fundamentals

Wheels, together with tyres and tubes, form a single unit that provide motion to an automobile. Thus, the function
of the wheels and tyres assembly is to support, propel and steer the vehicle as per requirement when rolling over
the road surface. Proper assembly of the wheels and tyres directly affects the steering geometry and disturbs the
comfort level of the driver as well as occupants. It provides cushioning effect to the wheels against small road
shocks and also transmits both the driving and braking forces between the wheel and the road surface.

1.3 Wheels
Wheel is an important structural member of the vehicular suspension system that supports the static and dynamic
loads generated during various operating conditions of the vehicle. A wheel is a circular device that is capable of
rotating on its axis, facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load. Generally, there are four wheels
but often to enhance the load carrying capacity the number of wheels may be more than four.

1.3.1 Requirements of the wheel

The wheels should be:
(a) capable of providing flexible support and cushioning effect. The tyres should be flexible but at the same
time should be able to maintain their shape and provide support.
(b) of sufficient strength to resists all types of deformation and accidental damage during operation and all
normal service loads imposed upon it.
(c) balanced statically as well as dynamically for the stability of automobile. It is essential that the wheels are
balanced so that while moving on the road the automobile is stable.
(d) as light as possible such that it will be easier for dampers to control their bouncing movements when they
are subjected to bump.
(e) easy to remove from axle and easy to mount on the axle. Thus, the wheel rim should be designed in such a
way that the mounting and removal of the tyre must be easy and it must be maintained in secure position of
tyre when inflated.
(f) made out of cheaper materials that can easily be fabricated, cast or forged with minimum machining.
Page 2 of 93
1.3.2 Types of wheels
The wheels may be classified, on the basis of their construction, as steel disc wheel, wire wheel.
1. Pressed Disc wheel
This type of wheel has two parts, a steel rim and a pressed steel disc. They are made simple and robust in
construction as shown in Fig. 1. As per the design, the rim and the disc may be permanently attached or
detachable. A pressed steel disc is welded to the rim. The pressed disc wheels are secured to the axle with the
help of four or five threaded studs equally spaced in a circle around the hub flanges. Holes (ventilating slots)
are provided in the disc for better heat dissipation. As the holes tend to weaken the disc, these are swaged.
Through swaging, the disc plate is turned inwards smoothly around each stud hole. This compensates the loss
of strength due to stud holes. The outer part of the wheel is a steel rim which is well based so that tubes and
tyres can be properly accommodated. The rim and disc may be a single unit, as in case of small wheels or in
two parts as in case of big wheels.

Fig. 1 (a) Pressed Steel Disc Wheel (b) Fitting of the Disk Wheel to the Hub

Functions: Wheel discs transmit braking as well as driving torque and take care of cornering forces and side
thrusts.
Advantages: Pressed steel disc wheels are the most popular type of wheels and most of the cars are fitted
with this type of wheels. They are light, strong, stiff and resistant to accidental damage. Their foremost
advantage is that they are easy to produce in large numbers at low cost.

Materials: The rims may be made of aluminium or magnesium that may be die-cast or forged. These are light
in weight as compared to steel disc wheels. The wheels in an automobile are unsprung parts. This means that
their weight is not supported by suspension springs. Hence reduction in weight is important.

2. Wire wheels

Wire spoke wheels are the oldest in design but have remained in use largely because of light weight and strong
construction. In this type of wheels, the hub is attached to the rim through a number of long, thin-wired spokes
(similar to bicycle wheel). The purpose of the spokes is to bear weight, to transmit the driving and braking
torques, to withstand side forces when cornering and to avoid bending or compressive loads acting on the

Page 3 of 93
 wheel. The rim of a wired wheel is not capable of fitting tubeless tyres. The wheel hub is in the centre
connected to rim with the help of wire spokes as shown in Fig. 2. These are light in weight and have better heat
dissipation.

Fig. 2 Wire Wheel

The spokes are mounted in a complicated criss-cross fashion installed on three planes in a skilful manner. The wheel
has a rim attached to the hub through wire spokes. These are much stronger in tension and transmit all forces to
the rim. Since the spokes have very little resistance to bending, they are laced so that complex loads coming on the
wheel are resolved into tensile load evenly distributed among adequate number of spokes (Fig. 2).
Advantages: this type of wheels have light weight, high strength and easy to change whenever required.

3. Cast Light Alloy Wheel

Cast light alloy wheels are made from castings of light alloys of aluminium and magnesium. The aluminium alloy
wheels are cheaper than magnesium alloy wheels. Usually, aluminium alloy wheels are preferred for passenger cars
and trucks, and magnesium alloy wheels for sports and racing cars. When compared to steel, magnesium alloy is
50% lighter but has similar strength. Reduced weight enhances fuel economy.

They have wider rims, and radial ribs which also act as angled spokes to provide strength and air circulation. The
construction avoids any sharp lines and angles to improve strength (Fig. 3). Cast light alloy wheels are specially
used in racing cars.

Page 4 of 93
 Fig. 3 Cast light alloy wheels

Advantages: Light alloys are better conductors of heat than steel, so that they transfer any heat generated by the
tyre or brake more quickly, which improves tyre life. Magnesium alloys exhibit very good fatigue properties and
excellent resilience, due to which they are capable of resisting vibrational and shock loading better than both
aluminium alloy and steel. These wheels are manufactured with a single-piece rim and disc. Cast light alloy wheels
are light in weight.

The biggest problem with alloy wheels is corrosion which places them at the biggest disadvantage. As regards the
cost, light alloy wheels are more expensive to manufacture than pressed steel wheels.

1.3.3 Wheel Alignment and Balancing

1. Wheel alignment
Front wheel alignment is the angular relationship between the front wheels of the vehicle, the suspension and the
ground. The objective of which is to allow the wheels of the vehicle to roll without dragging, cupping, scuffing or
slipping.

Function of alignment: Proper alignment ensures ease of steering and reduces load on suspensions and tyres.
Four angles are involved in the proper alignment of the wheel: caster, camber, toe-in, toe-out on the turns and
inclination of the steering axis.

Effect improper alignment: Poor alignment of tyres can result in a less-than-enjoyable driving experience.

a. Warning signs
The warning signs when alignment needs to be adjusted are as follows:
✓ Irregular and uneven tyre wear
✓ Heavy steering
✓ Fatigue to the driver’s steering
✓ Vehicle wandering or difficult to maintain along a straight line
✓ Vehicle steering wheel not returning to exact centre
✓ One side pulling of the vehicle

Page 5 of 93
b. Correct Alignment
✓ Prevents excessive, uneven and early wear of the tyre
✓ Increases fuel economy
✓ Enhances cornering and general handling
✓ Reduces driver fatigue
✓ Enhances tyre life
✓ Improves the life of suspension elements
2. Wheel balancing
Balancing of wheel is required for smooth operation of the wheel, long tyre life, and proper alignment of the wheel
to minimise its own vibrations. Wheel balancing is done in order to gain consistent stability and to prevent instability
in cars by applying balancing weights to the rim in order to distribute the mass of the wheel equally during rotation.

a. Courses of wheel imbalance

Imbalance in mass distribution around the wheels may be caused by the following:
✓ Tyre moulding may not be placed concentrically on the tyre surface.
✓ Lateral wheels wear out or wheel rim become bulky
✓ Some manufacturing flaws in the rubber.
✓ The high rate of uneven tyre wears due to lower or higher inflation.
b. Effects of wheel imbalance
✓ One section of the wheel will undergo uneven wear and the tyre may become lighter on one side and
heavier on the other.
✓ Wheel receives unequal centrifugal force on each side

If the unequal centrifugal forces received by one side of the wheel are cancelled on the other side of the wheel,
they are said to be in balance.

1.4 Rims and their Types

The outside circular shape of the wheel on which the inner edge of the tyre is placed on vehicles such as
automobiles is called the rim. It is the metallic cylindrical part where the tyre is installed. The rim used in car wheels
is cold-rolled from flat steel strip while for heavier commercial vehicles they are hot-rolled to the section from steel
bars. The portion of the rim where the tyre sits has a 5° taper due to which, as the tyre is inflated, the beads are
forced up the taper providing a wedge fit, and a good seal is obtained with tubeless tyres.

1.4.1 Rim Designs

Rims designs differ from one another (depending upon the type of tyre) in terms of number of parts and cross-
sectional rim shape. The most important rim components are: rim flange, rim bead seat and rim base. Rims have
the following different cross-sectional shapes:

✓ Drop centre

Page 6 of 93
 ✓ Flat base
✓ 5° tapered bead seat
✓ 15° tapered bead seat

1.4.2 Types of rims

Rims have the following types:

1.4.2.1 Well-Base Rims

A wheel rim with a central channel or recess into which one side of the tyre bead can drop; the other side can then
be forced over the rim for fitting or removal. These rims are designed to minimise dislodging (removal) of tyres
when subjected to heavy cornering. The seats of the rim on which the tyre sits (rim flanges) have a 5° taper so
that, as the tyre is inflated, the beads are forced up the taper to give a wedge fit and a good seal for tubeless tyres.
Wheels with well-base rims are commonly used on passenger cars because they enable easy installation and
removal of the tyre.

1.4.2.2 5° seat-angle Well-Base Rim

These rims are only used for vans and small commercial vehicles. They have high wall flanges, which protect the
tyre beads and walls from damage from external interference. Generally, both tube and tubeless tyres are fitted on
these rims.
1.4.2.3 Drop-Centre 15° taper Rim
In this type single-piece well-base wheel rims are used, with relatively shallow flanges at the edge of 15° taper
bead-seats. This profile of the rim provides a good joint and sound seal between the tyre bead and the rim taper.

Fig. 4: Drop-Centre rim

1.4.2.4 Detachable-Rim Wheels

In case of heavy commercial vehicles, due to high loads, tyres used are bulkier in the bead region. In order to
ensure the proper mounting of the tyre the rims for these tyres have one removable side-flange, which allows the
wheel tyres to slide into position, and then the flange can be replaced and locked at proper place.

1.4.2.5 Semi-drop-centre two-piece rim

This rim forms an intermediate class between the well-base and wide-base rims. This type of rim has inner and
outer tapered tyre-bead-seating surfaces separated by a shallow central or near central well. The inner flange can
be removed at the time of tyre fitting. It can accommodate too rigid heavier beads for fitting on the full well-base
type.

Page 7 of 93
1.4.2.6 Wide-base two-piece rim
This type of rim is used mainly on medium-size commercial vehicles. In this type of rim one split detachable flange
and one fixed flange are integrated with the rim base. A taper of 5° is provided to tyre beads, the one on the
detachable flange side being integral with the flange. The outer detachable flange is sprung into a continuous
groove formed along the outer edge of the rim base to retain the flange in its working position. At the time of
inflation of the tyre the bead sits over the detachable-flange taper to holds its position.

1.4.2.7 Wide-base three-piece rim

This rim is used on large commercial vehicles. It contains one detachable endless flange, a separate flange-retaining
split lock-ring and one fixed flange integral with the rim base. A taper of 5°is provided to seats for tyre-bead
location, on the detachable-flange side. It is usually being an extension of the spring lock-ring. At the time of
inflation of the tyre, the bead sits over the extension of the spring lock-ring, holding it in position.

1.4.2.8 Divided flat-base rim

These rims are used primarily for defence vehicles. This type of rim is an integral part of the wheel. Two halves of
the wheels are divided by dismantling the outer ring of bolts at the time of fitting a tyre.

1.5 Tyre
The tyre is a cushion for a car axle. This consists mostly of the outer shell, i.e., the interior of the tyre and tube. The
assembly of the tyre tube is mounted on the wheel rim. It is the air inside the tube that bears the entyre load and
provides cushioning effect.

The tyre performs the following functions:

1. Supports vehicle load
2. Provides shock-absorbing cushion
3. Transmits driving force and braking force to road
4. Provides cornering strength for smooth steering

1.5.1 Tyre Characteristics

Tyre has to withstand various types of forces in longitudinal, vertical and lateral directions while moving on the road.
Considering this, tyre should possess the following characteristics:

1. Cushioning ability: wheels and tyre should provide ride comfort to the vehicle by acting as a spring
element. The flexibility of the tyre depends on elasticity of the material used and inflation pressure; and are
not as flexible as the springing components of the suspension system.
2. Rolling resistance: tyres should provide rolling resistance, since, resisting forces are encountered due to
tyre deformation, uneven road surfaces and friction force developed due to scrubbing action of the road.
Rolling resistance is affected by inflation pressure. Minimum rolling resistance will improve performance and
fuel consumption.

Page 8 of 93
 3. Directional stability: Minimum slip angle is desirable in tyres. Pneumatic tyres are flexible in nature.
During free rolling, lateral forces act on the vehicle and deviates it from its straight path. This deviation is
known as the slip angle. Factors such as load, tyre inflation road surface, etc. affect the slip angle.
4. Self-aligning property: Due to presence of slip angle, the trailing portion of the tyre contact patch has
more lateral deformation than the leading portion, which shifts the centre of pressure, and cornering forces
act just behind the rotational axis of the wheel, and as a result the wheel produces self-aligning torque. At
its essence, self-aligning torque is the torque (a force that produces rotation) developed by the tyre when
you're cornering (which means turning). It aids in steering the vehicle.

1.5.2 Requirements of Tyres

Pneumatic tyres must satisfy the following requirements:
1. Support the weight of the vehicle and distribute it over a road surface.
2. Have minimum rolling resistance so as to minimise the fuel consumption.
3. Absorb shock
4. Have maximum tread life under varied running conditions
5. Ability to generate traction, braking and good response to steering
6. Stability even at high speeds
7. Low noise generation at high speeds

1.5.3 Properties of Tyre

1. Non-Skidding: It is one of the most important tyre properties. It means that tread pattern on the tyre
must be suitably designed to permit least skidding (slipping) even on wet roads.
2. Uniform Wear: it is highly necessary that the wear of the tyre be uniform in order to preserve the non-
skidding property. Tyres designed with a ribbed tread help accomplish this.
3. Load-Carrying Capacity: tyre is subjected to alternating stresses throughout wheel rotation. Thus, the
tyre design and its material must ensure that the tension is borne (tolerated) by the tyre.
4. Cushioning: tyres should be able to withstand high-frequency vibrations produced by the ground surface
and thus have a cushioning effect. Tyres should be designed and made with natural rubber to consume least
power of the engine.
5. Tyre Noise: In any case, it is important that noise produced by tyres should be minimum. The unbalanced
tread depths cause tyres to emit loud noises while driving. Usually sounds heard during driving are caused
by uneven wear coming from one tyre.
6. Balance: Balance is a very critical factor for tyres. Since the tyre is a revolving component of the vehicle, it
must be balanced both statically and dynamically. The absence of balance gives rise to peculiar oscillations,
called wheel tramp and wheel wobble.

1.5.4 Tyre Construction

An automotive tyre consists of the following elements (Fig. 5):

Page 9 of 93
 Fig. 5: Tyre Anatomy

1.5.4.1 Automotive car tyre elements definitions

✓ Bead: This is the inner edge of the tyre which provides rigidity and strength necessary to support the carcass.
It assures an airtight fit with the wheel and efficient transfer of forces from the wheel to the carcass of the
tyre.
✓ Casing (or Carcass): is the internal substructure of the tyre. Carcass consists of the inner horseshoe-shaped
lining made up of a number of layers of textile cord piles. The tread bead and walls all are moulded on these
cord piles.
✓ Tread: This is the part of the tyre that contacts the road surface when the wheel rolls. Tread blocks are raised
rubber compound segments on the outside visible part of a tyre.
✓ Breaker: The breaker of a bias tyre is rubber-coated layers of cord between the tread and carcass, binding the
two together. The breaker prevents cuts in the tread from reaching the carcass and helps absorb shocks.

Page 10 of 93
✓ Inner tube: A tyre’s inner tube is a flexible tube, which assumes a circular shape when inflated; it will expand
indefinitely like a balloon. A tube is protected by an outer cover of textile material and rubber. The purpose of
the inner tube is to store the trapped air for a long time.
✓ Inner-liner (inner-tube): A tyre’s inner tube is a flexible tube, which assumes a circular shape; and keeps air
inside the tyre when inflated.
✓ Bead filler: reduces flex and aids in deflection.
✓ Body plies: withstands the forces of the tyre’s inflation pressure, provides the mechanical link from the wheel
movement to the tread are and flexibility to supplement the vehicle’s suspension system.
✓ Sidewall: protects the side of the tyre from road and curb attack from atmospheric degradation.
✓ Shoulder blocks: are the tread elements of segments on the tyre tread nearest to the sidewall.
✓ Belts: stabilize and strengthen the tread, allowing forces to be efficiently transferred to the tread area.
✓ Belt edge insulation: helps to reduce friction.
✓ Tread: provides the frictional coupling to the road surface to generate traction and steering Forces.
✓ Ribs: are a pattern that includes grooves around the tyre in the direction of rotation.
✓ Grooves: are circumferential or lateral channels between adjacent tread ribs or tread blocks.
✓ Lugs: are the sections of rubber that make contact with the terrain.
✓ Voids: are the spaces that are located between the lugs.
✓ Sipes: are small lateral cuts made in the surface of the tread to improve traction.
✓ Kerfs: are shallow slits moulded into the tyre tread for added traction – this term often used interchangeably
with sipes.
1.5.5 Classification of Tyres
There are generally two types: solid and pneumatic (or air filled). Solid tyres are generally used for special
industrial applications. Tyres are also classified into tubed and tubeless, radial and non-radial tyres.
1.5.5.1 Tubed tyres
1. Tubed tyre or traditional tyre consists of a hard tyre outside with an inner soft rubber tube that assumes the form
of a tyre after inflation. The valve stem attached to the vent is used to either inflate or deflate it.

Fig. 6: Tubed tyre.

Page 11 of 93
1.5.5.2 Tubeless tyre
This type of tyre does not need a separate tube; rather, the air under pressure is filled into the tyre through a non-
return valve attached to the rim. The inner construction Wheels and Tyres of the tubeless tyre is similar to that of a
tubed tyre, except that inside it has a specialised air-retaining lining (Fig. 7) that forms a seal between the tyre
bead and the wheel rim.

Fig. 7: Tubeless tyre.

Tubeless tyres have the following benefits over traditional tubed tyres:
1. The tubeless tyre is easier to fit.
2. When punctured it deflates slowly in contrast to tubed tyres where air leaks out fast.
3. Less un-sprung weight: This makes the tyre lighter, which minimises and eventually decreases the bouncing
of the drum.
4. Since there is no tube in the tubeless tyres, heat is transferred directly into the atmosphere resulting in
better cooling.
5. It can be patched easily by plugging in a very short time, although in the case of traditional tyres, it takes
quite some time to remove the tube for repair.

1.5.5.3 Radial
The radial tyre is constructed with reinforcing steel cable belts that are assembled in parallel and run side to side,
from one bead to another bead at an angle of 90 deg to the circumferential centreline of the tyre. This makes the
tyre more flexible radially, which reduces rolling resistance and improves cornering capability. Fig. 8 shows the
interior structure and the carcass arrangement of a radial tyre.

Page 12 of 93
 Fig. 8: interior structure and the carcass arrangement of a radial tyre
1.5.5.4 Non-Radial tyres
The non-radial tyres are also called bias-ply and cross-ply tyres. The plies are layered diagonal from one bead to the
other bead at about a 30 deg angle, although any other angles may also be applied. One ply is set on a bias in one
direction as succeeding plies are set alternately in opposing directions as they cross each other. The ends of the
plies are wrapped around the bead wires, anchoring them to the rim of the wheel. Fig. 9 shows the interior
structure and the carcass arrangement of a non-radial tyre.

Fig. 9: interior structure and the carcass arrangement of a non-radial tyre

Difference: The most important difference in the dynamics of radial and non-radial tyres is their different ground
sticking behaviour when a lateral force is applied on the wheel. This behaviour is shown in Figure 10.

Page 13 of 93
 Fig. 10:(a) Radial (b) non-Radial
The radial tyre, shown in Fig. 10 (a), flexes mostly in the sidewall and keeps the tread flat on the road. The bias-ply
tyre, shown in Fig. 10 (b) has less contact with the road as both tread and sidewalls distort under a lateral load.
1.5.6 Tyre Treads patterns
Tread of a tyre or track refers to the rubber on its circumference that makes contact with the road or the ground. As
tyres are used, the tread is worn off, limiting its effectiveness in providing traction. Tyres usually falls into one of the
following categories:

1. Directional (unidirectional) tread pattern: A directional (also called unidirectional) tread pattern is
built in such a way that the tread has to roll or rotate in one direction only. It consists of lateral grooves on
both sides of the centreline of the tyre that point in the same direction and results in V-shaped tread blocks
(Fig. 11(a)).
2. Symmetrical tread pattern: The symmetric tread pattern is the most common and consists of continuous
ribs or individual tread blocks around the entyre tread face (Fig. 11(c)).
3. Asymmetrical tread patterns: The criteria for dry grip and water dispersal/snow traction are combined
in this form of design. Asymmetric tread designs typically contain larger tread ribs/blocks on the outboard
side to improve cornering stability on dry roads by providing greater contact space (Fig. 11(b)).
4. Non-directional tread patterns: non-directional tyres have a tread pattern that is designed to perform
equally well regardless of the tyres' rotational direction. These types of tyres win the tread wear comparison
other tread patterns. Non-directional tyres can be rotated (swapped), to different sides of the vehicle,
extending their life, and making uneven tread wear easier to correct.

Fig. 12: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 13 shows the different tyre tread patterns, their features and recommended area of application.

Page 14 of 93
 Fig. 13: Different tyre tread patterns.

1.5.7 Tyre rotation

The front and rear tyres perform differently. This is mainly due to different amount of load being taken up by them.
Generally, the rear tyres take up more loads as compared to front tyres. Due to this, the tyres wear out differently
on front and rear side. This unequal wearing of the tyres causes instability to the automobile. Thus, the need for
their rotation.
Tyre rotation means that wheel and tyre assemblies are shifted from one end of the axle to other or from one axle
to other. Tyre rotation can be done for a rear wheel drive without spare tyre as shown in Fig. 13(a) and (b). Tyre
rotation for front wheel drive without spare tyre has been shown in Fig. 13(c).

Page 15 of 93
 Fig. 13: tyre rotation

1.5.8 Tyre Re-Treading

A worn tyre can often be re-treaded. Re-treading is a special procedure that involves adding fresh thread material to
the old casing and vulcanizing it into plies, and only the casing that is in good condition can be m certainly-coated.
Re-covering requires special equipment. The tyre is cleaned and the tread layer is roughed up by rubbing or buffing
it with a wire ring. Then a strip of new rubber treadmill called camel black is put in the recapping unit.

The unit is clamped shut and heat is applied for a specified time. This vulcanises the new tray into the existing
casing. The worn tyre re-treading can be achieved using the method of hot re-treading and cold re-treading
processes.

1.5.9 Tyre Material

✓ Various types of fabric cord materials, such as cotton, rayon, nylon, polyester and glass, are widely used for
tyre cord piles, and also steel and polyaramid.
✓ Tyre liner is usually made of butyl rubber, which is intended to minimise the loss of air, because it has low
permeability to gas.
✓ Constituents of the sidewalls are 50 parts butadiene rubber (for abrasion resistance), and 50 parts carbon
black (for reinforcement), along with small amounts of processing oil, antioxidant and protective wax.
✓ For many years, natural rubber was used as tyre material but with time more and more synthetic rubber
material replaced the natural rubber as the elastomer.
✓ Nowadays rubber used in tyres is an elastomer that blends natural and synthetic rubbers with the addition
of chemicals and
✓ Several types of fabric cord materials are used in the tyre plies.
✓ Fibre glass are also used for some parts of tyre

Page 16 of 93
 ✓ Steel cords have of late been used for breaker belts in some tyres.

1.5.10 Inflation pressure

Inflation pressure in the tyre must be at appropriate level. Basically, there are three inflation situations encountered
in tyres.

a. Proper Inflation: this is maintaining inflation pressure in the tyre as specified by the manufacturer of the
automobile tyres (Fig. 14(a)). It helps to achieve longer tyre life. It provides stability to the automobile. It
provides riding comfort and also better fuel economy.
b. Under Inflation: If inflation pressure is less than specified, it causes instability, abnormal tyre wear and
enhanced fuel consumption. It also causes uneven wearing of the tyre (Fig. 14(b)).
c. Over Inflation: If inflation pressure is more than specified. The central part of the tyre is in contact with the
road surface (Fig. 14(c)). This will cause wearing of middle portion of the tyre. More than specified inflation
pressure also causes tyre bruising and uncomfortable ride.

Fig. 14: Inflation pressure in tyre (a) (b) (c)

1.5.11 Tyre Size and Designations

Pneumatic tyres are the only means to transfer forces between the road and the vehicle. Tyres are required to
produce the forces necessary to control the vehicle, and hence, they are an important component of a vehicle.

Fig. 15 illustrates a cross section view of a tyre on a rim to show the dimension parameters that are used to
standard tyres.

Fig. 15: Cross section of a tyre on a rim to show tyre height and width

Where:

Height hT, is a number that must be added to the rim radius to make the wheel radius.
Page 17 of 93
 Section width, or tyre width, wT , is the widest dimension of a tyre when the tyre is not loaded.

1.5.12 Primary Data on sidewall of a Tyre

Tyres are required to have certain information printed on the tyre sidewall. Fig. 16 illustrates a side view of a sample
tyre to show the important information printed on a tyre sidewall.

Fig. 16: sidewall information

Where:

The speed rating of the tyre is given by the letter code, which indicates maximum recommended speed for that
tyre. Common symbols for passenger car tyres include;

• S, for up to 180 kilometres per hour.

• H, up to 210 kilometres per hour.
• V, up to 240 kilometres per hour.
• And Z for over 240 kilometres per hour.
Aspect ratio: This two-number code is the ratio of the tyre section height to tyre width, expressed as a
percentage. Aspect ratio is shown by
ℎ𝑇
𝑆𝑇 = × 100%
𝑊𝑇
Page 18 of 93
Generally speaking, tyre aspect ratios range from 35, for race car tyres, to 75 for tyres used on utility vehicles.
Radial ply tyres have always been marked with the section width in millimetres, but with the rim diameter in inches.
For example:
• 185 is section width in millimetres.
• 70 indicate a 70% aspect ratio.
• H is the speed rating, for up to 210 kilometres per hour.
• R indicates radial ply construction.
• 13 indicate the tyre is suitable for fitting to a 13-inch diameter rim.
Totally metric types are also manufactured. For example:
• 190 is the section width in millimetres.
• The aspect ratio is 65%.
• The speed rating is H, for up to 210 kilometres per hour.
• R indicates radial ply construction.
• 390 indicate the tyre is suitable for fitting to a 390 mm diameter rim.

Metric-diameter rims cannot be fitted with inch-diameter tyres, or vice-versa.

Although tyre markings may remain traditional, e.g. 255 45 Z-R 17, there is a worldwide move towards an I-S-O
metric standard which uses letters:

• P for passenger,
• LT for light truck,
• C for commercial,
• T means temporary use as a spare wheel.

Fig. 17: ISO metric standard of tyre identification

The tyre may have a load index number, indicating the maximum load a tyre can carry at the speed indicated by its
speed symbol, which follows the number.

Page 19 of 93
 e.g. a P-series metric size code may read in full – P205/65 R15 92H.

• P for passenger car tyre,

• 205 is the section width in millimetres,
• With 65% aspect ratio,
• R – Radial ply construction,
• 15-inch diameter rim,
• 92 load index, for a maximum load of 630 kilograms,
• H for a speed rating up to 210 kilometres per hour.

Further development of high-speed tyres has expanded the speed categories to include W and Y

1.5.12.1 Understanding Load Index

The Load capacity of a tyre determines what payload each tyre can carry. It is vital that you check with your
manufacturer what capacity should be put on your car. The following table shows what Index specification can
carry.

Page 20 of 93
1.5.13 Tyre Ratings for Temperature & Traction
One of the markings on the sidewall of a tyre is a Uniform Tyre Quality Grading or UTQG grade.
The tyre’s UTQG rating provides information on three aspects of the tyre’s durability and operational characteristics.
They are: Tread wear, traction and temperature.

The tread wear number comes from testing the tyre in controlled conditions. The higher the number the longer the
life expectancy of the tread. Since no one vehicle will be subjected to exactly the same surfaces and at the same
speeds as the controlled conditions, the number can only be an indicator of expected tread life in “normal
conditions”.

Fig. 17: Tyre Ratings for Temperature & Traction

Page 21 of 93
 2.0 Forward Vehicle Dynamics
Straight motion of an ideal rigid vehicle is the subject of this chapter. We ignore air friction and examine the load
variation under the tyres to determine the vehicle’s limits of acceleration, road grade, and kinematic capabilities.

2.1 Parked Car on a Level Road

Consider a longitudinally symmetrical car as shown in Figure 2.1, which can be modelled as a two-axel vehicle. A
symmetric two-axel vehicle is equivalent to a rigid beam having two supports. The vertical force under the front and
rear wheels can be determined using planar static equilibrium equations.

Figure 2.1: longitudinally symmetrical car

When the vehicle sits statically on level ground, the load equations simplify considerably. The sine is zero and the
cosine is one, and the variables Rhx, RhZ, ax, and DA are zero. The normal force, Fz, under each of the front and rear
wheels, Fz1, Fz2, are thus:
(1)

(2)

Applying the equilibrium equations

(3)

(4)

where, a1 is the distance of the car’s mass centre, C, from the front axle, a2 is the distance of C from the rear axle,
and l is the wheel base.

(5)
provide the reaction forces under the front and rear tyres.

(6)

Page 22 of 93
 (7)

(8)

(9)

2.2 Parked Car on an Inclined Road

Consider the car shown in Figure 2.2. Let us assume the parking brake forces are applied on only the rear tyres. It
means the front tyres are free to spin. Applying the planar static equilibrium equations

Figure 2.2. A parked car on inclined pavement.

When a car is parked on an inclined pavement as shown in Figure 2.2, the normal force, Fz, under each of the front
and rear wheels, Fz1, Fz2, is:

(9)
(10)
(11)

(12)
(13)
(14)

Page 23 of 93
 (9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

𝜙 = road angle with horizon and 𝜙𝑀 is the maximum slope angle

(13)
(14)
(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

Example: When the front wheels are the only braking wheels,

In this case, the equilibrium equations will be

Page 24 of 93
(19)
(20)
(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)
(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)

Page 25 of 93
 (25)
(26)

(32)

(33)

(34)

2.3 Accelerating Car on a Level Road

A vehicle is considered as a rigid body that moves along a horizontal road. The force at the tyre-print of each
tyre may be decomposed to a normal and a longitudinal force. The equations of motion for the accelerating
car come from Newton’s equation in x-direction and two static equilibrium equations.

FIGURE 2.3. An accelerating car on a level pavement.

Page 26 of 93
When a car is speeding with acceleration a on a level road as shown in Figure 2.3, the vertical forces under the
front and rear wheels are

(35)

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39)

(40)
(41)
(42)

(43)

(44)

(45)

(46)

the dynamic parts indicate the weight distribution according to horizontal acceleration, and depend on the
vertical position of the mass centre.

(47)

(48)

Page 27 of 93
When accelerating a > 0, the normal forces under the front tyres are less than the static load, and under the
rear tyres are more than the static load.

(49)

(50)

(51)

(52)

(53)

Page 28 of 93
(54)

(55)

(56)

(57)

(58)

Page 29 of 93
 3.0 Tyre Dynamics
Tyre is the main component of a vehicle that interact with the road. Accordingly, vehicle’s performance is mainly
influenced by the characteristics of its tyres; also, tyre affect vehicle’s handling, traction, ride comfort, and fuel
consumption.

It is important to know that a vehicle can manoeuvre only by longitudinal, vertical, and lateral force systems
generated under the tyres. Figure 3.1 illustrates a model of a vertically loaded stationary tyre.

FIGURE 3.1. A vertically loaded stationary tyre.

To model the tyre-road interactions, we determine the tyre-print and describe the forces distributed on the tyre-print.

3.1 Tyre plane and coordinate

Tyre plane is the plane made by narrowing the tyre to a flat disk. To describe the tyre-road interaction and force
system, we attach a Cartesian coordinate frame at the centre of the tyre-print, as shown in Figure 3.2, assuming a flat
and horizontal ground. The x-axis is along the intersection line of the tyre-plane and the ground.

Figure 3.2. SAE Tyre coordinate system

Page 30 of 93
 ✓ The z-axis is perpendicular to the ground, opposite to the gravitational acceleration g, and
✓ the y-axis makes the coordinate system a right-hand triad.
✓ To show the tyre orientation, we use two angles: camber angle γ and sideslip angle α.
✓ The camber angle is the angle between the tyre-plane and the vertical plane measured about the x-axis. The
camber angle can be recognized better in a front view as shown in Figure 3.3.
✓ The sideslip angle α, or simply sideslip, is the angle between the velocity vector v and the x-axis measured
about the z-axis. The sideslip can be recognized better in a top view, as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.3. Front view of a tyre and measurement Figure 3.4. Top view of a tyre and measurement
of the camber angle. of the side slip angle.
3.2 Force system a tyre receives from the ground
The force system that a tyre receives from the ground is assumed to be located at the centre of the tyre-print and can
be decomposed along x, y, and z axes. Therefore, the interaction of a tyre with the road generates a 3D force system
including three forces and three moments, as shown in Figure 3.2.

1. Longitudinal force Fx: It is a force acting along the x-axis. The resultant longitudinal force Fx > 0 if the car
is accelerating, and Fx < 0 if the car is braking. Longitudinal force is also called forward force.
2. Normal force Fz: It is a vertical force, normal to the ground plane. The resultant normal force F z > 0 if it is
upward. Normal force is also called vertical force or wheel load.
3. Lateral force Fy: It is a force, tangent to the ground and orthogonal to both F x and Fz. The resultant lateral
force Fy > 0 if it is in the y-direction.
4. Roll moment Mx: It is a longitudinal moment about the x-axis. The resultant roll moment Mx > 0 if it tends
to turn the tyre about the x-axis. The roll moment is also called the bank moment, tilting torque, or
overturning moment.
5. Pitch moment My: It is a lateral moment about the y-axis. The resultant pitch moment My > 0 if it tends to
turn the tyre about the y-axis and move forward. The pitch moment is also called rolling resistance torque.
Page 31 of 93
 6. Yaw moment Mz: It is an upward moment about the z-axis. The resultant yaw moment Mz > 0 if it tends to
turn the tyre about the z-axis. The yaw moment is also called the aligning moment, self-aligning moment, or
bore torque.

The moment applied to the tyre from the vehicle about the tyre axis is called wheel torque T.

3.2.1 Tyre Stiffness

As an applied approximation, the vertical tyre force Fz can be calculated as a linear function of the normal tyre
deflection ∆z measured at the tyre centre.

The coefficient kz is called tyre stiffness in the z-direction. Similarly, the reaction of a tyre to a lateral and a
longitudinal force can be approximated by

where the coefficient kx and ky are called tyre stiffness in the x and y directions.

The practical part of a tyre’s longitudinal and lateral stiffness curves is the linear part and may be estimated by
linear equations.

Figure 3.5: Vertical, longitudinal, and lateral stiffness curves

3.2.2 Tyre-print Forces

The force per unit area applied on a tyre in a tyre-print can be decomposed into a component normal to the ground and a
tangential component on the ground.

The normal component is the contact pressure σz, while the tangential component can be further decomposed in the x and
y directions to make the longitudinal and lateral shear stresses τx and τy. For a stationary tyre under normal load, the tyre-
print is symmetrical.

Page 32 of 93
Due to equilibrium conditions, the overall integral of the normal stress over the tyre-print area AP must be equal to the
normal load Fz, and the integral of shear stresses must be equal to zero.

3.2.3 Static Tyre

3.2.3.1 Normal Stress
Figure 3.6 illustrates a stationary tyre under a normal load Fz along with the generated normal stress σz applied on
the ground. The applied loads on the tyre are illustrated in the side view shown in Figure 3.6(a). For a stationary
tyre, the shape of normal stress σz(x, y) over the tyre-print area depends on tyre and load conditions, however its
distribution over the tyre-print is generally in the shape shown in Figure 3.6(c).

(a) Normal stress σz applied on the round. (b) Side view of a normal force Fz and stress σz (c) A model of normal stress σz(x, y) in
because of a stationary tyre under a normal load Fz applied on a stationary tyre. the tyre-print area for a stationary tyre.
Figure 3.6
The normal stress σz(x, y) may be approximated by the function

where a and b indicate the dimensions of the tyre-print, as shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: A mode for tyre-print of stationary radial tyres under normal load.

Page 33 of 93
The tyre-prints may approximately be modelled by a mathematical function

Example: A car weighs 800kg. If the tyre-print of each radial tyre is AP = 4 × a × b = 4 × 5cm × 12cm, then
determine the normal stress distribution for (i) n = 3 (ii) n = 2 (iii) compare (i) and (ii)

Solution (i) Normal stress in tyre-print for n = 3

σz, must satisfy the equilibrium equation.

(ii) Normal stress in tyre-print for n = 2.

(iii) comparison of (i) and (ii)

Page 34 of 93
3.2.3.2 Tangential Stresses
The tangential stress τ on the tyre-print can be decomposed in x and y directions. The tangential stress is also
called shear stress or friction stress.

The tangential stress on a tyre is inward in x direction and outward in y direction. Hence, the tyre tries to stretch
the ground in the x-axis and compact the ground on the y-axis. Figure 3.8 depicts the shear stresses on a
vertically loaded stationary tyre.

Figure 3.8: Direction of tangential stresses on the tyre-print of a stationary vertically loaded tyre.
The force distribution on the tyre-print is not constant and is influenced by tyre structure, load, inflation
pressure, and environmental conditions. Thus, the tangential stress τx in the x-direction may be modelled by the
following equation.

3.2.4 Longitudinal Force

The longitudinal slip ratio of a tyre is

where, Rg is the tyre’s geometric and unloaded radius, ωw is the tyre’s angular velocity, and vx is the tyre’s
forward velocity. Slip ratio is positive for driving and is negative for braking.

Page 35 of 93
To accelerate or brake a vehicle, longitudinal forces must develop between the tyre and the ground. When a
moment is applied to the spin axis of the tyre, slip ratio occurs and a longitudinal force Fx is generated at the
tyre-print. The force Fx is proportional to the normal force,

where the coefficient μx (s) is called the longitudinal friction coefficient and is a function of slip ratio ‘s’.

If the angular velocity of the tyre is ωw then, d˙F = Rg x ωw and d˙A = Rw x ωw

where, Rg is the geometric tyre radius and Rw is the effective radius. Therefore, the slip ratio ‘s’ can be defined
based on the actual speed vx = Rw x ωw, and the free speed Rg x ωw

A tyre can exert longitudinal force only if a longitudinal slip is present. Longitudinal slip is also called
circumferential or tangential slip. During acceleration, the actual velocity vx is less than the free velocity Rgωw,
and therefore, s > 0. However, during braking, the actual velocity vx is higher than the free velocity Rgωw and
therefore, s < 0.

3.2.4.1 Slip ratio is −1 < s < 0 in braking.

Page 36 of 93
3.2.4.2 Slip ratio is 0 < s < ∞ in driving.

Samples for longitudinal friction coefficients μdp and μds

Table 3.1 shows the average values of longitudinal friction coefficients μdp and μds for a passenger car tyre
215/65 R15. It is practical to assume μdp = μbp, and μds = μbs

Table 3.1 - Average of longitudinal friction coefficients.

3.2.5 Lateral Force

Consider a front view of a laterally deflected tyre shown in Fig. 3.9. When a turning tyre is under a vertical
force Fz and a lateral force Fy, its path of motion makes an angle α with respect to the tyre-plane. The angle is
called sideslip angle and is proportional to the lateral force

Page 37 of 93
 Figure 3.9: Front view of a laterally deflected tyre

A turning tyre under lateral force and the associated sideslip angle α are shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: The stress distribution τy, the resultant lateral force Fy, and the pneumatic trail ay for a turning tyre
going on a positive slip angle α.

Page 38 of 93
Lateral distortion of the tyre treads is a result of a tangential stress distribution τy over the tyre-print. Assuming
that the tangential stress τy is proportional to the distortion, the resultant lateral force Fy

We may assume the lateral force Fy is proportional to the slip angle α for low values of α.

3.2.5.1 A model for lateral force

Page 39 of 93
3.2.5.2 A model for lateral stress
Consider a tyre turning on a dry road at a low sideslip angle α. Assume the developed lateral stress on tyre-print
can be expressed by the following equation:

3.2.6 Rolling resistance

A turning tyre on the ground generates a longitudinal force called rolling resistance. The force is opposite to the
direction of motion and is proportional to the normal force on the tyre-print.

Road pavement and rolling resistance

The effect of the pavement and road condition is introduced by assigning a value for μ0 in equation
Page 40 of 93
 μr = μ0 + μ1 v2x.
which is a simple function and good enough for representing experimental data and analytic calculation. Table
3.2 is a good reference.
Table 3.2 - The value of μ0 on different pavements.

3.2.7 Camber Force

Camber angle γ is the tilting angle of tyre about the longitudinal x-axis. Camber angle generates a lateral force
Fy called camber trust or camber force. Figure 3.11 illustrates a front view of a cambered tyre and the generated
camber force Fy.

FIGURE 3.11: A front view of a cambered tyre and the generated camber force.

Page 41 of 93
Camber angle is assumed positive γ > 0, when it is in the positive direction of the x-axis, measured from
the z-axis to the tyre. A positive camber angle generates a camber force along the −y-axis. The camber
force is proportional to γ at low camber angles, and depends directly on the wheel load Fz. Therefore,

3.3 Tyre Force

Tyres may be considered as a force generator with two major outputs: forward force Fx, lateral force Fy,
and three minor outputs: aligning moment Mz, roll moment Mx, and pitch moment My. The input of the
force generator is the tyre load Fz, sideslip α, longitudinal slip s, and the camber angle γ.

Ignoring the rolling resistance and aerodynamic force, and when the tyre is under a load Fz plus only one
more of the inputs α, s, or γ, the major output forces can be approximated by a set of linear equations

Page 42 of 93
 4.0 Driveline Dynamics
Basically, the maximum achievable acceleration of a vehicle is limited by two factors. there are:
1. Maximum torque at driving wheels: this depends on engine and transmission performance.
2. Maximum traction force at tyreprints: it depends on tyre-road friction.

In this section, we will examine engine and transmission performance.

4.1 Engine Dynamics

The maximum attainable power (Pe) of an internal combustion engine is a function of the engine angular
velocity ωe. This function must be determined experimentally.

However, the function Pe = Pe (ωe), which is called the power performance function, can be estimated by a
third-order polynomial

If we use ωM to indicate the angular velocity, measured in [ rad/ s] at which the engine power reaches the
maximum value PM, measured in [ W = N m/ s], then;
For spark ignition engines we use

For indirect injection Diesel engines, we use

For direct injection Diesel engines, we use

Page 43 of 93
The driving torque of the engine Te is the torque that provides Pe

Example: A model of Porsche 911 turbo has a flat-6-cylinder, twin-turbo engine with 3596 cm3 ≈ 220 in3
total displacement. The engine provides a maximum power PM = 353 kW ≈ 480 hp at ωM = 6000 rpm ≈
628 rad/s, and a maximum torque TM = 620 N m ≈ 457 lb ft at ωe = 5000 rpm ≈ 523 rad/ s. The car weighs
around 1585 kg ≈ 3494 lb and can move from 0 to 96 km/ h ≈ 60 mi/ h in 3.7 s. Porsche 911 has a top
speed of 310 km/ h ≈ 193 mi/ h.

The power performance equation for the Porsche 911 engine has the coefficients

Maximum power and torque at the same ωM: Ideal performance for an engine would be having
maximum power and maximum torque at the same angular velocity ωM. However, it is impossible to have
such an engine because the maximum torque TM of a spark ignition engine occurs at

that is half of the speed at which the power is maximum. When the torque is maximum, the power is at

Page 44 of 93
4.2 Driveline and Efficiency
We use the word driveline, equivalent to transmission, to call the systems and devices that transfer torque and
power from the engine to the drive wheels of a vehicle. Most vehicles use one of two common transmission
types: manual gear transmission, and automatic transmission with torque convertor. A driveline includes the
engine, clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, differential, drive shafts, and drive wheels. Figure 4.1 illustrates how
the driveline for a rear-wheel-drive vehicle is assembled.

Figure 4.1: Driveline components of a rear-wheel-drive vehicle

➢ The engine is the power source in the driveline.
➢ The output from the engine is an engine torque Te, at an associated engine speed ωe.
➢ The clutch connects and disconnects the engine to the rest of the driveline when the vehicle is equipped
with a manual gearbox.
➢ The gearbox can be used to change the transmission ratio between the engine and the drive wheels.
➢ The propeller shaft connects the gearbox to the differential. The propeller shaft does not exist in front-
engined front-wheel-drive and rear-engined rear-wheel-drive vehicles. In those vehicles, the differential
is integrated with the gearbox in a unit that is called the transaxle.
➢ The differential is a constant transmission ratio gearbox that allows the drive wheels to have different
speeds; so, they can handle the car in a curve.
➢ The drive shafts connect the differential to the drive wheels. The drive wheels transform the engine
torque to a traction force on the road.
Front and rear-engined, front and rear drive: are vehicles whose engine may be installed in the front
or back of a car. They are called front-engined and rear-engined vehicle respectively. The driving wheels
may also be the front, the rear, or all wheels. Therefore, there are six possible combinations. Out of those
six combinations, the front-engined front-wheel drive, front-engined rear-wheel-drive, and front-engined
all-wheel-drive vehicles are the most common. There are only a few manufacturers that make cars with
rear-engined rear-wheel-drive. However, there is no rear-engined front-wheel-drive vehicle.
The input and output torque and angular velocity for each device in a driveline are indicated in Figure 4.2.

Page 45 of 93
 Figure 4.2: The input and output torque and angular velocity of each driveline component

The available power at the drive wheels is

4.2.1 Torque at the wheel

Page 46 of 93
4.2.2 Power law
For any mechanical device in the driveline of a car, there is a simple law to remember.

4.2.3 Volumetric, thermal, and mechanical efficiencies

✓ ηV is the engine volumetric efficiency: it identifies how much fuelled air gets into the cylinder.
• If the cylinder is filled with fuelled air at atmospheric pressure, then the engine has 100%
volumetric efficiency.
• Super and turbo chargers increase the pressure entering the cylinder, giving the engine a
volumetric efficiency greater than 100%.
• if the cylinder is filled with less than the atmospheric pressure, then the engine typically run
between 80% and 100% of ηV.
✓ ηT is the thermal efficiency: identifies how much of the fuel is converted to usable power.
• Thermal efficiency is changed by the compression ratio, ignition timing, plug location, and
chamber design.
• Low compression engines may have ηT ≈ 0.26. A high compression racing engine may have ηT ≈
0.34. Therefore, racing engines may produce about 30% more power because of their higher ηT.
• Any improvement in the thermal efficiency ηT significantly improves the final power that the
engine produces. Therefore, a huge investment is expended in research to improve ηT.
✓ ηM is the mechanical efficiency: identifies how much power is consumed by the engine to run
itself.
• Mechanical efficiency is affected by mechanical components of the engine or the devices
attached to the engine. It also depends on the engine speed.
• The greater the speed, the more power it takes to turn the engine. This means the ηM drops
with speed.
• ηM is also called friction power because it indicates how much power is needed to overcome the
engine friction.

Page 47 of 93
4.3 Gearbox and Clutch Dynamics
The internal combustion engine cannot operate below a minimum engine speed ωmin. Consequently, the
vehicle cannot move slower than a minimum speed vmin while the engine is connected to the drive wheels.

Consider a vehicle with only one drive wheel. Then, the forward velocity vx of the vehicle is proportional to the
angular velocity of the engine ωe, and the tire traction force Fx is proportional to the engine torque Te

where Rw is the effective tire radius, nd is the differential transmission ratio, ni is the gearbox transmission
ratio in gear number i, and η is the overall driveline efficiency. Equation (4.58) is called the speed equation,
and Equation (4.59) is called the traction equation.
4.3.1 Mechanical and hydraulic clutches
Mechanical clutches are widely used in passenger cars and are normally in the form of a dry single-disk clutch.
The adhesion between input and output shafts is produced by circular disks that rub against each other.

Engagement begins with the engine running at ωe = ωmin and the clutch being released gradually from time t =
0 to t = t1 such that the transmitted torque Tc from the engine to the gearbox increases almost linearly in time
from Tc = 0 to the maximum value Tc = Tc1 that can be handled in slipping mode.

The transmitted torque remains constant until the input and output disks stick together and a speed equality
is achieved. At this time, the clutch is rigid and Tc = Te.

The transmitted torque Tc should overcome the resistance force and the vehicle should accelerate sometime in
0 < t ≤ t1. The magnitude of the transferable torque depends on the applied force between the disks, the
frictional coefficient between clutch disks, the effective frictional area, and the number of frictional pairs. The
axial force is generally produced by a preloaded spring. The driver can control the spring force by using the
clutch pedal, and adjust the transferred torque.
The hydraulic clutch consists of a pump wheel connected to the engine and a clutch-ended turbine that is
equipped with radial vanes. A torque is transferred between the pump wheel and the turbine over a fluid,
which is accelerated by the pump and decelerated in the turbine. The transferred torque of hydraulic clutch
(also called Foettinger clutch) can be calculated according to the Foettinger’s law:

Page 48 of 93
4.3.2 Gearbox stability condition
Consider a vehicle moving at speed vx when the gearbox is engaged in gear number i with transmission ratio
ni. To be safe, we have to select the transmission ratios such that when the engine reaches the maximum
torque it can shift to a lower gear ni−1 without reaching the maximum permissible engine speed. The
maximum permissible engine speed is usually indicated by a red line or red region.

Let’s show the engine speed for the maximum torque TM by ωe = ωT.

Example: Consider a passenger car with the following gearbox transmission ratios:
1st gear ratio = n1 = 3.827
2nd gear ratio = n2 = 2.36
3rd gear ratio = n3 = 1.685
4th gear ratio = n4 = 1.312
5th gear ratio = n5 = 1
6th gear ratio = n6 = 0.793
final drive ratio = nd = 3.5451 (4.93)
Determine the transmission ratios and stability condition.
Page 49 of 93
None of these two sets shows a practical design. The best way to apply a constant relative ratio is to use the
first and final gears and fit four intermittent gears such that ni−1/ni = cte.

Page 50 of 93
Page 51 of 93
 5.0 Vehicle Kinematics
Position, velocity, and acceleration are called kinematics information. Rotational position analysis is the
key to calculate kinematics of relatively moving rigid bodies. In this chapter, we review kinematics and
show applied methods to calculate the relative kinematic information of rigid bodies. A vehicle has many
moving sub-systems such as suspensions, and the vehicle can be treated as a moving rigid body in an
inertia coordinate frame.

5.1 Angular Velocity

Consider a rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a reference frame G(OXY Z) as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1: A rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a global frame G(OXY Z).
The motion of the body can be described by a time varying rotation transformation matrix between the global
and body frames to map the instantaneous coordinates of any fixed point in body frame B into their
coordinates in the global frame G.

The angular velocity vector is associated with a skew symmetric matrix

Page 52 of 93
Consider a rigid body is turning about the Z-axis with α ˙ = 10 deg /s. The global velocity of a point P(5, 30, 10),
when the body is turned α = 30 deg, is

5.2 Rigid Body Velocity

Consider a rigid body with an attached local coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a fixed global coordinate
frame G(OXY Z), as shown in Figure 5.2.

FIGURE 5.2: A rigid body with an attached coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a global coordinate frame
G(OXY Z).
The rigid body can rotate in the global frame, while the origin
of the body frame B can translate relative to the origin of G. The coordinates of a body point P in local and global
frames are related by the following equation:

where GdB indicates the position of the moving origin o relative to the fixed origin O.

Page 53 of 93
Where: GdB position vector of body coordinate frame B in G
P point
Gr position vector in global coordinate frame
Br position vector in body coordinate frame
GRB rotation matrix from local frame to global frame
GαB angular acceleration of body B expressed in G
GωB angular velocity of rigid body B expressed in G
GvP is the global velocity of point P
5.3 Angular Acceleration
Consider a rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a reference frame G(OXY Z) as shown in Figure 5.3.

FIGURE 5.3: A rotating rigid body B(Oxyz) with a fixed point O in a reference frame G(OXY Z).
Page 54 of 93
The velocity vector of a point in a fixed origin body frame is given by:

When a body coordinate frame B and a global frame G have a common origin, the global acceleration of a point P in
frame B is

Example: Consider the motion of a vehicle on the Earth at latitude 30 deg and heading north, as shown in Fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4: The motion of a vehicle at 30 deg latitude and heading north on the Earth.

Page 55 of 93
There are three coordinate frames involved. A body coordinate frame B is attached to the vehicle as shown in the
Figure 5.4. A global coordinate G is set up at the centre of the Earth. Another local coordinate frame E is rigidly
attached to the Earth and turns with the Earth. The frames E and G are assumed coincident at the moment.
Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of B.

The angular velocity of B is

Therefore, the velocity and acceleration of the vehicle are

Page 56 of 93
5.4 Rigid Body Acceleration
Consider a rigid body with an attached local coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a fixed global coordinate
frame G(OXY Z). The rigid body can rotate in the global frame, while the origin of the body frame B can translate
relative to the origin of G. The coordinates of a body point P in local and global frames, as shown in Figure 5.5, are
related by the equation

Figure 5.5. A rigid body with coordinate frame B (oxyz) moving freely in a fixed global coordinate frame G(OXY Z).

Page 57 of 93
 6.0 Applied Mechanisms
Most of the mechanisms used in vehicle subsystems are made of four-bar linkages. Double A-arm for
independent suspension, and trapezoidal steering are two examples of mechanisms in vehicle
subsystems.

6.1 Definition of terms

✓ An individual rigid member that can have relative motion with respect to all other members is
called a link. A link may also be called a bar, body, arm, or a member.
✓ Any two or more links connected together, such that no relative motion can occur among them, are
considered a single link.
✓ Two links are connected by a joint where their relative motion can be expressed by a single
coordinate.
✓ Joints are typically revolute (rotary) or prismatic (translatory). Figure 6.1 illustrates a geometric
form for a revolute and a prismatic joint.

Figure 6.1: A revolute and a prismatic joint

✓ A revolute joint (R), is like a hinge that allows relative rotation between the two connected links.
✓ A prismatic joint (P), allows a relative translation between the two connected links.
✓ Relative rotation or translation, between two connected links by a revolute or prismatic joint,
occurs about a line called axis of joint.
✓ The value of the single variable describing the relative position of two connected links at a joint is
called the joint coordinate or joint variable. It is an angle for a revolute joint, and a distance for a
prismatic joint.
✓ A set of connecting links to do a function is called a mechanism.
✓ A linkage is made by attaching, and fixing, one link of a mechanism to the ground. The fixed link is
called the ground link.
✓ There are two types of linkages, closed loop or parallel, and open loop or serial. In vehicle
subsystems we usually use closed-loop linkages. Open-loop linkages are used in robotic systems
where an actuator controls the joint variable at each joint.

Page 58 of 93
6.2 Four-Bar Linkage
Consider a four-bar linkage shown in Figure 6.2. Link number 1 is the ground link MN. The ground link is the base
and used as a reference link.

Figure 6.2: A four-bar linkage

We measure all the variables with respect to the ground link. Link number 2 ≡ MA is usually the input link which is
controlled by the input angle θ2. Link number 4 ≡ NB is usually the output link with angular position θ4, and link
number 3 ≡ AB is the coupler link with angular position θ3 that connects the input and output links together.

The angular position of the output and coupler links, θ4 and θ3, are functions of the links’ length and the value of the
input variable θ2. The angles θ4 and θ3 can be calculated by the following functions:

Where:

and

Page 59 of 93
The vector expression of each link shown in Figure 6.3 .is depicted in Table 6.1.

Figure 6.3 Expressing a four-bar linkage with a vector loop

Table 6.1 - Vector representation of the four-bar linkage

At any angle θ2, and for suitable values of a, b, c, and d, Equations (6.1) and (6.2) provide two values for the output
and coupler angles, θ4 and θ3. Both solutions are possible and provide two different configurations for each input
angle θ2.
A suitable set of (a, b, c, d) is the numbers that make the radicals in Equations (6.1) and (6.2) real.
Example: consider a linkage with the following lengths:
a=1
b=2
c = 2.5
d=3
Determine the two possible configurations for a four-bar linkage.

Page 60 of 93
Figure 6.4 depicts the two possible configurations of the linkage for θ2 = 45 deg. The configuration in Figure 6.4(a)
is called convex, non-crossed, or elbow-up, and the configuration in Figure 6.4(b) is called concave, crossed, or
elbow-down.

Figure 6.4. Two possible configuration of a four-bar linkage having the same input angle θ2.
6.3 Velocity analysis of a four-bar linkage
The velocity analysis of a four-bar linkage is possible by taking a time derivative of Equations (6.20) and (6.21),

Page 61 of 93
Assuming θ2 and ω2 are given values, and θ3, θ4 are known from Equations (6.1) and (6.2), we may solve Equations
(6.50) and (6.51), for ω3 and ω4.
Where: αi angular acceleration of link number i θi angular position of link number i i=1, 2, 3, 4, --n

6.4 Velocity of moving joints for a four-bar linkage

Having the coordinates θ2, θ3, θ4 and velocities ω2, ω3, ω4 enables us to calculate the absolute and relative velocities
of points A and B shown in Figure 6.3. The absolute velocity is referred to the ground link, and relative velocity
refers to a moving point.

Equations (6.57) and (6.58) are both correct and convertible to each other.

Page 62 of 93
6.5 Acceleration analysis of a four-bar linkage
The acceleration analysis of a four-bar linkage is possible by taking a time derivative from Equations (6.50) and
(6.51),

Where

Assuming θ2, ω2, and α2 are given values as the kinematics of the input link, θ3, θ4 are known from Equations (6.1)
and (6.2), and ω3, ω4 are known from Equations (6.53) and (6.54), we may solve Equations (6.59) and (6.60), for α3
and α4.

Where

6.6 Acceleration of moving joints for a four-bar linkage

Having the angular kinematics of a four-bar linkage θ2, θ3, θ4, ω2, ω3, ω4, α2, α3, and α4 is necessary and enough to
calculate the absolute and relative accelerations of points A and B shown in Figure 6.3. The absolute acceleration is
referred to as the ground link, and the relative acceleration refers to a moving point.

The absolute acceleration of points A and B are

Page 63 of 93
Where

6.7 Grashoff criterion

The ability of a four-bar linkage to have a rotary link is determined by Grashoff criterion. Assume the four links
have the lengths s, l, p, and q, where:
Page 64 of 93
 l = longest link
s = shortest link
p, q = the other two links

then, the Grashoff criterion states that the linkage can have a rotary link if
l+s<p+q (6.77)

Different types of a Grashoff mechanism are:

1− If shortest link is the input link, then the mechanism is a crank-rocker.
2− if shortest link is the ground link, then the mechanism is a crank-crank (also called a drag-link).
3− At all other conditions, the mechanism is a rocker-rocker.

6.8 Limit positions for a four-bar linkage

When the output link of a four-bar linkage stops while the input link can turn, we say the linkage is at a limit
position. It happens when the angle between the input and coupler links is either 180 deg or 360 deg. Limit
positions of a four-bar linkage, if there are any, must be determined by the designer to make sure the linkage is
designed properly. A limit position for a four-bar linkage is shown in Figure 6.5.

FIGURE 6.5. Limit position for a four-bar linkage

Page 65 of 93
6.9 Dead positions for a four-bar linkage
When the input link of a four-bar linkage locks, we say the linkage is at a dead position. It happens when the angle
between the output and coupler links is either 180 deg or 360 deg. Limit positions of a four-bar linkage, if there are
any, must be determined by the designer to make sure the linkage is never stuck in a dead position. A dead position
for a four-bar linkage is shown in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6: Dead position for a four-bar linkage

Equations:

6.10 Designing a four-bar linkage using Freudenstein’s equation

Designing a mechanism can be thought of as determining the required lengths of the links to accomplish a specific
task.
Freudenstein’s equation (6.87) determines the input-output relationship of a four-bar linkage. This equation can be
utilized to design a four-bar linkage for three associated input-output angles.

6.10.1 windshield wiper mechanism

Figure 6.7 illustrates the four popular windshield wiper systems. Double arm parallel method is the most popular
wiping system that serves more than 90% of passenger cars.
Page 66 of 93
 FIGURE 6.7. Four popular windshield wiper systems
The double-arm opposing method has been used been using since last century, however, it was never very popular.
The single-arm simple method is not very efficient, so the controlled single-arm is designed to maximize the wiped
area.
6.10.1.1 Double-arm parallel windshield wiper mechanism
Figure 6.8 illustrates a sample of double-arm parallel windshield wiper mechanism. A four-bar linkage makes the
main mechanism that match the angular positions of the left and right wipers.

FIGURE 6.8. A sample of double-arm parallel windshield wiper mechanism.

A dyad or a two-link connects the driving motor to the main four-bar linkage and converts the rotational output of
the motor into the back-and-forth motion of the wipers.

Worked example: The input and output links of the main four-bar linkage at three different positions are shown in
Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9. input-output links of the main four-bar linkage of a windshield wiper at three different positions
Page 67 of 93
The beginning and the end angles for the input link are show by θ21 and θ23, and for the output link by θ41 and θ43
respectively. Design the mechanism that must match the angular positions of the left and right blades at the
beginning and at the end positions.

Solution: let’s match the angular positions of the left and right blades at the beginning, middle and end positions as
indicated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Matched the angular positions of input-output

The Freudenstein’s equation for the input-output angles are:

Substituting the input and output angles in Freudenstein’s equation provides the following set of three equations:

The set of equations (6.92) is linear for the unknowns J1, J2, and J3

with the following solution:

The three factors J1, J2, J3 should be used to find four numbers for the links’ length.

Page 68 of 93
So, we may pre-set the length of one of the links, based on the physical situation. Traditionally, we use a = 1 and find
the remaining lengths. Then, the designed mechanism can be magnified or shrunk to fit the required geometry. In
this example, we find

Assuming a distance d = 75 cm ≈ 29.5 in for a real passenger car, between the left and right fixed joints M and N, we
find the following dimensions:

Such a mechanism is shown in Figure 6.10 at the initial position.

Figure 6.10: The main four-bar linkage of the windshield wiper at the initial position measured in [ cm].

Page 69 of 93
 7.0 Steering Dynamics
The steering system in a vehicle is used to move the vehicle in a particular direction. This is a very
important sub-system in a car without which it would be impossible for a vehicle to follow its desired
path. The steering system can be used to steer all kinds of vehicles like cars, trucks, buses, trains, tanks
etc.

The conventional steering system consisted of turning the front wheels in the desired direction. But now
we have four-wheel steering system mostly used in heavy vehicles, to reduce the turning radius, rear
wheel steering system, differential steering system etc.

The basic components of any steering system are:

1. Steering column
2. Steering box
3. Tie rods
4. Steering arms
The main geometry followed in steering is ACKERMANN STEERING GEOMETRY. It shows that while
negotiating a curve, the inner wheel needs to follow a smaller path as compared to the outer wheel. This
results in different steering angles for the respective tyres.

Page 70 of 93
7.1 Kinematic Steering
Consider a front-wheel-steering 4W S vehicle that is turning to the left, as shown in Figure 7.1. When the
vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a kinematic condition between the inner and outer wheels that
allows them to turn slip-free. The condition is called the Ackerman condition and is expressed by:

where, δi is the steer angle of the inner wheel, and δo is the steer angle of the outer wheel. The inner and
outer wheels are defined based on the turning centre O.

Figure 7.1. A front-wheel-steering vehicle and the Ackerman condition.

Page 71 of 93
The distance between the steer axes of the steerable wheels is called the track and is shown by w. The distance
between the front and rear axles is called the wheelbase and is shown by l. Track w and wheelbase l are considered
as kinematic width and length of the vehicle.

Figure 7.2 illustrates a vehicle turning left. So, the turning centre O is on the left, and the inner wheels are the left
wheels that are closer to the centre of rotation. The inner and outer steer angles δi and δo may be calculated from
the triangles 4OAD and OBC as follows:

Figure 7.2; A front-wheel-steering vehicle and steer angles of the inner and outer wheels.
The mass centre of a steered vehicle will turn on a circle with radius R,

where δ is the cot-average of the inner and outer steer angles.

The angle δ is the equivalent steer angle of a bicycle having the same wheelbase l and radius of rotation R.

Page 72 of 93
To find the vehicle’s turning radius R, we define an equivalent bicycle model, as shown in Figure 7.3. The radius of
rotation R is perpendicular to the vehicle’s velocity vector v at the mass centre C. Using the geometry shown in the
bicycle model, we have

The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles are zero.
There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to balance each other. The Ackerman steering condition
is also called the kinematic steering condition, because it is a static condition at zero velocity.

A device that provides steering according to the Ackerman condition (7.1) is called Ackerman steering,
Ackerman mechanism, or Ackerman geometry. There is no four-bar linkage steering mechanism that can
provide the Ackerman condition perfectly. However, we may design a multi-bar linkage to work close to
the condition and be exact at a few angles.

Figure 7.4 illustrates the Ackerman condition for different values of w/l. The inner and outer steer angles
get closer to each other by decreasing w/l.

Page 73 of 93
 FIGURE 7.4. Effect of w/l on the Ackerman condition for front-wheel-steering vehicles.

Example: Consider a vehicle with the following dimensions and steer angle:
l = 103.1 in ≈ 2.619 m
w = 61.6 in ≈ 1.565 m
a2 = 60 in ≈ 1.524 m
δi = 12 deg ≈ 0.209 rad
Determine the turning radius, or radius of rotation.

Steering Ratio is defined as the ratio of the turn of the steering wheel to the corresponding turn of the
wheels, both which are measured in degrees.

Page 74 of 93
It plays an important role in determining the ease of steering. A higher ratio would mean that a large
number of turns of the steering wheel is required to negotiate a small turn. A lower ratio would enable
better handling. Sports cars usually have lower ratio while heavier vehicles have a higher steering ratio.

The Different types of steering systems are:

1. Rack and pinion steering system

2. Recirculating Ball steering system
3. Power Steering

The Rack and Pinion steering system is the most common system found mostly in modern vehicles. It
employs a simple mechanism. The parts of this system are steering column, pinion gear, rack gear, tie
rods, kingpin. The circular motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion gear through the
steering column and universal joint. The pinion is meshed with a rack which translates the circular motion
into linear motion thus providing the necessary change in direction. It also provides a gear reduction, thus
making it easier to turn the wheels. This system is preferred because of its compactness, efficiency, ease
of operation. But at the same time, it gets easily damaged on impact.

Page 75 of 93
 8.0 Suspension Mechanisms
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a
vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual purpose — contributing to the car's road
holding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants
comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations, etc. These goals are
generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for
the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all
the forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tyres. The suspension also
protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear.

8.1 Principle of Suspension System

While on the road, the vehicle has to face different types of road surfaces, due to which it is subjected to
dynamic loads, cornering force, etc. If the chassis is connected directly to the transmission components,
then these dynamic loads are directly transferred to the occupants. The entire structure of the vehicle
may be subject to excessive fatigue, and it may breakdown. Therefore, it is essential to isolate the entire
vehicle from such forces, loads and shocks due to road irregularities. It is also essential to maintain
vehicle stability, control and proper road holding during all operating conditions such as braking
acceleration, cornering, etc., which depends on tyre–road friction. The factors responsible for this type
friction are type of road, weight of the vehicle and the coefficient of friction. If the dynamic load acting on
the vehicle exceeds the tyre–road friction then the tyre may slip or skid and be subjected to scrub. To
avoid and minimise the effects of this dynamic effect the suspension system is incorporated in the vehicle.
The functions of the suspension system are as follows:
1. To protect the passengers from road shocks
2. To maintain the stability of the vehicle in pitching and rolling
3. To reduce un-sprung mass
4. To reduce impact stresses on the vehicle’s various mechanisms
5. To maintain directional stability of the vehicle
6. To maintain correct wheel alignment to avoid tyre wear
7. To help in maintaining road holding
8. To restrict road vibrations from being transmitted to the various components of the vehicle
Some of the requirements of the suspension systems are as follows:
✓ Provide chassis isolation and ensure the wheels follow the road profile with minimum tyre load
fluctuation

Page 76 of 93
 ✓ Ensure that steering control is maintained during travel by proper positional and directional
attitude with respect to the road surface
✓ Ensure that the vehicle responds favourably to control forces produced by the tyres as a of
result the forces generated in various operating conditions by resisting squat, dive and roll of
the vehicle body
✓ Provide isolation from high-frequency vibration arising from tyre excitation and road noise
✓ Provide required structural strength to resist the loads imposed on the suspension
8.2 Classification of the Suspension System
Generally, the suspension system can be broadly classified into
A. Rigid axle suspension system
B. Independent suspension system
8.3 Components of Suspension System
1. Control Arm: A movable lever that fastens the steering knuckle to the frame of the vehicle.
2. Control Arm Busing: This is a sleeve which allows the control arm to move up and down on the
frame.
3. Strut Rod: Prevents the control arm from swinging forward and backwards.
4. Ball Joints: A joint that allows the control arm and steering knuckle to move up and down and
sideways as well
5. Shock absorbers or Struts: prevents the suspension from bounce after spring compression and
extension
6. Stabilizer Bar: Limits body roll of the vehicle during cornering
7. Spring: Supports the weight

8.4 Different Types of Front Wheel Suspension Systems

Two of the most popular suspensions systems for passenger cars today are the double wishbone
suspension system and the MacPherson strut suspension system. While it is more usual to see the double
wishbone system at the rear end of the car, MacPherson’s solution normally finds its place at the front end
of the car. Both types of suspensions have their own sets of benefits and limitations, thus let us look at
both the advantages and disadvantages of both systems, starting with the simpler of the two, the
MacPherson struts.
MacPherson Struts- This is most the common type of suspension widely used in the front and rear
axles but mostly used in the front wheels. It consists of a strut, which includes shock absorber and coil
spring. It has two links, one taking the lateral and the other the drag loading. It consists of only the lower
wishbone. The wishbone is hinged to the cross member to resist it and positions the wheel as well as

Page 77 of 93
resists accelerating, braking and side forces. The struts are designed with more simplicity, and thus takes
up less space horizontally. They also display low un-sprung weight, an advantage that reduces the overall
weight of the vehicle as well as increases the car’s acceleration. Lower un-sprung weight also makes your
ride more comfortable. Another major advantage of this system is its ease of manufacturing as well as
low cost of manufacture compared to other standalone suspension systems. Without an upper arm, the
suspension system designers can directly block vibration from reaching the passenger compartment.
Nevertheless, the MacPherson struts come with their own drawbacks. Being a long, vertical assembly, you
would encounter difficulties if you lower your car as they may be collision with the structure of your car.
Thus, they do not work well with racing cars that are normally lowered. The MacPherson struts also have
problems working with wider wheels that have increased scrub radius, where you would need extra effort
to navigate your car in this situation. There is also the problem with the small camber change with
vertical movement of the suspension, which could mean the tyres have less contact with the road during
cornering. This could reduce handling abilities of your vehicle.

Figure 8.1 McPherson front axle with driven wheels

Double Wishbone Suspension System- If the wheel is suspended between two lateral links, in order
to resist all the forces and moments acting on the wheel, one link must be above the wheel centre and
another below the wheel centre, so there is a necessity for a third link to control the toe and steering, this
configuration is called double wishbone suspension or lateral link suspension. It consists of two wishbone
arms pivoted to the frame.
One of its primary benefits is the increase of negative chamber as a result of the vertical suspension
movement of the upper and lower arms. This translates to better stability properties for the car as the
tyres on the outside maintain more contact with the road surface.

Page 78 of 93
The double-wishbone-type suspension provides a large amount of design freedom; roll centre and pitch
axis can be chosen freely; there is limited change in camber and track width; it provides high lateral
stiffness and very good ride and handling (Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.2: Wishbone-type suspension system.

Handling performance also increases. The double suspension system is much more rigid and stable than
other suspension systems, thus you would realize that your steering and wheel alignments are constant
even when undergoing high amounts of stress.
Moving on to the drawbacks of the double wishbone suspension system, it is normally bugged by cost
issues as it is a more complicated design to produce.

There are many parts to the system, and thus every time any of these malfunctions of fail, your whole
system fails. Repair, modification and maintenance costs and complexities for double wishbone suspension
systems are normally higher due to these reasons. This suspension system also proves to be flexible for
design engineers, as the arms of the system can be fixed at different angles to the surface, parameters
such as camber gain, roll centre height and swing arm length can be determined and designed flexibly to
suit and road surface in condition.

8.4.1 Dependent Suspension Systems

In dependent suspension systems, movement of one wheel directly affects the other wheels. In
dependent front-wheel suspension systems, a beam-type rigid axle is used to support the two stub axle
pivots at a fixed distance. This is also called a solid axle, live axle or dependent wheel control system rigid
axle. Rigid axles have some advantages due to their simplicity, economy and cost-effective integration of

Page 79 of 93
the rear differential into the axle body. They provide wide loading surface to the non-driven axle,
robustness and large loading capacity. The beam-type axle is used to support two stub axle pivots. With
the beam axle suspension, the wheel alignment is maintained most effectively because it does not
demand more rigidity at the front-end structure of the chassis frame. There is less tyre wear as the track
distance remains constant and the front wheels remain perpendicular to the road in the presence of
body roll. The use of a beam axle also ensures that the ground clearance of a commercial vehicle remains
constant in both unladen and laden conditions.
8.5 Air Suspension
In air suspension, air springs, also called bellows, are used instead of metal springs. A suspension that
uses both metal springs and air springs is not referred to as air suspension.
Air suspension consists of the following parts:
1. Air supply: Supply of compressed air through compressor, air tanks, valves, and air lines.
2. Air bellows: A bladder which holds the compressed air.
3. Height-controlled valves: these help in controlling the air in the system as per requirement, height-
controlled valves may be mechanically or electronically operated.

Page 80 of 93
 9.0 Speed Limiting Devices
Speed Governor

The governor is a device which is used to controlling the speed of an engine based on the load
requirements. Basic governors sense speed and sometimes load of a prime mover and adjust the energy
source to maintain the desired level. So it’s simply mentioned as a device giving automatic control (either
pressure or temperature) or limitation of speed.

The governors are control mechanisms and they work on the principle of feedback control. Their basic
function is to control the speed within limits when load on the prime mover changes. They have no
control over the change in speed (flywheel determines change in speed i.e. speed control) within the
cycle.

Speed governor installed on four stroke diesel engine

Page 81 of 93
9.1 Types of Governors:
The governor can be classified into the following types. These are given below,

1. Centrifugal governor

a) Pendulum type watt governor

b) Loaded type governor
i) Gravity controlled type
Ø Porter governor
Ø Proell governor
Ø Watt governor

ii) Spring controlled type

Ø Hartnell governor
Ø Hartung governor

2. Inertia and fly-wheel governor

3. Pickering Governor

9.2 Purpose of governor:

1. To automatically maintain the uniform speed of the engine within the specified limits, whenever
there is a variation of the load.
2. To regulate the fuel supply to the engine as per load requirements.
3. To regulate the mean speed of the engines.
4. It works intermittently i.e., only there’s modification within the load
5. Mathematically, it can express as ΔN.

9.3 Terminology used in the governor:

1. Height of the governor (h): Height of the governor is defined as the vertical distance between the
centre of the governor ball and the point of the intersection between the upper arm on the axis of
the spindle. The height of the governor is denoted by ‘h’.
2. Radius of rotation (r): Radius of rotation is defined as the centre of the governor balls and the axis
of rotation in the spindle. The radius of rotation is denoted by ‘r’.
3. Sleeve lift (X): The sleeve lift of the governor is defined as the vertical distance travelled by the
sleeve on spindle due to change in equilibrium in speed. The sleeve lift of the governor is denoted
by ‘X’.

Page 82 of 93
 4. Equilibrium speed: The equilibrium speed means, the speed at which the governor balls, arms,
sleeve, etc, are in complete equilibrium and there is no upward or downward movement of the
sleeve on the spindle, is called as equilibrium speed.
5. Mean Equilibrium speed: The mean equilibrium speed is defined as the speed at the mean position
of the balls or the sleeve is called as mean equilibrium speed.
6. Maximum speed: The Maximum speed is nothing but the speeds at the maximum radius of
rotation of the balls without tending to move either way is called as maximum speed.

7. Minimum speed: The Minimum speed is nothing but the speeds at the minimum radius of rotation of
the balls without tending to move either way is called as minimum speed.

8. Governor effort: The mean force working on the sleeve for a given change of speed is termed as the
governor effort.

9. Power of the governor: The power of the governor is state that the product of mean effort and lift of
the sleeve is called as power of the governor.

10. Controlling force: The controlling force is nothing but an equal and opposite force to the centrifugal
force, acting radially (i.e., centripetal force) is termed as controlling force of a governor.

Page 83 of 93
 10.0 Vehicle Planar Dynamics
When the forward, lateral and yaw velocities are important and are enough to examine the behaviour of a
vehicle, the planar model is applicable.

A vehicle may be effectively modelled as a rigid bicycle in a planar motion by ignoring the roll of the vehicle.
Such a vehicle has three DOF in a body coordinate frame attached to the vehicle at C: forward motion, lateral
motion, and yaw motion. The dynamic equations of such a vehicle are can be expressed in (vx, vy, r) variables
in the following set of three coupled first order ordinary differential equations.
Example:

a) Consider a front-wheel-steering, four-wheel-car with the following characteristics.

CαfL = CαfR = 500 N/ deg ≈ 112.4 lb/ deg ≈ 28648 N/ rad ≈ 6440 lb/ rad
CαrL = CαrR = 460 N/ deg ≈ 103.4 lb/ deg ≈ 26356 N/ rad ≈ 5924.4 lb/ rad
mg = 9000 N ≈ 2023 lb
m = 917 kg ≈ 62.8 slug
Iz = 1128 kg m2 ≈ 832 slug ft2
a1 = 91 cm ≈ 2.98 ft
a2 = 164 cm ≈ 5.38 ft
Determine the force system coefficients Cr, Cβ, Cδ, Dr, Dβ, and Dδ, if the sideslip coefficient of an
equivalent bicycle model are:
Cαf = CαfL + CαfR = 57296 N/ rad
Cαr = CαrL + CαrR = 52712 N/ rad.
Solution:
a) The force system coefficients Cr, Cβ, Cδ, Dr, Dβ, and Dδ are then equal to the following if vx is
measured in [ m/ s].
Page 1 of 93
Page 2 of 93
 11.0 Vehicle Vibrations
Vehicles are multiple-DOF systems as the one that is shown in Figure 13.1. The vibration behaviour of a vehicle, which is
called ride or ride comfort, is highly dependent on the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the vehicle.

FIGURE 13.1. A full car vibrating model of a vehicle.

In this chapter, we review and examine the applied methods of determining the equations of motion, natural frequencies,
and mode shapes of different models of vehicles
11.1 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
Unforced and undamped vibrations of a system is a basic response of the system which expresses its natural behaviour.
We call a system with no damping and no external excitation, a free system.
11.1.1 Quarter car natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Figure 13.8 illustrates a quarter car model which is made of two solid masses ms and mu denoted as sprung and unsprung
masses, respectively.

FIGURE 13.8. A quarter car model.

The sprung mass ms represents 1/4 of the body of the vehicle, and the unsprung mass mu represents one wheel of the
vehicle. A spring of stiffness ks, and a shock absorber with viscous damping coefficient cs support the sprung mass. The

Page 3 of 93
unsprung mass mu is in direct contact with the ground through a spring ku, and a damper cu representing the tire stiffness
and damping.

To find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the quarter car model, we have to drop the damping and forcing terms
and analyze the following set of equations.

Consider a vehicle with the following characteristics.

ms = 375 kg
mu = 75 kg
ku = 193000 N/ m
ks = 35000 N/ m.
Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the vehicle model.
Solution

To find the corresponding mode shapes, we use

Page 4 of 93
Searching for the first-unit expression of u1 and u2 provides the following mode shapes.

Page 5 of 93
 12.0 Vehicle Rollover Dynamics

A vehicle weighs 20 kN. The centre of gravity height is 100 cm. The suspensions and tyres are assumed to be
rigid. The average track width is 150 cm. Determine the static rollover threshold (SRT) and plot the rollover
moment diagram up to a roll angle of 10 degrees. For the following cases:
1. the vehicle centre of gravity height is increased from 100 cm to 150 cm;
2. the track width of the vehicle is increased from 150 cm to 180 cm;
3. the total weight is increased from 20 kN to 40 kN.
Solution.
i. For case 1 the centre of Gravity Height Changes, determine Static Rollover Threshold given:

Fig. i: Effect of increasing the centre of gravity height on SRT

ii. For case 2, the track width changes, in order to determine the static rollover threshold given:
Page 6 of 93
The new SRT is seen to be 0.9 m/s2; for the graph, the important points are calculated:

Fig. ii: Effect of increasing the vehicle track width on SRT

iii.

Page 7 of 93
Fig. iii: Effect of increasing the vehicle track width on SRT

Page 8 of 93