Biology

www.curriculum-press.co.uk Factsheet 433

Topics: Cells and Cellular Organisation Molecules Proteins

The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells

This Biology Factsheet:
• Outlines the discovery of the cytoskeleton.
• Describes the structural components of the cytoskeleton.
SA
• Explains how the cytoskeleton carries out different roles by:
{ Moving organelles within the cell.
{ Helping maintain the shape of a cell.
{ Enabling a cell to move, including the structure and
function of cilia and flagella.
• Describes the structure and function of the centrosome.
Discovery of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton forms a framework within cells that is
detectable using an electron microscope.
M
Figure 1 Electron micrograph showing the scaffolding of the
cytoskeleton of an animal cell
PL
Initially, the cytoskeleton was thought to be exclusive to
eukaryotes. However, in 1992, a cytoskeleton was discovered
in prokaryotes. Bacteria contain proteins that are homologous
to tubulin and actin, which are the main components of the
eukaryotic cytoskeleton.
Quick Question 1
What are the main characteristics of prokaryotes?
Quick Question 2
What is meant by a homologous structure?
Components of the Cytoskeleton
In eukaryotic cells, there are three main components of the
cytoskeleton:
• Microtubules
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
These are the largest type of filamentous structure in the
cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and are made of a
protein called tubulin. Tubulin is composed of two polypeptide
subunits: alpha and beta. These subunits combine to form paired
structures called dimers.

Figure 2 Tubulin subunits bonding to form dimers

Alpha tubulin
subunit
Tubulin
E
The cytoskeleton: dimer
• Connects the cell surface membrane with every organelle.
• Maintains the shape of cells.
• Provides mechanical support.
• Enables cells to carry out essential functions like mitosis Beta tubulin
and meiosis and the movement of organelles. subunit
The term “cytoskeleton” was first used in 1903 by Nikolai Koltsov,
The tubulin dimers can join together to form protofilaments.
a Russian biologist. While investigating the sperm of crayfish,
Thirteen protofilaments associate together to form the hollow,
Koltsov concluded that the cell’s shape must be due to some
straw-shaped microtubules.
sort of internal framework rather than just the pressure of water
inside the cell. It was not until 1963 that two scientists, Myron
Ledbetter and Keith Porter (working at Harvard University),
described the identity of 25 nm diameter fibre-like structures,
which they named microtubules.

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 1
The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells Biology Factsheet 433

Figure 3 The formation of microtubules from tubulin dimers Microfilaments

Tubulin dimer These are the smallest filaments of the cytoskeleton, with a
alpha diameter of between 5–8 nm.

beta
Quick Question 3
Hollow lumen
Protofilament of of microtubule How many times wider is the diameter of a microfilament
tubulin dimers compared to a microtubule?

Microfilaments are composed of two strands of actin monomers

(actin is a globular protein). The two strands are twisted into
13 protofilaments a helical structure. Each of the actin subunits has the same
align to form the orientation. This gives the microfilament polarity, with one
microtubule
alpha end designated as plus (+) and the other end as minus (–).
The polarity affects the growth rate, with the plus end breaking
beta
up and assembling faster than the minus end. The formation
SA
of a microfilament requires ATP. The actin subunits have
ATPase activity.

Exam Hint
ATPase enzymes catalyse the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP
Dimers are constantly being added or removed, which means the and Pi. The energy released from the breakdown of the
microtubules are always changing. One end of the microtubule terminal phosphate bond is used to power metabolic
grows more rapidly than the other. This is the plus end. The reactions. For example, an ATPase enzyme on the myosin
opposite end, the minus end, is anchored in microtubule head releases energy from ATP for muscle contraction.
organising centres like the centrosome.
Figure 5 The arrangement of actin subunits to form a microfilament
Figure 4 The construction (polymerisation) and destruction
M
(depolymerisation) of a microtubule
Actin subunits
– end + end
Tubulin dimers
added to + end of
microtubule

Polymerisation

+ end – end
PL
– end
GDP GTP
Microfilaments play a crucial role in cell movement, cytoplasmic
division during cytokinesis, maintaining the shape of a cell, and
+ end muscle contraction. Because they assemble and disassemble so
Tubulin dimers
breaking off – end
quickly, microfilaments enable cells to change shape and move
rapidly.
Depolymerisation
Intermediate filaments
Intermediate filaments are generally strong, rope-like structures
with a diameter of between 8–10 nm. They are composed of
strands of fibrous proteins wound together. Different varieties
GTP is an energy-rich nucleotide similar to ATP. The adenine of of intermediate filaments are made up of different proteins,
E
ATP is replaced by guanine. GTP must be bound to both alpha depending on the specific cell type. For example, neurofilaments
and beta tubulin subunits for a dimer to bond to other dimers. are associated with neurons, and keratins are found in
When a tubulin dimer is added to the plus end of the microtubule, epithelial cells.
the GTP is hydrolysed to GDP (Figure 3). Microtubules radiate
out from the centrosome towards the cell surface membrane. Intermediate filaments are more stable and do not grow or
disassemble. They provide tensile strength for the cell, hold
organelles in place, and provide strength and support for more
Activity fragile structures.
Sketch the structure of a GTP nucleotide.

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 2
The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells Biology Factsheet 433

Role of Microtubules and Microfilaments in the Figure 7 The transport of intracellular structures along
Cytoskeleton microtubules

The different components of the cytoskeleton have different

roles and are located in specific parts of the cell.
Vesicle or
organelle being Kinesin motor protein
Figure 6 The locations of the different components of the transported attached to organelle,
cytoskeleton moves towards + end
of microtubule
Position of centriole, the
organelle that organises ATP hydrolysed to
microtubulues release energy

ATP ADP Pi
Microfilaments
predominantely around Microtubule composed
the outer edge of the cell of tubulin dimers
Direction of movement
Microtubules radiate out
from the centrosomes
SA
– end + end

Fibrous protein subunits

coiled together Direction of movement

Dynein motor
protein moves
ADP Pi ATP organelle towards
– end of
microtubule

Vesicle or
Intermediate fibres organelle
present throughout
M
the cell

How Cells Move

Exam Hint Some unicells can move by pushing out sections of their cell to
Most A Level specifications require knowledge of the form pseudopodia. During this process:
structure and role of microfilaments and microtubules only. • Microfilaments in the leading edge are rapidly assembled.
PL
These terms are quite similar, so make sure you are referring These push the cell surface membrane to form a
to the correct one when answering exam questions. temporary projection.
• Microfilaments at the rear end are disassembled. These
How Organelles Move Within Cells flow into the pseudopodium.
The cytoskeleton provides tracks along which organelles,
Figure 8 How microfilaments bring about movement in motile cells
proteins, mRNA, and vesicles can be transported within the cell.
Many of these intracellular movements require motor proteins. Cell surface
membrane
The protein motors require energy, which they obtain by Cytoplasm
Direction of movement
hydrolysing ATP. There are three groups of motor proteins:
Nucleus Leading edge of
1) Myosin motor proteins move on actin filaments. For example,
E
pseudopodium
myosin motor proteins slide along actin filaments to generate
a force that causes muscle contraction (see Biology
Factsheet 379 Muscle Contraction).
2) Kinesin is a motor protein that moves (walks) along
microtubules. There are many different forms of kinesin.
Most of these “walk” towards the plus end of the microtubule, Rapid polymerisation
carrying a membrane-bound organelle or another of microfilaments
microtubule. Many of the kinesin proteins play roles in the Disassembly of
microfilaments
formation of the spindle during nuclear division.
3) Dynein motors also move along microtubules. Dyneins
are a group that are associated with the minus end of
microtubules. They are responsible for moving vesicles
around and localising the Golgi apparatus near the centre of
the cell. They cause efficient and rapid sliding of microtubules
inside cilia and flagella when these organelles are beating.

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 3
The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells Biology Factsheet 433

Centrosomes and Centrioles Exam Hint

The centrosome is a small region near the nucleus in the cell The terms centrosome and centriole are very similar.
cytoplasm. A pair of centrioles are located in the centrosome. Make sure these are not confused when answering exam
Each centriole has a “9 + 0” structure of triplet microtubules questions.
arranged in a circle. The microtubules are composed of tubulin.

Figure 9 The structure of centrioles Cilia and Flagella

A cross-section through one Cilia and flagella are cell organelles. Both have a role in
centriole showing the 9 + 0 propulsion.
Centrioles position of microtubule triples

Quick Question 4
c
Triplet of microtubules
b
forming 1 of 9 fibrils
Compare the structure and function of flagella and cilia.
a
Central hub joined to
fibrils by spokes Figure 11 The different motion patterns of a cilium and a flagellum
SA
Cilium Flagellum
Fibre connecting Direction of movement Direction of movement
adjacent fibrils

Circular motion,
The centrosome contains a mother centriole and a daughter Beating action – cilium like a propeller
centriole. These are surrounded by pericentriolar material. moves back and forth
Mother and daughter centrioles are linked by connecting fibres.
The mother centriole is “older” and would have been formed two
generations before the “younger” daughter. The pericentriolar
material contains all the components required for the centrioles
to carry out their roles. This section remains
motionless when
Figure 10 Diagrammatic cross section through the centrosome
M
flagellum is moving
to show the link between mother and daughter centrioles

Basal body
anchoring structure
Microtubule
in plasma membrane

Mother centriole
A basal body anchors a cilium or flagellum in the cell surface
membrane (Figure 10). Notice that the microtubules are
PL
arranged in triplets in the basal body and doublets in the
Daughter centriole axoneme (Figure 11). Each doublet is composed of two
microtubules and dynein arms. The dynein arms slide along
adjacent microtubules within the axoneme to move the structure.
Dynein acts as an ATPase, releasing energy from ATP hydrolysis
Connecting fibres
Pericentriolar matrix to power the movement.

Figure 12 The structural components of a cilium/flagellum

Cross-section of axoneme showing
Axoneme – the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
extracellular part of Dynein arms
2 microtubules
a cilium/flagellum
fused to form
E
a “doublet”
The centrioles are replicated once during the S phase of each
cell cycle so that their number remains constant.
Motor transport
Microtubules grow out from the centrosome into the cell surface proteins slide down Motor transport
membrane. In non-dividing cells, microtubule networks radiate microtubules to bend proteins slide up
cilium/flagellum to microtubules to bend 2 unbound
out from the centrosome. In dividing cells, the microtubules grow the left microtubules
cilium/flagellum to
out of the centrioles and form the spindle fibres. In cells with the right in the centre
cilia or flagella, centrioles act as basal bodies. Basal bodies are
structures that are fixed below the cell surface membrane and
hold the cilia or flagella in place. Cross-section of basal body showing
9 + 0 arrangement of microtubules

Basal body embedded

in plasma membrane

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 4
The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells Biology Factsheet 433

Exam Style Questions

1 Which of the following statements about microfilaments 3 Prokaryotic cells have cytoskeletons. The molecules in
and microtubules is/are correct? [1 mark] prokaryotic cytoskeletons are different from the molecules
in eukaryotic cytoskeletons. The table shows the role of
A Microfilaments are part of the “9 + 2” formation in three proteins present in a prokaryotic cell:
bacterial flagella.
B Microtubules can be prevented from functioning by a Cytoskeleton Role of Protein
Molecule in Prokaryotic Cells
respiratory inhibitor.
C Microtubules are involved in moving chromosomes
from the equator to the poles of the cell during mitosis. Ring of contracting
Protein A Protein A
i A, B, and C
ii Only A and B Cell wall
iii Only B and C
Protein B Structurally similar to actin
iv Only A
SA
2 DNA contains the genetic code needed for protein Cell wall
synthesis. Tubulin is a protein found in all eukaryotes and
some prokaryotes. Protein C
(a) Explain how the gene for tubulin codes for the protein
tubulin. [2 marks] With Protein C Without Protein C

(b) Tubulin is a globular protein that is an essential

component of the cytoskeleton. Tubulin can polymerise (a) Suggest the function of:
to form microtubules. The spindle fibres which move
chromatids during mitosis and meiosis are composed (i) Protein A [1 mark]
of tubulin microtubules. Describe three other cellular (ii) Protein B [1 mark]
functions of the cytoskeleton.
M
 [3 marks] (iii) Protein C [1 mark]

(c) Suggest two ways tubulin is essential for protein (b) A particular type of antibiotic binds irreversibly
synthesis and protein secretion in eukaryotic cells. to Protein B. Suggest why this antibiotic should
 [2 marks] not be used in humans. [1 mark]

Glossary
PL
Enzyme that hydrolyses ATP into ADP and phosphate
ATPase
to release energy.
Division of the cytoplasm around two newly formed
Cytokinesis
nuclei.
Thin protein filament made of actin that forms a part of
Microfilament
the cytoskeleton.
Tubule composed of the protein tubulin, which forms
Microtubule
one of the components of the cytoskeleton.
A structure that has two opposite ends (positive
Polarity and negative) that can either repel or attract other
substances.
E
An extension of the cytoplasm of a unicell, which can
Pseudopodia
help it move.

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 5
The Cytoskeleton and Its Role in Cells Biology Factsheet 433

Answers to Quick Questions Mark Schemes for Exam Style Questions

1 Prokaryotes are single-celled, contain no membrane- 1 iii

bound organelles, and have a single loop of DNA as their
2 (a) Two marks:
chromosome.
2 Homologous structures have the same features and can be 9 3 bases / triplet, code for one (specific) amino acid.
traced back to a common ancestor. 9 The sequence of, bases / triplets, determines the
sequence of, amino acids / primary structure.
3 Between 3–5 times greater.
(b) Three marks from:
4 Flagella are longer than cilia and have a propeller-like action;
present as single structures to move whole cells (e.g. sperm, 9 Increase strength/support/stability of cells.
motile bacteria).
9 Movement of vesicles/(named) molecules/
Cilia are shorter than flagella and are present in organelles.
larger numbers, often covering the entire organism
(e.g. Paramecium) or the surfaces of tissues (e.g. ciliated 9 Holding organelles in place.
epithelium lining the mammalian airways); move from side 9 Movement of cilia/flagella/whole cell/pseudopodia
SA
to side in a beating motion, each being synchronised with or endocytosis/exocytosis.
surrounding cilia.
(c) Two marks from:

9 Transport mRNA from nucleus to ribosome.

9 Movement of polypeptides through the
rough ER.

9 Movement of vesicles from rough ER to Golgi

apparatus.

9 Movement of vesicles between cisternae of Golgi

apparatus.
M
9 Movement of (Golgi) vesicles to the cell surface
membrane.

9 Exocytosis of protein.
3 (a) (i) P
 rotein A enables cell division/cytokinesis/binary
fission.
(ii) P
 rotein B allows movement of vesicles/cell movement/
PL
formation of pseudopodia.
(iii) Protein C maintains the shape of the cell.
(b) The antibiotic could bind to actin to prevent muscle
contraction/cause paralysis.
E

Acknowledgements: This Biology Factsheet was researched and written by Margaret Royal. This Factsheet was published
in September 2023 by Curriculum Press. Biology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students,
provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher.

© Curriculum Press 2023 Biology Factsheets, 2023/24 Series, Issue 1 of 3, September 2023. ISSN: 1351-5136 6