ENGLISH REVIEWER
of each line to spell out a message, name
Elements of Poetry :
1. The Arrangement of Words - The poet
decides on how the words are arranged
into a certain order or sequence to achieve
a particular effect. The structure of the
poem can also contribute to its overall
meaning.
• Point of View - The vantage point of the
speaker. In poetry, this is also sometimes
referred to as the persona.
1. First person
2. Second person
3. Third person limited
4. Third person omniscient
• Line/Verse – a subdivision of a poem,
specifically a group of words arranged into
a row that ends for a reason other than the
right-hand margin.
• Enjambment – When lines or verses have
incomplete syntax and the meaning runs
over from one poetic line to the next
without punctuation
May be used for following reasons :
1. Fosters fluidity to allow more narrative-like
style within a poem as thoughts aren’t confined
to a single verse
2. Increases the pace or momentum by
eliminating pauses at each line break so the
reader continues onto the next verse more
quickly
3. Moves the reader forward to reach the
resolution of the poet’s thought sooner
• Stanza – Series of lines group together and
separated from other groups of lines or
stanzas by a skipped line
1. Couplet – 2 lines
2. Tercet – 3 lines
3. Quatrain – 4 lines
4. Cinquain – 5 lines
5. Sestet – 6 lines
6. Septet – 7 lines
7. Octave – 8 lines
A. Structured Poems - follow a consistent
framework based on features such as line
length, syllable count, rhyme pattern,
rhythm, metre or a combination of these
• Sonnet – a 14-line poem that adheres to a
loose structure and has a variable rhyme
scheme
• Haiku – 3-line poem that uses a syllabic 5-
7-5 structure
• Acrostic – a poem that uses the first letter
or title
• Concrete – Structured to make a specific
shape
2. The Sounds of words - Certain words can
be selected and grouped together to
achieve specific effects when we hear
them. The sounds that are created might
sound pleasing or soothing, clever or
rhythmic, or harsh and uncomfortable to
hear.
• Alliteration - Repeated consonant sounds at
the beginning of words placed near each other
or next to each other.
Examples :
a. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
b. Slim-pinioned swallows sweep and pass.
c. The barbarians broke through the barricade
• Assonance - Repeated vowel sounds in words
placed near each other, usually on the same or
adjacent lines.
Examples :
d. I feel stressed and restless.
e. The dapper lad chatted to the other happy chap.
f. Johnny went here and there and everywhere.
• Onomatopoeia – Words that imitate the natural
sound of the thing they describe
Examples :
a. The clang of the pots and pans and woke the
baby
b. Zoom! Went the race car as it sped past the
finish line
c. The bacon sizzled in the pan
• Repetition – The purposeful re-use of words
and phrases to create emphasis or convey a
particular effect
Examples :
a. I will not brush my hair, I will not wear a dress
and I will not clean my room
b. We have so much stuff but still buy more stuff
then need storage units to store all the stuff
• Rhythm – When words are arranged according
to stressed and unstressed syllables so that
the make a pattern or beat
1. Iamb (x/), - a two-syllable metrical pattern in
poetry in which one unstressed syllable is
followed by a stressed syllable.
2. Trochee (/x) - a two-syllable metrical pattern
in poetry in which a stressed syllable is
followed by an unstressed syllable.
 3. Spondee (//). - a two-syllable metrical pattern
in poetry in which both syllables are stressed.
• Rhyme - words that have different beginning
sounds but whose endings sound alike,
including the final vowel sound and everything
following it
• Rhyme Scheme - the pattern established by
the arrangement of rhymes in a stanza or
poem, generally described by using letters of
the alphabet to denote the recurrence of
rhyming lines
a. Alternate rhyme - ABAB CDCD EFEF and so on.
b. Couples rhyme - any rhyme scheme in which
rhymes occur in pairs, such as AABBCC.
c. Monorhyme - the term used for poems that use
just one rhyme throughout the entire poem, as
in AAAA
d. Enclosed rhyme - term used for "sandwich"
rhyme schemes like ABA or ABBA.
e. Simple 4-line rhyme - follows a pattern of
ABCB
f. Chain rhyme - describes rhyme schemes in
which stanzas are linked together by rhymes
that carry over from one stanza to the next, as
in ABA BCB CDC
3. The Meaning of Words - A word can be
carefully selected to convey a precise idea but
some words can carry several layers or
depths of meaning at the same time. Poets can
use these or combine them with other words
for particular effects.
• Simile - Creates a comparison between
two things by using the words 'like' or 'as'.
• Symbolism - When a simple or ordinary
object, event, animal, or person represents
deeper meaning or significance.
Example :
a. Dove – Peace
b. Red rose – love/romance
c. Skull – Death
d. Fork in the road – choice or decision
4. Word Choice & Connotation - Connotations
are the ideas or feelings evoked by a word.
These are the implications or associations
we might form which are different to a
word's literal meaning.
Example :
a. The words ‘animal’ and ‘beast’ refer to the same
type of creature but the second term has
connotations of wildness and savagery.
b. The words ‘house’ and ‘home’ have the same
denotation but the word ‘home’ has
connotations of warmth, family, safety,
belonging etc
• Paradox – Statement which seems
contradictory but may reveal an
unexpected truth
Example :
a. The only constant is change
b. You’ve got to be cruel to be kind
• Oxymoron - combination of two words that
appear to contradict each other.
Example :

Example : a. Bittersweet
b. Clearly confused
a. The desert was dry as a bone c. Seriously funny
b. Her tempers were like an uncontrollable storm d. Deafening silence
c. He’s as cool as a cucumber • Euphemism - understatement, used to
• Metaphor - comparison by stating that one lessen the effect of a statement that might
thing is another or does the actions of sound harsh, offensive or hurtful.
another.
Example :
Example :
a. She is at rest
a. His stomach was a twisted storm of butterflies
b. She’s a late bloomer
b. His fingers danced across the keyboard
c. I’m currently between jobs
• Personification - Attributing human
• Idiom - group of words established by
characteristics to an inanimate object,
usage as having a meaning not deducible
animal, or abstract idea.
from those of the individual words.
Example :
Examples :
a. As I climbed the stairs, the staircase groaned
a. I was over the moon
as if awoken from a long sleep
b. She was sitting on the fence
b. The days crept by slowly
c. I have my finger on the pulse
• Metonym - A figure of speech in which a • Recommendation/Moral Obligation
person, place or thing is referred to by a. Should b. Ought to
something closely associated with it.
Modal Verb - helps a main verb show the level
Example : of obligation for a required action.
a. The pen is mightier than the sword
b. Wall Street braces for further rate rises
• Allusion - A brief reference to a person,
historical event, biblical or mythological
situation or character
Example :
a. I thought the software would be useful, but it
was a Trojan Horse
b. Chocolate cake my kryptonite

5. The Imagery Words - Although poems

explore deep human emotions or thoughts,
an audience won't generally respond very
strongly unless the poem creates imagery.
These are the vivid mental pictures or
sensations created through descriptive
words. The poet must include these details
that calls upon the five senses in order to
show the reader rather than to merely tell
them about the subject.
• Visual Imagery – Sight : The shimmering sun
bounced waves of light off the surface of the
ocean
• Aural Imagery – Sound : She could hear the
gentle whisper of the breeze and the chirping
of the birds
• Olfactory Imagery – Smell : The sticky sweet
scent of cinamon donuts wafted in the air
• Tactile Imagery – Touch : The grass prickled his
skin as he lay on the sports ground.
• Gustatory Imagery - Taste : She could still taste
the salty sea water on her lips
• Kinesthetic Imagery – Movement : Tripping and
stumbling she lurched towards the traitor with
her arms outstretched.
How to use modals of obligation?
• Often used in laws, regulations, and official
documents to outline obligations and
duties.
• Used to express formal requests,
instructions, or rules in various situations
Modal verb : must
Subject + must (not) + base verb
✓ Affirmative sentences
✓ Negative sentences
Example :
a. I must pay my bills today or I will receive a
fine
b. I must not forget my keys because I only
have one set
Modal verb : have to
Subject + (do/does not) + have to +base verb

MODALS ✓ Affirmative sentences

✓ Negative sentences
1. Modals of Obligation - used to express a ✓ Questions
requirement, necessity, or duty. They
indicate what is necessary, expected, or Example :
obligatory in a given situation a. She has to work until 5 pm
b. We don’t have to go to the office
Obligation - a requirement or something that
c. Do you have to take the exam?
is necessary. You do not have a choice
Types of Modals of Obligations :

• Firm Obligation/Necessity
a. Must b. Have to
Modal verb : ought to 2. Will – Permission to do something in the
future
Subject + ought to + base verb
3. May or Might – To ask for something less
✓ Affirmative sentences certain
4. Can – Expressing permission to do
x Negative Sentences
something now
x Questions
• Can - used to express the ability to do
Example : something, and can also be used to ask for
c. She ough to sleep early tonight permission to act in the present
d. I ought to call my family today
e. They ought to come home soon

Forming Negative Obligation :

✓ Using ‘should not’ or ‘shouldn’t’
You shouldn’t leave the door unlocked when you go
out

✓ Using ‘must not’ or ‘mustn’t’

Students mustn’t use their mobile phones during
class hours

✓ Using ‘not allowed’

Visitors are not allowed to take photographs inside
the museum

Why are modals of obligation important in

English grammar?
The use of modal verbs in English grammar is
crucial. They enable us to be courteous while
offering advise or making requests and assist
us in demonstrating when things are required.
They offer us several degrees of duty, ranging
from very strict to more lenient. Additionally,
they assist clarify what we must accomplish in
terms of laws and regulations. They are
therefore very important for speaking English
clearly and correctly.
2. Modals of Permission - Are used in English Common mistakes when using modals of
to ask for permission or to express permission :
permission meaning.
• using the wrong modal for the situation
Why are modals of permission important? • not using the correct form of the modal
✓ They help to show politeness and help you
Summary : Modals of permission are an
sound more natural
✓ Help to make requests and offers important part of communication in English. By
✓ Used to show deference to people in positions using them correctly, you can create the right
of authority impression and show respect for other
✓ help to create a positive impression and show cultures
respect for other cultures

How to use modals of permission?

1. The basic rule for using modals of permission
is to use the most appropriate modal for the
situation
3. Modals of Prohibition
• Grammatical constructs that express the
act of forbidding or denying certain actions
or behaviors
• Used to communicate restrictions,
prohibitions, or the lack of permission in
different contexts and scenarios
• It is important to understand the various
modals of prohibition in order to enhance
one's English language skills and
effectively convey ideas and intentions
Examples of Modals of Prohibition :
a. Can’t - express the speaker's strong
perspective about a prohibition or
impossibility of performing an action.
Example: You can't smoke in this area.
b. Mustn’t - ' indicates a strong prohibition or
requirement to avoid certain actions.
Example: You mustn't go beyond this point
Presenting Different Modals of Prohibition :
a. Shouldn’t - suggests a recommendation to
avoid something, indicating that it is not
advisable.
Example: You shouldn't eat too much sugar.
b. Ought not to - conveys a moral or practical
obligation to avoid certain actions.
Example: You ought not to speak rudely to
others.
c. May not - expresses a possibility of
prohibition or lack of permission for certain
actions.
Example: You may not bring outside food to the
event.
d. Don’t - general prohibition or instruction to
not perform a particular action.
Example: Don't touch the exhibits in the
museum.
Usage and Placement of Modals of
Prohibition :
1. Usage in Imperative Sentences - Modals
of prohibition are often used in imperative
sentences to command, instruct, or
advise someone to avoid a particular
action.
Example: Keep quiet in the library.
2. Usage in Questions - to seek clarification
or inquire about restrictions.
Example: Can't I use my phone during the
break?
3. Placement in Sentences - Modals of
prohibition are generally placed before
the main verb in a sentence.
Example: You shouldn't disturb others while
they're studying.
Common Mistakes to avoid :
1. Using 'Can' Instead of 'Can't'
A common mistake is using 'can' instead of
'can't', which changes the meaning from
prohibition to permission.
Example: You can bring outside food (incorrect)
vs. You can't bring outside food (correct).
2. Incorrect Placement
Another common mistake is incorrect
placement of modals of prohibition, which
can lead to confusion or ambiguity.
Example: You shouldn't touch the exhibits in the
museum (correct) vs. You shouldn't the exhibits
touch in the museum (incorrect).
Summary of Modals of Prohibition :
1. Types of Modals - There are several
types of modals of prohibition, including
'can't', 'mustn't', 'shouldn't', 'ought not to',
and 'may not'.
2. Usage and Placement - Modals of
prohibition are commonly used in
imperative sentences and questions,
and are generally placed before the
main verb in a sentence.
3. Common Mistakes - Common mistakes
include using 'can' instead of 'can't' and
incorrect placement of modals of
prohibition
What language tools and strategies can be
employed to effectively communicate and
navigate social interactions in diverse
contexts? One can use linguistic skills and
tactics to properly communicate and handle
social interactions in a variety of
circumstances. Among them are active
listening to understand various points of view,
using inclusive language to recognize cultural
and personal differences, adapting your
communication style to the environment and
audience, displaying empathy to forge stronger
connections, and observing non-verbal cues
like body language and facial expressions to
decipher reactions and emotions. In a variety of
social and cultural circumstances, these
approaches help people engage in a productive
and meaningful way.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditionals - are extremely important in the
English language because they help us
express things that may happen in the present
and future. Conditionals serve many purposes
and take
✓ What actually happens
✓ What could happen
✓ What we wish would happen
✓ What might have happen

Conditional Sentences - have two parts or

clauses that give a condition in the dependent
clause and a result in the independent clause.
1. Zero Conditional Sentences - “The Real
Deal” This expresses general truths –
situations in which one thing always
causes another
3. Second Conditional Sentences - “Unreal
Possibility or Dream” Used to talk about
improbable or impossible situations in the
present or future

4. Third Conditional Sentences - “A Dream

with no Possibility” Used to talk about
impossible situations
• We use the Third Conditional to imagine a
different past, in which something did or didn't
happen, and we also imagine a different result

2. First Conditional Sentences - “The Real

Possibility” Used to talk about realistic
situation in the present or future