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By the physical hypothesis, he meant the doctrine that the time of
a planet’s describing any part of its orbit is proportional to the
distance of the planet from the sun, for which supposition, as we
have said, he conceived that he had assigned physical reasons.
The two last hypotheses came the nearest to the truth, and
differed from it only by about eight minutes, the one in excess and
the other in defect. And, after being much perplexed by this
remaining error, it at last occurred to him 41 that he might take
another ellipsis, exactly intermediate between the former one and
the circle, and that this must give the path and the motion of the
planet. Making this assumption, and taking the areas to represent
the times, he now saw 42 that both the longitude and the distances of
Mars would agree with observation to the requisite degree of
accuracy. The rectification of the former hypothesis, when thus
stated, may, perhaps, appear obvious. And Kepler informs us that he
had nearly been anticipated in this step (c. 55). “David Fabricius, to
whom I had communicated my hypothesis of cap. 45, was able, by
his observations, to show that it erred in making the distances too
short at mean longitudes; of which he informed me by letter while I
was laboring, by repeated efforts, to discover the true hypothesis. So
nearly did he get the start of me in detecting the truth.” But this was
less easy than it might seem. When Kepler’s first hypothesis was
enveloped in the complex construction requisite in order to apply it to
each point of the orbit, it was far more difficult to see where the error
lay, and Kepler hit upon it only by noticing the coincidences of certain
numbers, which, as he says, raised him as if from sleep, and gave
him a new light. We may observe, also, that he was perplexed to
reconcile this new view, according to which the planet described an
exact ellipse, with his former opinion, which represented the motion
by means of libration in an epicycle. “This,” he says, “was my
greatest trouble, that, though I considered and reflected till I was
almost mad, I could not find why the planet to which, with so much
probability, and with such an exact 301 accordance of the distances,
libration in the diameter of the epicycle was attributed, should,
according to the indication of the equations, go in an elliptical path.
What an absurdity on my part! as if libration in the diameter might not
be a way to the ellipse!”
41 De Stellâ Martis, c. 58.
42 Ibid. p. 235.
The real verification of the new doctrine concerning the orbits and
motions of the heavenly bodies was, of course, to be found in the
construction of tables of those motions, and in the continued
comparison of such tables with observation. Kepler’s discoveries had
been founded, as we have seen, principally on Tycho’s observations.
Longomontanus (so called as being a native of Langberg in
Denmark), published in 1621, in his Astronomia Danica, tables
founded upon the theories as well as the observations of his
countryman. Kepler 44 in 1627 published his tables of the planets,
which he called Rudolphine Tables, the result and application of his
own theory. In 1633, Lansberg, a Belgian, published also Tabulæ
Perpetuæ, a work which was ushered into the world with
considerable pomp and pretension, and in which the author cavils
very keenly at Kepler and Brahe. We may judge of the impression
made upon the astronomical world in general by these rival works,
from the account which our countryman Jeremy Horrox has given of
their effect on him. He had been seduced by the magnificent
promises of Lansberg, and the praises of his admirers, which are
prefixed to the work, and was persuaded that the common opinion
which preferred Tycho and Kepler to him was a prejudice. In 1636,
however, he became acquainted with Crabtree, another young 303
astronomer, who lived in the same part of Lancashire. By him Horrox
was warned that Lansberg was not to be depended on; that his
hypotheses were vicious, and his observations falsified or forced into
agreement with his theories. He then read the works and adopted
the opinions of Kepler; and after some hesitation which he felt at the
thought of attacking the object of his former idolatry, he wrote a
dissertation on the points of difference between them. It appears
that, at one time, he intended to offer himself as the umpire who was
to adjudge the prize of excellence among the three rival theories of
Longomontanus, Kepler, and Lansberg; and, in allusion to the story
of ancient mythology, his work was to have been called Paris
Astronomicus; we easily see that he would have given the golden
apple to the Keplerian goddess. Succeeding observations confirmed
his judgment: and the Rudolphine Tables, thus published seventy-six
years after the Prutenic, which were founded on the doctrines of
Copernicus, were for a long time those universally used.
44 Rheticus, Narratio, p. 98.
FLUID MECHANICS.
ΚΡΑΤΟΣ ΒIΑ ΤΕ, σφῷν μὲν ἐντολὴ Διὸς
Ἔχει Τέλος δὴ, κ’ οὐδὲν ἐμποδῶν ἔτι
Æschylus. Prom. Vinct. 13.
W EfromenterAstronomy
now upon a new region of the human mind. In passing
to Mechanics we make a transition from the
formal to the physical sciences;—from time and space to force and
matter;—from phenomena to causes. Hitherto we have been
concerned only with the paths and orbits, the periods and cycles, the
angles and distances, of the objects to which our sciences applied,
namely, the heavenly bodies. How these motions are produced;—by
what agencies, impulses, powers, they are determined to be what
they are;—of what nature are the objects themselves;—are
speculations which we have hitherto not dwelt upon. The history of
such speculations now comes before us; but, in the first place, we
must consider the history of speculations concerning motion in
general, terrestrial as well as celestial. We must first attend to
Mechanics, and afterwards return to Physical Astronomy.
The effect of the Inclined Plane was one of the first, as it was one
of the most important, propositions, on which modern writers
employed themselves. It was found that a body, when supported on
a sloping surface, might be sustained or raised by a force or exertion
which would not have been able to sustain or raise it without such
support. And hence, The Inclined Plane was placed in the list of
Mechanical Powers, or simple machines by which the efficacy of
forces is increased: the question was, in what proportion this
increase of efficiency takes place. It is easily seen that the force
requisite to sustain a body is smaller, as the slope on which it rests is
smaller; Cardan (whose work, De Proportionibus Numerorum,
Motuum, Ponderum, &c., was published in 1545) asserts that the
force is double when the angle of inclination is double, and so on for
other proportions; this is probably a guess, and is an erroneous one.
Guido Ubaldi, of Marchmont, published at Pesaro, in 1577, a work
which he called Mechanicorum Liber, in which he endeavors to
prove that an acute wedge will produce a greater mechanical effect
than an obtuse one, without determining in what proportion. There is,
he observes, “a certain repugnance” between the direction in which
the side of the wedge tends to 314 move the obstacle, and the
direction in which it really does move. Thus the Wedge and the
Inclined Plane are connected in principle. He also refers the Screw
to the Inclined Plane and the Wedge, in a manner which shows a
just apprehension of the question. Benedetti (1585) treats the
Wedge in a different manner; not exact, but still showing some
powers of thought on mechanical subjects. Michael Varro, whose
Tractatus de Motu was published at Geneva in 1584, deduces the
wedge from the composition of hypothetical motions, in a way which
may appear to some persons an anticipation of the doctrine of the
Composition of Forces.