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 Instruments for Marking Stations
(1) Pegs:
Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of stations. They are made of hard timber and are
tapered at one end. They are usually, 2.5 cm square in area and 15 cm in length. But in soft
ground pegs 4 to 5 cm square and 40 to 60 cm in length are suitable. They should be driven
firmly in the ground with the steel hammer but their 4 cm length should be projected above the
ground. Some times iron pegs of about 1 cm diameter or long wire nails are also used instead of
wooden pegs.
(2) Ranging Rods:
The ranging rods are also used for marking the positions of stations and also for ranging lines. They are made of
well seasoned timber. They are circular or octagonal in cross section of 3 cm nominal diameter and also have 15
cm long tapered lower end. Their size varies from 2 to 3 m and is divided into equal parts having 0.2 m length. In
order to make them visible at a distance, they are painted alternately black and white, or red and white. When
they are at a considerable distance, red and white or white and yellow flags should be fastened at their top.
(3) Ranging Poles:
The ranging poles are also similar to the ranging rods but are of heavier section. They vary in length from 4 to 6 m or
more. They are used in the case of very long lines.
(4) Offset Rods:
The offset rod is similar to the ranging rod and is usually 3 m long and is divided into parts each 0.2 m in length. The
top is provided with a hook for pulling or pushing the chain through an obstruction. It has two short narrow vertical
slots passing through the center of the section. It is mainly used for aligning the offset line and measuring short
offsets.
(5) Laths:
Plasterer’s laths are very useful when ranging out long lines specially when there is very uneven ground or when the
forward ranging rod may not be visible due to obstructions such as hedges, walls, etc. or crossing a depression. They
are light cheap and easily available. Being white, they are easily visible at a long distance. They can be easily
sharpened to a point and cut to any desired length usually 01 m.
(6) Whites:

The whites are used for the same purpose when other (above) marking instruments are not
available or when the number of ranging rods is limited. These are thin strips of bamboo or thin
sticks of wood and vary from 40 cm to 01 m in length. They are sharpened at one end and split
at the other for the purpose of inserting pieces of white paper. They are temporary marking
stations.
(8) Plumb Bob:

The plumb bob is required when measuring distances along slopes in a hilly country in order to
transfer points to the ground.
It is also used for accurate centering of a theodolite over a station mark and for testing the
vertically of ranging poles.
 Ranging Out Survey Lines
In measuring the length of a survey line, also called a chain line, it is necessary that the chain should be laid out on
the ground in a straight line between the end stations. If the line is short or the end station is clearly visible, it is
easy to put the chain in true alignment. But if it is long or the end station is not clearly visible or when the chain
line crosses a valley from which the forward station is not visible, then it is necessary to place intermediate ranging
rods to maintain the direction. This operation of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between the
terminal points is known as ranging.
Ranging may be done by eye or by instrument such as by the use of line ranger or a theodolite but theodolite may
be preferably used.
Kinds of Ranging:
Ranging is of two kinds:
1.Direct Ranging
2.Indirect Ranging
1. Direct Ranging:
When intermediate ranging rods are placed in line by direct observation from either end, that ranging is called direct
ranging. Direct ranging is only possible when the end stations are inter visible. Direct ranging may be done by eye
or by Line Ranger.
Ranging By Eye:
To begin with, the ranging rods or poles should be erected vertically behind each end of the line. To do this hold the
rod firmly in the hand with its lower ends about 30 cm above the ground and then drives it firmly into the ground
by quick downward blow. If not driven sufficiently, remove it and enlarge the hole with the help of the ranging rod
and drive it to the second time. On hard surface it should be supported by a pile of stones.
The ranging rod should be held lightly by the thumb and roughly in line. The surveyor then directs the assistant to
move his rod to right or left until the three ranging rods appear to be exactly in a straight line. He then finally
checks the position of the rod over their lower ends in order to avoid errors due to non-verticality of the rods.
Ranging By Line Ranger:
The line ranger is a small reflecting instrument used for fixing intermediate points on the chain lines. It
consists of two right -angled isosceles triangular prisms placed one above the other as shown in
picture below.

(2) In direct Ranging:

When the end stations are not inter visible due to high ground or hill intervening or when the ends of
a line are not distinctly visible from one another due to the distance being too great, then intermediate
points can be established on the ground by process known as reciprocal ranging or running an
auxiliary line that ranging is called indirect ranging.
Transit
► Transit is the most universal of surveying
instruments – primary use is for
measurement or layout of horizontal and
vertical angles – also used to determine
vertical and horizontal distance by stadia,
prolonging straight lines, and low-order
leveling.

Components of the Transit

1. Alidade – Upper part
2. Horizontal limb – Middle part
3. Leveling-head assembly – Lower part
Transit
►Alidade (upper part)
• Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is connected to a solid
conical shaft called the inner spindle.
• Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle
• Also contains frames that support the telescope called STANDARDS
• Contains the vertical circle and its verniers, the compass box, the
telescope and its level vial
Transit
►Horizontal Limb (middle part)
• This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical shaft called the outer
spindle (which holds the inner spindle)
• Also has the upper clamp, which allows the alidade to be clamped
tight
• Also contains the horizontal circle
Transit
► Leveling-Head Assembly (lower part)
1. 4 – leveling screws
2. Bottom plate that screws into tripod
3. Shifting device that allows transit to move ¼ to 3/8”
4. ½ ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled
5. The SPIDER – 4-arm piece which holds the outer spindle
6. Lower clamp – allows rotation of outer spindle
►Telescope: Similar to that of dumpy level, but
shorter
• Parts – objective, internal focusing lens, focusing wheel,
X-hairs, & eyepiece

►Scales: horizontal plate or circle is usually graduated into

30’ or 20’ spaces with graduations from 0 to 360 in both
directions
• Circles are graduated automatically by machine and then scanned
to ensure accuracy
• They are correct to with in 2” of arc
Verniers
►Least count = Lowest # of reading possible – determines
accuracy
►Least Count = (Value of smallest division on scale)/(# of
divisions on vernier)

Scale Graduation Vernier Divisions Least Count

30’ 30 1’
20’ 40 30”
15’ 45 20”
10’ 60 10”
Verniers
► 3 Types of Verniers
1. Direct or single vernier – reads only in one direction & must be
set with graduations ahead of zero
2. Double vernier – can be read clockwise or counterclockwise–
only ½ is used at a time
3. Folded vernier – avoids a ling vernier plate
▪ ½ of the graduations are placed on each side of the index mark
▪ Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors
Verniers
►The vernier is always read in the same direction from zero
as the numbering of the circle, i.e. the direction of the
increasing angles
►Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
1.Not using magnifying glass
2.Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the wrong side of
a double vernier
3.Failing to determine the least count correctly
4.Omitting 10’, 15’, 20’, 30’ when the index is beyond those marks
Properties of the Transit
1.Designed to have proper balance between:
• Magnification and resolution of the telescope
• Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and telescope bubbles
2.Average length of sight of 300’ assumed in design
3.Specifications of typical 1’ gun:
• Magnification – 18 to 28X
• Field of view - 1 to 130’
• Minimum focus – 5’ to 7’
• X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below
• The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are measured by repetition
and the total is added on the plate
►Advantages of this:
1. Better accuracy obtained through averaging
2. Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and multiple readings
Handling the Transit
►Hints on handling and setting-up the transit
• Pick up transit by leveling head and standards
• When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in position
perpendicular to the leveling head with objective lens down
• When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring plumb bob to
within ¼” of point to be set over, then loosen leveling screws
enough to enable you to move transit on plate, then move transit
until it is over the point
 A
Operation of Transit B

C
► 9 Steps
1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions
2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper clamp.
(Upper and lower plates are locked together)
3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw and
magnifying glass.
4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of point, by
rotating transit
5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in
6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower tangent screws.
At this point the vernier is on 000’ and the X-hairs are on BS
 A
Operation of Transit B

C
7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until you are
near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp
8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper tangent
screw.
9. Read  on vernier
• If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using only lower
motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow  to accumulate.
• If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly centered, and
operated by an experienced observer under suitable conditions,
there are only 2 sources for error.
1. Pointing the telescope
2. Reading the plates
Transit Field Notes

1d Mean 
0-90 (4d)4

90-180 (4d + 360)  4

180-270 (4d + 720)  4

270-360 (4d + 1080)  4

➢Use longest side for backsite