MICROORGANISMS AND HUMAN HEALTH

Microorganisms are very small or tiny living organism which cannot be

seen with the naked eye except with the aid of microscope.
Microbiology is the ability of these microorganisms. Scientist involved in
the discovery of microorganisms are Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek in 1632 (a
Dutchman), spallanzani (1729), an Italian scientist, French scientist Louis
Pasteur. All these scientists were able to prove that microorganisms exist all
around us; air, water, soil, food, on our bodies etc.

Groups of microorganisms
We have five major groups of microorganisms
i. Viruses
ii. Bacteria
iii. Fungi
iv. Algae
v. Protozoa

Viruses
Viruses are the simplest and smallest microorganisms which do not have a
cell structure. Some are rod-like in shape while others are spherical. A virus
consists of a nuclear material either RNA or DNA enclosed within a protein coat.
Some are without an envelope.
Viruses only behave as a living organism when inside a living cell outside
living cells they are in form of crystals.
Examples of virus are Herpes virus, Picornavirus, Togavirus, coronavirus
etc.
They are called virion in their complete infective stage. Viruses cal also
infect bacteria cell and such viruses are called bacteriophage.
Viruses can multiply within their host, they feed and also contain nucleic
acid because of these they are regarded as living organisms.

Diagram of a virus cell

Bacteria
A bacterium has a capsule, cell wall, cell membrane, a dense cytoplasmic
granule with no clear nucleus but they have a nuclear material called DNA, they
are prokaryotic cells and they are large than the viruses.

Types of bacteria
We can group bacteria based on their oxygen requirement:
a. Aerobic bacteria: These are bacteria that require oxygen for their
respiration.
b. Anaerobic bacteria: These are bacteria which do not require oxygen for
their respiration e.g. putrefying bacteria.
c. Falcultative bacteria: These are bacteria that can live under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions.
We can also group bacteria based on their shape;
(a) Cocci: Cocci are spherical in shape and they occur in different forms;
i. Micrococcus: When they occur singly.

ii. Diplococci: They occur in pairs and they are also encapsulated
e.g. pneumococci causing pneumonia

iii. Streptococci:These are arranged in chains e.g. sore throat

bacteria e.g. S. viridens
 iv. Staphylococci: These stick together in clusters or bunch e.g.
bacteria causing boils. S. epidermidis (found on normal human
skin)

(b) Bacilli: These are rod-shaped and gram negative bacteria. Some have
flagella which they use for movement. They occur singly on joined
together to form a chain (streptobacilli) e.g. bacteria causing typhoid
fever e.g. Escherichia coli

(c) Vibrio: They are in the form of a comma or we say they are curved
e.g. vibrio cholera causing cholera (They found in polluted water)

(d) Spirillae (singular: spirillum): They are rod-shaped bacteria twisted into
a spiral shape and rigid. Some are motile e.g. spirillum minor found in
rats.

(e) Spirochaetes: are also spiral in shape (or cockscrew shape) but are
more flexible and slender with helically coiled structure e.g Treponema
pallidum which causes syphilis.

Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Some are able to produce a thick

protective coat to prevent desiccation and extreme temperatures e.g. bacilli,
under this condition, the bacterium is called a spore.
Bacteria which inhabit our body without causing harm are called
commensals. Others live on our skin and are harmless but become harmful if
they get under the skin they are known as opportunistic bacteria.
Protozoa
Some are free-living, single called and microscopic. They found in freshwater,
moist soil etc.
Examples are amoeba, paramecium, some are parasites like trypanosome,
plasmodium etc.
Fungi
These are saprophytic or parasitic non-green plants. The saprophytic fungi
are beneficial while the parasitic fungi causes different types of diseases.
Destructive action of fungi includes rotting of timber, textiles and food etc.
The blue, grey on oranges the white or grey out growths on bread or
other food materials are usually indicative of fungal infections.
Examples of fungi include Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
Algae
These are microscopic green plants which have eukaryotic cells. They are
mostly aquatic and some are also found in damp soils, on rocks, moist tree
barks and stone.
Examples are phytoplankton, chlamydomonas, protococcus etc.

Culturing
Culturing involves the act or technique of growing microorganisms in
special sterile media in the laboratory. Culture of microorganisms can be grown
from water, air, animals, plants and various pat of human body.

Tissue Culture
This is the method of growing living cells and tissues of multicellular
organisms.
It is possible for scientists to culture cells taken from animal and plant
tissues. The cell cultures are grown as a single layer of cells on a solid surface or
as a suspension in a fluid medium.
The following are the contents of a basic culture medium:
a. Major inorganic ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride
and phosphate ions.
b. Energy sources like simple sugars
c. Nitrogen-containing compounds mainly amino acids.
d. Essential enzymes and appropriate vitamins
e. Certain hormones and special substances needed for specific functions in
the cell.
f. Gases such as oxygen (animal cells) and carbondioxide (plant cells and
water)

Importance of tissue culture

1. It is used to study details of cell structure and metabolism.
2. To study growth and development
 3. To study special properties of various types of cells.
4. To study the effects of radiation, carcinogens, pollutants and new drugs
and vaccines.
5. To study cancerous and timorous cells.
6. To study hereditary mechanisms
7. To study viruses and the damage they cause to the cells they invade.

Uses of tissues culture

1. For the culture of viruses
2. For the production of vaccines against viral diseases.
3. For production of interferon, an anti-viral protein formed by animal cells
that are invaded by viruses.
4. To diagnose inherited disorders and to identify carriers of such traits who
do not show any signs of these conditions.
5. To diagnose defects linked to certain type of mental illnesses in unborn
children.

Preparation of culture solution

1. The culture solution called Agar is prepared under sterile conditions.
Agar is a dried polysaccharide extract of red algae (a sea weed). We can
have malt agar, potato dextrose agar, custard jelly culture medium etc.
2. Boil and pour it into sterile petri-dish.
3. Allow it to cool and set in the petri-dish
4. The material or organism is then introduced into the agar medium by
inoculating loop and covered immediately
5. Place the petri-dish in an incubator at 25oC -37oC and for 2-3 days.
6. Record your observation based on microorganism characteristics like
colour, pattern of growth, shape etc.

Instrument for culture solution preparation

(a) Microscope
(b) Octoclave
(c) Petri dishes
(d) Conical flasks / breakers
(e) Slides
(f) Cover slips
(g) Hand lens
(h) Test tubes (for broth)
(i) Inoculating loops
(j) Inoculating chamber
(k) Methylated spirit / formalin
Precautions to be taken during culture solution preparation
1. Wash hands with soap and alcohol before and after the culture
preparation of agar.
 2. Open petri-disk slightly and cover at once.
3. Close petri dish firmly with adhesive tape.
4. Avoid talking, coughing, sneezing when inoculating or handling the culture
solution.
5. Unused agar should be sterilized by washing with antiseptic and
disinfectant e.g. formalin
6. All instruments should be sterilized before the beginning of culture
solution preparation.

Microorganisms in our bodies and food

I
Experiment: Experiment to demonstrate the presence of bacteria under the
fingernails.
Apparatus: Incubator, inoculating loop, nail cutter, petridish, blood agar,
microscope and cover slips.
Method:
i. Cut the fingernails and place them in a petri dish which sterile blood
agar.
ii. Then incubate at 37oC for two days
Observation:It was discovered that colonies of bacteria were growing on the
blood agar. On gram staining and observing under the microscope, clusters of
cocci bacteria were seen.
Conclusion: The growth of cocci bacteria indicates that bacteria grow under
fingernails.

II
Experiment: Experiment to show the presence of microorganisms in exhaled
(expired) air
Apparatus: Incubator, petridishes, agar, microscope and cover slips.
Method:
i. Prepare a sterile culture medium, the breathe out from the mouth into
the medium (at least twice)
ii. Cover immediately and label it A
iii. In another sterile medium, do not breathe on it (control experiment)
label it B
iv. Place petri dishes A and B in an incubator or a dark cupboard for 2-3
days
Observation: clusters or colonies of microorganisms appear in A while there was
no growth of microorganisms in B.
Conclusion: The growth of microorganisms in A shows that the bacteria is from
the exhaled air.
 Pathogens
Pathogens are harmful microorganisms which cause diseases and kill
other organisms.
Pathogens usually establish themselves in our body and cause diseases
when;
i. The body resistances is low
ii. The normal microflora in the body is disrupted by antibiotic therapy
iii. In newborn babies or infants where the normal microflora is not yet
established.
The following conditions lower the body’s ability to resist or fight against
pathogens
1. Malnutrition
2. Stress and overwork
3. Harmful habitat like drinking alcohol, smoking
4. Environmental pollution.

Effects of pathogenic microorganism on the human body

1. They damage and destroy the host tissue
2. They produce toxic/ poisons which affect the normal functioning of the
body or organs in the body.
3. They might cause diseases leading to death.
4. They force the body to produce antibodies.

How microorganisms enter the body

1. The mouth: When we eat or drink contaminated food and water.
2. The nose: When we breathe in contaminated air e.g. influenza virus
3. The skin: Due to presence of cuts, wounds and abrasions e.g.
Clostridiumtetani causing tetanus.
4. Animal bites: Vectors like tsetse flies, mosquitoes etc carries parasites
5. Through direct contact e.g. ringworm fungi etc.
6. Blood contact: Blood transfusion, infection of vaccines etc.
7. Birth: Microorganisms can enter the body during child birth through the
umbilicus or vaginal canal.
8. Sexual contact: sexual transmitted diseases like syphilis, gonorrhea,
Herpes, AIDS etc.

Microorganisms in food
Food is a good medium in which many microorganisms can grow. Food
readily becomes contaminated by the following ways:
(a) Animals like flies, cockroaches etc
(b) Dirty utensils and equipment
(c) Unhygienic habits of the people who handle it.
When we eat contaminated food we tend to get diseases that affect the
alimentary canal. Examples of food pathogens are:
 1. ShigellaSp causing bacterial dysentery
2. Salmonella enteriditis causing salmonella poisoning
3. Entamoebahistolytica causing amoebic dysentery

Carriers of microorganisms
Carriers are agents which are capable of transferring or carrying pathogenic
microorganisms from one place to another. The pathogenic microorganisms are
found outside the carriers, examples are food, water, air

Vectors
A vector is a living organism that carries diseases –causing
microorganisms or pathogens, transferring them from one host to another
without the pathogen causing any harm to the vector e.g. Houseflies, tsetse fly,
female anopheles mosquito etc.
Pathogens can be carried inside the body of the vector or on different
parts of their bodies like legs, hairy bodies etc.
When pathogenic microorganisms are carried on the bodies of the vector
it is known as mechanical method. When the vectors carries the pathogens in
their body and later infects a healthy person while feeding on his body fluids we
call this method biological method.

Vectors Microorganisms Diseases caused

1 Female anopheles Plasmodium Malaria fever
mosquito
2 Tsetsefly Trypanosome Sleeping sickness
(trypanosomiasis)
3 Housefly Vibrio, cholera, Cholera, typhoid fever
salmonella typhi
4 Rat flea / body lice Rickettsia Typhus
5 Aedes mosquito Virus Yellow fever and Dengue
fever
6 Rat fleas Bacteria Plague
7 Blackfly Onchocera (Filaria worm) River blindness
8 Water snail Schistosoma schistosomiasis

Growth of microorganisms
When the environmental conditions of growth like food, adequate
temperature and humidity are favourable, there will be increase in mass, size
and number of cells of the colonies of microorganisms.
Growth of microorganisms can be measured in two major ways:
1. A bacterial sample is inoculated into a nutrient agar. As the bacterial
population increases, the clear liquid medium becomes cloudy or turbid.
 This cloudiness shows a progressive increase in the number of bacterial cells.
The turbidity can be measured with a spectrophotometer. It measures the
amount of light that can pass through a liquid medium
2. Small samples of bacteria are taken from the nutrient agar at regular
intervals of time. Each sample is diluted several times. Each diluted
sample is inoculated onto a nutrient agar in a petri dish and incubated.
The number of colonies formed n each petri-dish is counted. As
each colony is formed by the multiplication of a single bacterium, the
number of colonies indicates the number of living bacteria cells in the
diluted sample.
Exponential growth of a bacterial population

Typical growth curve of a bacterial population

We have four phases, which are:
i. Lag/slow growth phase
ii. Log / exponential phase
iii. Stationary phase
iv. Stage of decline / death phase

Lag phase
Here, the individual cell increases in size beyond their normal dimension but
there is no increase in the number of cells. The population of bacteria cells
remains temporarily unchanged. This is when the cells are metabolizing.

Exponential phase
The cells divide at this phase and increase in number.

Stationary phase
This is the period of stagnation in growth rate of organism. This can be due
factors like absence of food, production of toxic substance during growth, death
rate equals birth rate.

Stage of decline / death phase

This is when the bacterial cells die faster than new cells being produced and
there are few viable cells.

Beneficial effects of microorganisms

(a) Fungi
i. They cause removal of remains of dead organisms through
decomposition
ii. They return nutrients back to the soil during decomposition thereby
renewing the soil fertility.
iii. They help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
iv. They are used for manufacturing certain drugs (antibiotics) e.g.
Penicillin, Streptomycin
v. They are used in brewing industries
vi. They are used in bread making or baking industries e.g. yeast
vii. They are used for fermentation or curing of tobacco
viii. They are used in treatment of sewage
ix. Some fungi e.g. edible mushroom serves as food.

(b) Bacteria
i. They bring about decomposition or decay of organic matter
ii. They increase soil fertility
iii. They help in nitrogen fixation
iv. They are used in production of vitamin B complex, B12 and vitamin K
v. They are used in the production of vinegar.
 vi. Biodegradation of pollutant e.g. oil spillage
vii. They used in the tanning of leather i.e. conversion of hides and skin.
viii. They are used for retting of jute
ix. They are used in the production of butter and cheese
x. Some bacteria helps in the digestion of cellulose in the rumen of
ruminant animals.
Note: Biotechnology is the use of biological organisms in different fields.
Harmful effects of microorganisms
1. They cause diseases
2. They cause food spoilage
3. Microorganisms are also responsible for deterioration of materials like
wood, cotton, paper, leather etc.
4. They cause death of plants and animals
5. They lead to wastage

Diseases caused by microorganisms

(A) Diseases caused by viruses
Animals Plants
 Poliomyelitis  Rosette disease
 Infective hepatitis  Cassava mosaic disease
 Measles  Maize streak
 Common cold  Yam mosaic
 German measles  Leaf curl
 Influenza  Swollen shoot disease
 Small pox
 Chicken pox
 Yellow fever
 Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
 Rinderpest
 Foot and mouth diseases
 Newcastle disease

(B) Diseases caused by bacteria

Animals Plants
 Tuberculosis  Leaf blight of cassava
 Leprosy  Black arm
 Tetanus  Cassava wilt
 Typhoid fever  Banana wilt
 Dysentery  Bacteria fire blight
 Cholera  Yam rot
 Pneumonia
  Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
 Meningities
 Yaws
 Contagious abortion
 Whooping cough

(C) Fungi
Animals Plants
 Ringworm  Rice blight
 Aspergilosis  Maize rust
 Thrush  Leaf spot
 Eczema  Cocoa black pod
 Coffee leaf rust
 Okra damping off
 Onion twister disease
 Rice smut
 Gummosis
 Citrus scab
 Panama disease
 Blast disease

(D) Protozoa
Animals: Malaria, trypanosomiasis, coccidiosis, trichomoniasis, red water
disease.
How pathogenic microorganisms spread
Microorganisms are spread or transmitted through:
1. Air i.e. air-borne pathogens
2. Water i.e. water-borne pathogens
3. Food i.e. food-borne pathogens
4. Animals vectors
5. Direct or personal skin contact
Contagious diseases can be contracted by direct contact with an infected
person e.g. leprosy, measles, sexually transmitted diseases (STD) like
gonorrhea etc.
 Food and water borne diseases
Diseases Causative Mode of Host Major
organisms transmission symptoms
1 Infective virus Blood, Man Swollen liver,
hepatitis contaminated fever,
food and water headache,
jaundice
2 Poliomyelitis Virus Contaminated Child- High fever,
(picornav- food and water ren stiffness of
irus) , droplet limbs, nausea
infection
3 Cholera Bacterium Contaminated Man (all Serious
(vibrio water and food
ages) diarrhea,
cholera) vomiting,
high
temperature,
abdominal
pain
4 Amoebic Protozoa Contaminat-ed Man Abdominal
dysentery (Entamoeb food and water pain,
ahistolytica vomiting and
) diarrhea
5 Food Bacteria Contaminat-ed Man Headache,
poisoning food restlessness,
abdominal
pain,
vomiting

Air-borne diseases
Diseases Causative agent Mode of Host Symptoms
transmit-
ssion
1 Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Man Persistent dry
(Mycobacterium and cough, profuse
tuberculosis) cow sweating at night,
loss of weight,
blood insputum
2 measles Virus Air and Child- High fever, skin
direct ren and rashes, headache,
body adult cough and body
contact pain
3 Pneumionia Bacteria Air Man, High fever, difficult
pig, breathing and
 bird, coughs
cow
4 Cerebro Bacteria Air Children High fever,
(spinal and headache, vomiting
meningitis) young and stiffness of the
adults neck
5 Small pox Virus Air Man High fever, sunken
pox or blisters
6 Common Virus Air Man High fever,
cold headache, runny
nose
7 Whooping Bacteria Air Man of Cold, high fever,
cough all ages dry cough, vomiting
Diseases spread by vectors
Diseases Causative agent Mode of Host Symptoms
transmit-
ssion
1 Sleeping Protozoa Tsetse fly Man, Regular and
sickness (trypanosome) bite cattle uncontrollable
sleepiness, fever
and headache
sluggishness and
drowsiness
2 Typhus fever Rickettsia Body Man High fever, severe
louse pains in the muscle
3 Yellow fever Virus Aedes Man Headache and
mosquito backache, jaundice
4 River Protozoa Blackfly Man severe headache,
blindness (onchocera) high fever, gradual
blindness
5 Dengue fever Virus Female Man Severe pains in the
aedes and joints, back and
mosquito monk- head pain, nausea
bite ey and vomiting
6 Plague Bacteria Rat flea Man Shivering, fever,
bite cough and difficult
breathing

Diseases spread by sexual contact

Diseases Causative Mode of Host Symptoms
agent transmit-
ssion
1 Gonorrhea Bacteria Sexual Man Inflamed urethra,
 (Neisseria intercourse burning sensation
gonorrhea) during urination,
redness around the
urinary opening, thick
yellowish discharge in
males
2 Syphilis Bacterium Sexual Man Small painless sore
(Treponema intercourse appears on penis or
pallidum) vulva, which later
leads to fever, skin
rashes. It may lead
to abortions attack
the brain and cause
blindness, insanity or
loss of control of
movement
3 AIDS Virus (Human Sexual Man Loss of weight,
Immuno Virus intercourse, of all chronic diarrhea, skin
(HIV)) blood ages rashes, wasting away
transfusion, of muscles, death
injection
needle etc

Diseases spread by direct body contact

Diseases Causative Mode of Symptoms
agent transmission
1 Eczema Fungi Direct skin Body ringworm with
contact yellow patches on
chest, neck etc.
2 Onumadu Fungi Direct skin Rash mainly on
contact groins and folds of
buttocks
3 Athlete’s foot Fungi Direct skin Itchy smelly patches
contact

RABIES
It also known as hydrophobia (fear of water). The causative agent is a virus
(Rhabdovirus)

Mode of transmission
It is transmitted through bite of infected dogs (virus is found in the saliva). Cats,
wolves, bats also carry the virus in their saliva.
The symptoms include high fever, severe headache, sore throat. The patient
shows fear at the sight of water and behaves mad. This leads to great thirst,
crippling convulsions and death through respiratory paralysis (all between 2-6
days).

Control
1. Immunization of dogs, cats
2. Immediate administration of antirabies vaccine to victim
3. Infected persons should be isolated throughout the duration of illness.

Body ringworm (Tineaversicolor)

It commonly called eczema. The causative agent is a fungi known as
dermatophytes. It is a skin disease infection transmitted by direct contact with
the affected part of the body.
The symptoms are as follows: When the fungus land on the skin, they
germinate and this gives rise to yellow patch which gradually spreads on all
sides into a larger, circular itching patch.
It can be controlled by a good personal hygiene. Physical contact with an
infected person should be avoided.

Control of the growth of harmful microorganisms

1. Pasteurization and sterilization: This is the use of high temperatures to
sterilizes or kill disease causing microorganisms.
2. Use of drugs / chemicals / antibiotics to kill disease causing
microorganisms.
3. Use of antiseptics and disinfectants: Disinfectants like izal, Lysol,sanitasetc
prevent infection caused by microorganisms while antiseptics like dettol,
tincture of iodine, hydrogen peroxide etc kill or inhibits the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms. Antiseptics are used on cuts, abrasions and
wounds.
4. Salting: It decreases the osmotic pressure of the organisms thus
preventing their growth and also make them inactive.
5. Refrigeration / Freezing: This is the use of low temperature to arrest the
growth of microorganisms.
6. Sun drying and smoking: This dehydrates the food thus preventing growth
of microorganisms.
7. Immunization (vaccination): This is a process by which some dead or
weakened pathogens are introduced into a healthy person to produce
appropriate antibodies, to defend the body and ensure immunity.
This preparation is called vaccine. Vaccination is given to protect children
against deadly diseases like measles, tuberculosis, whooping cough, diphtheria,
poliomyelitis, yellow fever.
Other diseases that we can be immunized for are tetanus, small pox,
children pox etc.
Importance of immunization in children
a. It provides protection against some diseases like measles, whooping
cough, Poliomyelitis and this cause children to develop immunity or
antibodies against these diseases
b. Antibodies produced remains n the blood stream to prevent infection
c. It reduces infant mortality rate and ensure healthy growth of children.

A given vaccine helps the body to make relevant antibodies, so that when the
actual disease causing microorganisms get into the blood, the antibodies are
already prevent or can be made quickly.

Immunity
Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection or diseases by
producing antibodies.
The body can become immuned to deadly diseases like yellow fever,
chicken pox etc in two major ways:
1. By natural acquired immunity
2. By artificial acquired immunity
Natural acquired immunity: If one suffers from a deadly diseases e.g. yellow
fever, the person’s body produces antibodies which remain in the body to
combat any reoccurrence of such disease in the future.

Artificial acquired immunity (innoculation or vaccination): Vaccines made from

mild strains of yellow fever viruses are injected into the person’s body. This
stimulates the person body to produce necessary antibodies which will prevent
the invasion of stronger strains of yellow fever.
Antibody and antigen
Antibody: is the protein molecule produced in response to a particular foreign
substance or antigen and it is usually found in the plasma fluid of the blood
where it carries out protective function.
Antigen: Antigen stimulates formation of antibodies and they are usually
produced or introduced into the body which leads to an immune response or
immunity. Antigen may not be a protein molecule.
How vaccination protects the body from contracting infectious diseases
The vaccine or attenuated pathogen is administered into the body. The
body responds by producing copious antibodies. The next time the body is
exposed to the same antigen or pathogen, the memory cells allow a more rapid
and heightened response to antibody production protecting the body against
future infections.

Control of harmful microorganisms to maintain good health

1. People should be vaccinated against diseases like whooping cough, yellow
fever etc.
 2. There should be personal hygiene e.g. regular cleanliness of our body,
environment, teeth etc.
3. Avoid overcrowding to prevent infectious diseases e.g. tuberculosis
4. Destroy breeding ground of insect vectors like mosquitoes, blackfly etc.
5. Isolate people with highly infectious diseases e.g. leprosy or quarantine
services
6. Promote health education
7. Cover food to prevent contamination by rats, flies, cockroaches etc.
8. Encourage ventilation of houses

Control of vectors
Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are delicate, fragile, slender insects with two pairs of wings.
They are common in warm countries e.g. tropics (Africa)
They are abundant in lowlands and swampy areas. There are three main
types of mosquitoes.
a. Anopheles mosquitoes
b. Culex mosquitoes
c. Aedes mosquitoes

Diagram of the side view of the anopheles mosquito

They have a pair of compound eyes on their head and a pair of antennae.
Their mouth parts is called proboscis which they use for piercing and sucking.
Diagram of the Larva of the anopheles mosquito

Diagram of the Pupa of the anopheles mosquito

The larvae are also known as wrigglers. The mouth brushes wave around
and sweep food particles into the mouth. The siphon or breathing tube is for
gaseous exchange or breathing. The anal gills are also associated with breathing
and also for osmoregulation. The spiracle is also for breathing.
Diagram of the Larva stage of the culex mosquito

Diagram of the Pupa stage of the culex mosquito

Differences between anopheles and culex mosquito
Anopheles Culex
1 The wings have black and white or The wings have no spot
rusty red spots on them
2 At resting stage, the abdomen is always The abdomen is parallel to the
at an angle to the resting surface resting surface
3 They lay their eggs in stagnant water They lay their in fast moving
water
4 They lay their eggs singly They lay their eggs in batches
5 The larva stage uses spiracles for The larva stage uses breathing
breathing tube for breathing
6 In the larva stage, the head is parallel In the larva stage, the head is
to the water surface downward in water.

The female anopheles mosquito is the vector carrying the plasmodium

parasite (protozoan) which cause malaria fever.
The symptoms of malaria fever are as follows:
i. High temperature
ii. Nausea or vomiting
iii. Rigour or shivering
iv. Pains in limbs, joints and the body
v. Headache
vi. Anaemia or shortage of blood
vii. Enlargement of the spleen
viii. Weakness
ix. Loss of appetite
x. Profuse sweating

Control of mosquito
1. Draining of gutters, broken pots etc to prevent breeding of mosquitoes
2. Use of insecticides like raid, baygonetc to kill adult mosquitoes
3. Spraying or spreading oil, kerosene on stagnant water, ponds to kill larval
and pupal stages.
4. Introducing fish like the tilapia fish into ponds to feed on larva and pupa
5. Use of treated mosquito nets to prevent mosquito bite
6. Cutting of bushes around houses to prevent hiding places for adult
mosquitoes
 The life cycle of plasmodium

The asexual cycle of the plasmodium parasite occurs in humans and sexual cycle
in mosquitoes. When an infected mosquito bites a healthy person, it introduces
parasites at the sporozoite stage into his body.
Thesesporozoite migrate to the liver, multiply and develop into
trophozoites which then invade the red blood cells. In these cells, they divide
asexually forming numerous merozoites which when liberated invade many
other red blood cells. Some merozoites also develop into gametocytes. A
mosquito picks up these gametocytes when it bites an infected person. The
gametocytes develop in the stomach of the mosquito where they reproduce
sexually to form sporozoite. These migrate to its salivary glands and are
eventually transmitted to healthy humans through its bites.
Houseflies
Muscadomestica is the common housefly in this region. It belongs to the
phylum Arthropoda and the class insect. They are found in warm, moist and
dirty places like on refuse dumps, on decaying organic matter like faeces etc.
They are vector of pathogen causing diseases like typhoid fever, dysentery,
cholera etc.
The body of the housefly is short and heavy and hairy, the legs are also
hairy. They are able to carry pathogens on their hairy body as they feed on
decaying organic matters.
They are omnivorous and they have filthy habits which also help them to
transmit pathogens
1. They dissolve solid food with their saliva, thereby passing pathogenic
microorganism into such food
2. They defecate while they feed
3. Occasionally they regurgitate semi-digested food and deposit it on the
surface where they have settled.
They undergo complete metamorphosis

Life cycle of the housefly

 Dorsal view of the adult housefly

The eggs are laid in moist, rotting animal and plant remains including human
faeces (i.e. decaying organic matter). The eggs hatch into white larvae called
maggots in 8 hours to 3 days.
The natural habitat of the maggots is also decaying organic matter.

Observable adaptive features of the maggot into its habitat

1. Presence of anterior hook or mandible for tearing food.
2. Anterior hook for movement
3. Soft body allows wriggling movement
4. Spiracles for gaseous exchange
5. Hooks at tips of pad for crawling

Economic importance of the maggot

1. Consumption of food
2. Contamination of food
3. Aids decomposition or decay
The maggot later changes into the pupa which is inside a puparium. The
pupa is inactive, it does not feed but remain very still but great activity occurs
inside while the adult structure develops.
The adult housefly hatches out of the puparium by using an organ attached
to its head called ptilinum to break it open.
On the thorax of the adult house, there are small drumstick shaped stumps
called halteres which the fly use to balance itself. The adult moves round mostly
during the day.

Economic importance of the adult housefly

(1) They are vectors of diseases like cholera, typhoid fever etc and they
are able to carry the pathogenic microorganisms on their hairy body,
mouth parts, legs and wings.
(2) Contamination of human food
(3) Feeds on sores thus prolonging healing process
(4) Pollination of flower e.g. Dutchman’s pipe flower
 Control of houseflies
1. Use of insecticides to kill adult houseflies
2. Destruction of their breeding ground to kill their eggs
3. Keeping the environment clean to prevent adult houseflies from
multiplying
4. Use of poison bait to attract and kill adult houseflies
5. Proper cleaning and closing of toilet after use, so that they do not attract
houseflies
6. Covering of food to prevent adult houseflies from feeding and defecating
on them.

Public health
Personal health
Good health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely
the absence of diseases.

How to maintain good health

1. Eating a balance diet
2. Doing regular exercise to keep the various body parts in a health
condition.
3. Rest and sleep
4. Doing work suited to our mental and physical ability
5. Avoid bad habits like smoking, drinking of alcohol etc
6. Be vaccinated against deadly diseases like poliomyelitis, yellow fever etc
7. Keep a good personal hygiene e.g. cleanliness and care of the body etc.

Ways of maintaining good health in a community (Public health)

1. Proper refuse disposal:Reckless refuse dump encourages the breeding of animal
vectors, creates bad odour and spread of diseases.In large towns and cities,
refuse disposal is the responsibility of the public health authorities. The refuse
is collected from these bins regularly by refuse Lorries and disposed.
Refuse disposal can be done in the following ways:
a. Burning refuse in incinerators
b. Burning refuse in a sanitary land fill.
c. Dumping them in isolated areas far from human habitation
d. Provision of dust bins in strategic locations
e. Pulverization: The refuse is crushed with machine hammers and then dumped.
f. Composting: It is left to get rotten and then used to improve soil fertility.

Advantages and disadvantages of different method of refuse disposal

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

1 Dustbins  it is cheap  It cannot contain much
 it is portable refuse
  it is easy to use  Must be emptied regularly
 Attracts pests, rodents,
houseflies, mosquito etc
2 Pts  It is easy to use  Attracts flies and rodents and
 Accommodates large serve as breeding ground for
amount of waste pathogens
 Emits offensive odours
 May contaminate surface
water
3 Burning in  Most hygienic method  Expensive to build and
incinerators of refuse disposal operate
 Reduces the volume  Emits offensive odour
of refuse  Source of air pollution
4 Composting  Organic refuse is  Inorganic refuse is not easily
quickly broken down broken down or decomposed
or decomposed  Requires land space
 Nutrients are returned  Manual labour is involved
to the soil  Leads to land or soil pollution
 Source of manure
5 Landfill  Helps to check soil  Attracts flies and rodents
erosion  Emits offensive odour
 It is a source of  May contaminate water body
manure
 Organic refuse quickly
decomposes

2. Proper Sewage disposal: when human urine and faeces are collected together it
s called effluent. Sewage is a source of serious microbial diseases affecting
man. Coliform bacteria are the commonest in sewage.
We need to dispose sewage properly in order to control food and water born
diseases
(a) Use of pit latrine toilets: It is used in rural areas and urban areas where there
is no supply of water.
(b) Use of bucket latrine: is common in rural areas. It is unhygienic and should be
discouraged.
(c) Use of septic tanks where water is used to flush faeces and urine into a big
tank dug in the ground. It is common in urban areas.
(d) Community treatment process where sewage from various homes are collected
and treated before being discharged into oceans or rivers.

3. Protection of water and provision of clean treated water: Organisms that cause
water –borne diseases like typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery etc are all carried
by impure and contaminated water. These diseases can be largely checked by
 the provision of clean and treated water and protection of our sources of
water.
This can be done by:
(a) Damming a nearby river and channeling the water into a reserviour where it is
treated by addition of alum ( to bring about sedimentation) before use.
(b) Boiling of water before drinking it
(c) Filtration of water
(d) Addition of chlorine to kill pathogenic microorganisms
(e) Storage of water in clean containers
(f) Wells should be dug in the uphill away from latrines, rubbish dumps and
soakaway pits
(g) Burst pipes should be repaired immediately to avoid wastage and also to
prevent impurities from flowing into the pipes.

4. Protection of food and proper food preservation method

Our food should also be protected to prevent food-borne diseases.
The following methods can be used to protect our food;
(a) Food should be properly cooked (especially meat) before eating
(b) Leftover food should be well preserved like keeping them in the refrigerators
or deep freezers.
(c) Food should be served in clean containers
(d) Food should be covered to avoid contamination
(e) Canned and tinned food should certified consumable and they should not be
taken after the expiry date.
(f) Giving license to inspect abattoirs and private slaughtering of animals in
homes.
(g) Washing of hands before and after preparing a meal and also eating.
(h) Keep the environment where the food is prepared clean.

5. Health organizations:
These are corporate (local and international) bodies concerned with the
maintenance of good health of the body.
They help in the prevention of diseases.

International Health organization

a) World Health Organization (WHO)
b) International Food and Agriculture Development (IFAD)
c) United Nations Drug Control Programme (UNDCP)
d) United Nations International Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF)
e) Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
f) International Red Cross Society
g) United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
National Health organization
a) National Agency for food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC)
b) National Red Cross Organization
c) National Emergency and Relief Agency
d) National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS)
e) National Primary Healthcare Development Agency (NPHCA)
f) National Action Committee for the Control of AIDS (NACA)
g) Nigerian National Ambulance (NNA)
h)Nigerian Medical Association (NMA)
i) Federal and State Ministry of Health
j) Public Health Authority
k) Primary Health Centres or Clinics
l) General Hospital etc.

Function of UNICEF
1. Provides relief materials in case of emergencies
2. Provides protein rich food and vitamins to malnourished children
3. Helps developing countries to carry out long range health or welfare
programmes for their children.
4. Help in training health workers
5. Provides various medical equipment, medicine, vaccination services which add
more value to life in developing countries.
6. Sponsors research in food and drugs
7. Promotes girl child education and provide funds for children education
8. Assist in the improvement of the mothers and their children by providing training
programmes and necessary equipment.

Functions of WHO
WHO came into being in 1948 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
1. It promotes measures for the control of the major world’s diseases through
vaccination programmes and use of antibiotics.
2. It coordinates research programmes in all fields of health and makes the results
known to all member nations
3. It provides advice and help on health matters to member nations on request
e.g. provision of medical experts etc.
4. It publishes medical journals
5. It helps to set up international quarantine regulations
6. It helps to provide drugs and vaccines in case of emergency
7. It provides warning signals in the events of an outbreak of epidemic diseases.
8. It assists national health organizations in control of diseases and vectors of
diseases
9. It helps in maternal and child health care.
10. It helps to set and recommend safe standard for drugs.

Functions of International Red Cross Society

1. They take proper care of the injured during war.
2. They provide emergency aid to those in distress.
3. They are involved in the negotiation of the exchange of prisoners of wars
between countries.
4. They provide transport for the evacuation of refuges
5. They provide welfare for prisoners of war.
6. They provide general first-aid to patients.
7. They assist in preventing accidents
8. They assist in the training of nursing aides.
9. They maintain maternal and child welfare clinics
10. They provide help to victims of natural disasters like floods, earthquakes etc

Functions of Public Health Authorities

1. They ensure proper refuse and sewage disposal
2. Provide material and child care clinics and maternity clinics
3. They ensure proper sanitation of public places like markets, abattoirs,
restaurants etc
4. They inform the WHO of outbreak of infectious diseases.
5. Registration of deaths and births
6. They ensure supply of clean water to the public
7. They provide ambulance services
8. They give health certificate to travelers
9. They provide health education
10. They administer vaccination or immunization
11. Prevention and control of infectious diseases (internal quarantine)
12. Provide children welfare services.
13. Promote family planning and teach health education

Functions of Nigerian Medical Association (NMA)

1. They advise the government on how to improve the health status of the people.
2. They alert the nation where there is an outbreak of a disease.
3. They carry out research into ways of preventing and controlling diseases
4. Monitoring the recruitment of well trained doctors in hospitals.
5. Assisting in the training of medical and paramedical staff needed in health care
delivery.

6. Environmental Sanitation: Environmental sanitation helps to prevent diseases,

maintain a clean environment and also a good health

7. Good personal hygiene: a high and good personal hygiene helps to prevent
disease and also help avoid spread of diseases
8. Prevention of diseases: Disease is a condition in which the normal function of an
organism or part of the body or cell is impaired or disturbed.

Symptoms of diseases is any observable effect on an organism caused by the

presence and irritation of a disease causing agent or pathogen.

Physical barriers that prevent pathogen from entering the body of an organism
1. Skin
2. Hair
3. Cuticle
4. Epidermis
5. Bark
6. Cell wall lining

Chemical barriers that prevent pathogen from entering the body of an

organism
1. Mucus
2. Saliva
3. Tears
4. Gastric and intestinal secretion
5. Phenolic compounds
6. Gums
7. Tannins
8. Wax
9. Oily secretion or sebum

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Living cells are usually surrounded by a moist/ watery environment. This may be
the fresh water or salt water which constitutes the habitat of the unicellular
organisms or the intercellular fluid that bathes the body cells of higher
animals /organisms.
Materials often flow between the cell and its environment mainly by
diffusion and osmosis, these are referred to a passive movement and active
transport.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of molecules of gas or liquid from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
The movement of ions or molecules continues into a space until the molecules
are evenly distributed i.e. dynamic equilibrium is attained when the
concentration of molecules is uniform throughout the system. Diffusion takes
place inspite of gravitational forces.
Movement of perfume, cigarette smoke illustrate gaseous diffusion.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DIFFUSION
(1)The nature of the medium: Molecules diffuses faster in a gaseous medium
than in a liquid medium and faster in a liquid than in a solid medium.
(2)High concentration gradient: This is the relative difference in the
concentration of a substance in two regions. The greater the
concentration gradient, the greater the diffusion.
Hence, Fick’s law states that “the amount of solute diffusing through a
unit cross section of area in directly proportional to the concentration
gradient across this section. The law tries to show that movement of
materials between 2 areas depend on differential concentration.
(3)High temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion, hence high temperature increases the speed at which molecules
move.
(4)Size of molecules: The smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
(5)State of the matter: The rate of diffusion of a substance depends on
whether it is in the liquid, gaseous or solid state. Gaseous diffusion is
faster than that of liquid.
Diffusion is an important process in living systems because it distributes
and removes molecules as at when required. Many processes in various
organisms are dependent on the principles of diffusion.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFUSION

Processes in which diffusion occurs in plants are:
(i) Movement of carbondioxide for photosynthesis from the atmosphere
into the leaves through the stomata.
(ii) Movement of oxygen, produced during photosynthesis from the leaves
to the atmosphere through the stomata.
(iii) Movement of oxygen for gaseous exchange from the atmosphere into
the plant through the stomata or lenticels.
(iv) Movement of carbohydrate produced during gaseous exchange from
the plant to the atmosphere through the stomata or lenticels
(v) Movement of manufactured food from he leaves to other parts of the
plant.
Processes in which diffusion occurs in animals are:
(i) Gaseous exchange in Amoeba, skin of toad, alveoli of lungs, gills of
fish.
(ii) Exchange of nutrients between a foetus and the mother through the
placenta.
(iii) Absorption of digested food from the small intestine through the villi
onto the blood stream.
EXPERIMENT ON DIFFUSION
(1)If a crystal of potassium permanganate is dropped in a beaker of water,
immediately after dropping it, a trail/steak/line of purple colour follows the
crystals to the bottom of beaker.
After 5 mins of dropping the crystals, it dissolves and form a dense purple
colour at the bottom of the beaker and a light layer is above or at the top
of the water as molecules of potassium permanganate crystals move from
region of high concentration to region of low concentration.
After 15 mins , the whole water is coloured with three distinct layers;
purpose traits still show at the middle with dense purple at the bottom. A
light purple colour aat the middle and a still lighter purple at the top as
molecules of potassium permanganate move from region of high
concentration to region of low concentration.
After 30 mins, the whole medium becomes uniformly/evenly/equally
purpose-coloured, as molecules of potassium permanganate are uniformly
distributed.

(2) If a cube of sugar is placed in a beaker of water and left to stand, the sugar
molecules spread outwards until it is evenly distributed throughout the water.
(3) If a few drops of liquid bromine is placed in a glass jar covered and left to
stand, the bromine evaporate to form brown bromine vapour which spreads
upwards until it is evenly distributed through the glass jar.
OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the process by which water molecules / solvent move from a
region / area of weaker solution / concentration, to a region of stronger solution
/ concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
In a living organism, the semi-permeable membrane is usually that of the
cell. Since water molecules are small the cell is somewhat limited in the amount
of direct control it can impose on their passage across the membrane.
A living cell can be in any of the following situation:
i. Hypertonic (stronger solution)
 ii. Hypotonic (Weaker solution)
iii. Isotonic solution
Note: Some membranes will allow the passage of water molecules but not
of solute molecules. Such a membrane which allows the passage of 1 type of
molecules but not other types is called a semi-permeable membrane.
Hypertonic solution: Here, the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated
than the fluid inside the cell cytoplasm, hence, there is a net movement of water
molecules out of the cell into the surrounding. This is known as exosmosis.
This causes the cell to shrink and when the cell shrink plasmolysis
occurs. (Note: the surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic)
Hypotonic solution: When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than
the inside of the cell, there will be a movement of water molecules from the
surrounding fluid into the cell. This is known as endosmosis.
It causes the cell to swell and eventually burst i.e. haemolysis occurs. But
in plant cell, the rigid cell wall in plant cell will provide resistance to bursting,
instead the cell becomes turgid.
Pressure created by the entry of much water into the cell is called turgor
pressure. (The outward force is known as turgor pressure).
Isotonic solution: Here, the surrounding fluid and the cell is at an equal
concentration, therefore there is no net movement of water molecules in or out
of the cell.
DEMOSTRATION OF OSMOSIS
The instrument used to demonstrate osmosis is called osmo-meter. In
living tissues; yam tuber, unripe pawpaw, animal bladder (pig / sheep), egg
membrane, cell membrane in plant can be used as semi-permeable membrane.
In non-living tissues cellophane or parchment paper or visking tube can
be used as semi-permeable membrane.
A control experiment can be set up using isotonic solution.

EXPERIMENT ON OSMOSIS USING A NON-LIVING MATERIAL

Osmometer can be constructed by using a thistle funnel. The steps are:
1. The mouth of the funnel is covered with cellophane paper and tied.
2. Sugar solution is poured inside the thistle funnel as in set up A
3. The original level of the sugar solution is marked or noted.
4. Water is put into a beaker
5. The mouth of the funnel is inverted into the beaker of water.
6. The funnel is supported by a retort stand as shown in set up A
7. Control experiment is set up by putting water into both the beaker and
thistle funnel as in set up B.
8. Both set ups are left to stand for about 1 – 4 hrs.
Observation
At the end of the experiment, the level of sugar solution in the funnel will
rise in A; while no change occurs in the control experiment B.
Conclusion
The increases in sugar solution level in A shows that water have moved from the
beaker into the thistle funnel by osmosis. The cellophane paper serves as a
semi-permeable membrane.

EXPERIMENT ON OSMOSIS USING A LIVING CELL

Osmosis can be demonstrated using a living material (e.g. yam tuber, irish
potato tuber, pawpaw fruit etc as a semi-permeable membrane) in the following
way;
Material:
Four Irish potato tubers, knife, concentrated sugar solution, 3 beaker, boiling
water.
Method
1. Prepare concentrated sugar solution in the following way: To about
200cm3 of water add granulated sugar gradually and stir. On dissolving,
add more sugar and stir. Repeat until no more sugar will shown.
2. Scoop out a hole in each tuber of the irish potato, then peel the tuber and
slice the bottom so that it can sit in the beaker.
3. Into a scooped –out tuber A, pour some water. Mark its level and set
aside. Into another tuber B, pour some of the concentrated sugar solution
and similarly mark the level and set aside.
4. Place the third tuber in the boiling water for 1-2 mins. This treatment kills
the cells of the potato. Then cool the potato.
5. Pour some of the concentrated sugar solution into this treated potato
tuber, which now becomes specimen C. Then place each specimen in a
beaker of water. Let them stand for 2-3 hrs.

Observation
 It will be noticed that there is no rise of liquid level in A and C. A rise is
only noticed in B.
The cells of the raw irish potato act as a semi-permeable membrane
allowing the passage of water but not sugar, the solute.
In B, water diffuses through potato cells down a concentration gradient of
water molecules into the sugar solution. The level in B therefore rises.
In C, the potato cells has been killed by boiling them which make them (the
cells) fully permeable to both water and sugar allowing the concentration
gradient to be removed by the movement of water molecules in and sugar
molecules out. As a result, no rise in level is seen in C.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF OSMOSIS

Osmosis is important in many biological processes, both in plants and
animals.
In plants, osmosis is involved in the following processes:
1. Absorption of water from the soil by root hairs
2. Movement of water from one living cell into another
3. Movement of water into and out of guard cells of stomata, leading to
opening and closing of the stomata.
4. Maintenance of turgor.
The following are the processes in which osmosis is involved in animals
1. Reabsorption of water from glomerular filtrate in the kidney tubules.
2. Absorption of water by the colon.
3. Movement of water from one living cell into another
4. Maintenance of turgor in animal cells
5. Loss of water through sweating
Note: Osmosis is responsible for the movement of water or materials from one
cell to another usually from a region of lower concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane e.g. are as stated below.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION

OSMOSIS DIFFUSION
1. A semi-permeable membrane A semi-permeable membrane is not
is needed needed
2. Occurs mainly in living things Occurs in both living and non-living things
organisms
3. Involves water molecules Involves movement of gases, liquid and
only solid
TURGIDITY
The cellulose cell wall is inelastic and limits the extent to which plant cells can
swell when water in taken in by osmosis.
When endosmosis occurs, more water enters the cell and the size of the vacuole
increases and the pressure is exacted on the surrounding protoplasm and the
cell wall. This pressure forces the protoplasm outwards against the cell wall and
the cell wall becomes overstretched. A high pressure builds up inside the cell
and makes it turgid. Hence, at this point, the cell is said to be turgid.
Turgidity means a state of a cell being turgid.
Importance of turgidty to plants
1. It makes plants firm
2. It gives support to plants
3. If a plants are not turgid, they will wilt.

FLACCIDITY
Cells sometimes suffer a loss of water which causes them to become weak, limp
and soft. This condition is known as flaccidity. The cell are said to be flaccid.
Flaccidity usually occur when plants loses water to the atmosphere faster than it
can be obtained from the soil so that water from the vacuole is withdrawn.

PLASMOLYSIS
Plasmolysis is due to an excess loss of water molecules from a living cell causing
the vacuole to shrink and pull the cytoplasm away from the cell wall when
placed in a hypertonic solution. When this happens, the cell is said to be
plasmolysed. If plasmolysis proceeds beyond a certain limit, the plasmalemma is
liable to tear, resulting in a permanent damage to the cell.
Plasmolysis occurs as a result of exosmosis,

TO DEMONSTRATE PLASMOLYSIS USING A NAMED PLANT MATERIAL

Onion cell or spirogyra cells can be used.
1. Place a piece of spirogyra strand on a glass side containing one or 2
drops of water and cover with a cover slip.
2. Observe the slide under the microscope to see that the cells are normal.
3. Add a few drops of concentrated salt solution to the cells and leave for
about 2-5mins.
4. Observe again under the microscope.
Crenation: The shrinkage of the cell and crinkling of the membrane of red blood
cell put in hypertonic solution.
Observation
It will be observed that the cytoplasm is drawn or shrink away from the cell wall
as exosmosis has occurred and the cells have been plasmolysed.

Note: A control experiment can be set up using an isotonic solution or water. At

the end of the experiment, there will be no plasmolysis.
The plasmolysed cells can be reversed by placing it in a hypotonic solution or
water solution.
To demonstrate what happens when red blood cells are left for forty minutes in
(i) Hypotonic solution
(ii) Isotonic solution
(iii) Strong solution or hypertonic

Red blood cell in hypotonic solution

When red blood cell is placed in weaker solution or a hypotonic solution, water
enters the red blood cell by osmosis, though the cell membrane. The cell
membrane serves as a semi-permeable membrane. As the cell absorb water, it
makes the cell to swell up or enlarge and eventually burst i.e. haemolysis has
taken place.

Red blood cell in equal concentration (isotonic solution)

When a red blood cell is placed in a solution of equal concentration as the
cytoplasmic fluid, there is no water loss from the cell or water gain by the cell.
Thus, the cell size remains constant, as the two solutions are isotonic i.e. of
equal concentrations.

Red blood cell in hypertonic solution

When red blood cell is placed in stronger solution or a hypertonic solution, water
leaves the red blood cell by exosmosis. This makes the cell cytoplasm to shrink
and crinkle (plasmolysis)

CONDITION THAT MAY CAUSE HAEMOLYSIS

1. Disease attack
2. Poisoning
3. Drug abuse
4. Infection/ epidemic
5. Industrial activities/ pollution
The passage of materials through the cell membrane of animals and plants cells
occurs in four ways:
 (a)Active transport
(b)Passive transport
(c) Pinocytosis
(d)Phagocytosis

FEEDING
Feeding is the process by which an organism obtains the nourishment
which provides it with the required energy for life activities as well as materials
for growth and maintenance of good health.
Plants are autotrophic. They are able to manufacture their own food through the
process of photosynthesis.
Chemosynthesis is also a type of autotrophic nutrition.
Animals are heterotrophic, they depend on plants for their food. Some animals
are holozoic in their mode of nutrition and they can be classified as:
herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous. Other modes of nutrition are:
saprophytic, parasitic,
symbiotic and carnivorous plants.

ANABOLISM
Anabolism is the synthesis, by living things, of complex compounds from simple
substances. Living things require food (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, mineral
salts, vitamins and water) for:
1. The production of new protoplasm
2. Growth
3. Repair
4. Production of energy for life activities.

Nutrition: Food is the substance/ an organism or a cell needs for normal growth,
development and reproduction.
The various required foods are classified as;
(a)Macronutrients
(b)Micronutrients
Macronutrients are required in large amount e.g. carbohydrates, proteins and
lipids. They supply the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, chlorine which are the
main organic substances in food.
Micronutrients are required in a small amount e.g. vitamins and mineral salts.
They supply the elements magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, molybdenum,
boron, fluorine and iodine.
Inadequate supply and lack of any of these essential nutrients will result in
deficiency with various symptoms, depending on the deficient nutrient. Lack of
iron in human diet means the red blood cells cannot function properly resulting
in anaemia. In green plants, cells cannot synthesized chlorophyll and this will
affect the food making process.
Excess of nutrients may also be harmful to the cell and the organism e.g. excess
of carbohydrate and fats results in obesity, high protein diet overworks the cells
in the liver and kidney which can lead to the damage of these cells and
eventually to death.
We can observe the effect of too much mineral nutrients on plants by adding a
concentrated solution of an inorganic fertilizer to a potted plant. The plant wilts
and dies as the strong salt solution causes the root hair to plasmolyse.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
All living cells need energy for metabolic processes. For plant cells, the energy
comes from the food they make. In animals, the animal cell gets energy from
the food they ingest.
RESPIRATION
Respiration is a metabolic process in living cells of organisms, by which glucose
are oxidized or broken down to release energy for life activities.
Respiration can occur in two ways or stages or phases which are:
(i) Gaseous exchange (External respiration): This is the taking in of
oxygen and giving out of carbondioxide. It takes place in the
respiratory surface like lungs, trachea, body surface, stomata etc.
(ii) Tissue or cellular (Internal respiration): This is the process in which
sugar/ glucose is oxidized or broken down to release energy in the cell.
We have 2 types of respiration which are:
(a)Aerobic respiration: This process requires oxygen to convert glucose in
order to release energy, carbondioxide and water vapour e.g in plants and
animal cells.
C6H1206 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H20 + ATP
enzyme
s
(b)Anaerobic respiration: This process does not require oxygen to breakdown
glucose e.g. in yeast fermentation, bacteria and animal tissue during
strenuous exercise.
For example, in animal cell lactic acid is formed by anaerobic respiration.
The lactic acid formation occurs in the skeletal muscles of athletes when
the rate of use of oxygen during a race of use of oxygen during a race
exceeds the rate of oxygen supply. This strenuous exercise will create
anaerobic condition in which lactic acid accumulates. The athlete may
experience muscle pain known as muscle fatigue. The body is then said to
have an “oxygen debt”. At the end of the exercise, the individual
continues to breathe rapidily for sometimes, supplying much oxygen to
the muscle until the lactic acid is oxidized to carbondioxide and water. It
can be represented in the equation given below:

pyruvic
C6H1206 → 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + Energy
acid
glucose Lactic acid
In plant cell and bacteria cell, the end product of anaerobic respiration is ethanol
and carbondioxide.

pyruvic
C6H1206 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 +ATP/Energy
Fermentation of yeast
Fermentation is a special case of anaerobic respiration by microorganisms
such as yeast contains bacteria, germinating seeds. Yeast fermentation results in
breaking down of materials rich in carbohydrate to produce ethanol and bubbles
of carbondioxide.
In cells of yeast or plant cells like germinating seeds, glucose is partially
broken down to pyruvic acid. The acid is then converted to ethanol. Since the
end product is alcohol the process is known as alcoholic fermentation.
MECHANISM OF CELLULAR / INTERNAL RESPIRATION
it occurs in the mitochondrion of the cell.
In this process of oxidation of food to release energy, carbondioxide and water,
i.e
enzymes
C6H1206 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H20 + Energy
The energy is not released in one big step as shown in the reaction above, but
in a series of small steps which are catalysed by enzymes. The energy that is
released bit by bit is stored in the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules,
The first step occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic and it takes place inside the
cytoplasm of the cell and does not require oxygen.
In this step, one molecule of the 6-carbon glucose is broken down into two
molecules of the 3-carbon pyruvic acid by enzymes. This process is called
glycolysis.
Glycogen (animal) Starch (plant)

digestion

Glucose (6C)

glycolysis

Pyruvic acid
(3C)

Without Oxygen
oxygen present
Pathway of glucose breakdown in tissue respiration
From this stage, aerobic and anaerobic processes Aerobic
Anaerobic differ. In aerobic, in the
presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid in broken down or(Kreb’s
oxidized completely (with
Cycle)
respiration
the help of enzymes) to acetyl co-enzyme A to release carbondioxide Acetyl co A
enters the Kreb’s cycle where series of changes take place and O 2 combines H2
to form H2O and these reactions take place in the mitochondria within the cells.
Here, more energy is released.
A total of 38ATP molecules are formed when one molecule of glucose is
completely oxidized.
In anaerobic respiration, no more energy is released but pyruvic acid is
converted to alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals. In this process, little
energy is released. Therefore in anaerobic respiration one molecule of glucose
will release only 2 molecules of ATP.
Note: only 40% of the energy in a glucose is stored in the 38 ATP molecules.
The rest is released as heat energy. This is use in mammals and birds to
maintain their body cells and fluids at a constant temperature.

SUMMARY OF GLYCOLYSIS

Glucose
ATP
 ADP
Glucose -6-phosphate

Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP
ADP
Fructose-1-6-diphosphate

Glyceraldehydes -3-phosphate
NAD
NADH2

1, 3 – diphosphoglyceric acid

ADP
ATP
3– phosphoglyceric acid

2– phosphoglyceric acid

Phosphoenol pyruvic acid

ADP

pyruvic acid ATP

KREB’S CYCLE
USES OF ENERGY RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION
1. Energy released as heat is used to maintain body temperature
2. Energy used for synthesis of molecules such as enzymes, oils, proteins,
hormones, fats and cellulose.
3. It is also used for movement, mechanical work, muscle contraction or
exercise.
4. It is used for growth movement, active transport or phagocytosis.
5. It is used for electrical work or transmission of nerve impulses.
6. For production of light or sound.
7. For cell division.
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. Oxygen is required Oxygen is not required
2. Occurs mostly in animal and plant Occurs in some bacteria, fungi &
cells cells of the muscles of animals
3. Produces more energy (ATP) Produces less energy (ATP)
4. Alcohol and lactic acid not by Lactic acid and alcohol are the by
products products
5 Glucose is completely broken Glucose is not completely broken
down
6. Takes place in the mitochondrion Takes place in the cytoplasm
Similarities between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
1. Both occur in living cells
2. Both involves the breaking down of simple sugar (glucose)
3. Both involves enzymes
4. Both reactions produces by-product and carbondioxide.
5. Both releases energy

EXCRETION
Excretion is the removal of the waste product of metabolism from the
cells or body of living organisms.
Note that undigested food removing in the food vacuole of the protozoan is not
excretory waste and the process of getting rid of it is not excretory, but rather,
egestion. Undigested food egested by higher animal is referred to as faeces.
IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETION
1. To get rid of metabolic waste
2. To maintain a healthy environment for the system
3. For osmoregulation and homeostasis (this is the maintenance of a
constant internal environment in multicellular animal).
4. Maintenance of body temperature.
The waste products of metabolic activities of living cells are:
1. Carbondioxide and water formed as by products during cellular
respiration.
2. Oxygen in an actively photosynthesizing cell.
3. Excess water, salts and other unnecessary substances that enters the cell
during its metabolic activities.
4. Nitrogenous wastes produced during the breakdown of excess amino
acids.
Proteins provide amino acids while nucleic acids and fats provides energy
by producing fatty acids. When the food substances are completely metabolized
in the cells, nitrogenous waste products are produced and these come in
different forms depending on the efficiency of the excretory organ of the
organism and its environment.
Almost all aquatic animals excrete nitrogenous waste in the form of
ammonia, a poisonous gas which is soluble in water e.g. protozoans.
Terrestrial organisms which have limited access to water and indeed need
to conserve water, excrete nitrogenous waste in other forms.
In birds, reptiles and insects, nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid. Uric
acid is insoluble in water and leaves the body as crystals.
Invertebrates excrete nitrogenous waste as ammonia and urea. Mammals
excrete nitrogenous waste in the form of urea which then dissolve in water to
form urine or sweat. Excess water and inorganic materials in form of salts are
also discharged along with these nitrogenous waste.
EXCRETION IN ONE-CELLED ORGANISM
In unicellular aquatic organisms e.g. amoeba, paramecium etc, the
waste products are carbondioxide, ammonia and excess water. These is no
special structure for the removal of carbondioxide and ammonia. They simply
diffuse from the cell into the surrounding (pond) water.
The contractile vacuole is basically the structure for osmoregulation. It remove
excess water that enters the unicellular organism either by osmosis or food. As it
removes the excess water, some soluble metabolic wastes (i.e. carbondioxide
and ammonia) may also be collected by it and passed out (diffused out). In this
way, the contractile vacuole functions as an excretory organelle.

Organism Excretory organ Main excrete (products

1 Amoeba (unicellular The entire body Carbondioxide, nitrogenous
organisms) surface contractile waste, water, ammonium
vacuole salt, gas
2 Flatworms e.g. Flame cells Carbondioxide, nitrogenous
tapeworm waste, water,
3 Earthworm Nephridia Water, urea, Carbondioxide
4 Insects Malpighian tubule Uric acid, carbondioxide,
water
5 Freshwater fish Gills and kidney Urea, carbondioxide, water
6 Amphibians Skin,lung, mouth, carbondioxide, water
kidney vapour, uric acid
7 Reptiles Lungs and kidney carbondioxide, water
vapour, uric acid
8 Birds Kidney and lungs carbondioxide, water
vapour, uric acid
9 Mammals e.g man Skin, lungs, liver, carbondioxide, water
kidney vapour, urea, salt, (bile
salts), sweat
10 Flowering plants Lenticels in roots and carbondioxide, water
stems, stomata in vapour, oxygen, resins
leaves alkaloids.

GROWTH
Growth is an irreversible increase in size or dry mass and complexity of an
organism brought about by addition of protoplasmic materials during
development from embryo to maturity.
For an organism to grow, it must pass through three phases known as the basis
of growth. These are;
(i) Cell division
(ii) Cell enlargement: This follows cell division in which the daughter cells
increase in mass and in size.
(iii) Cell differentiation: each enlarged cells develops into a special type of
cell by changing its shape and structure in order to carry out a
specialized function.
CELL DIVISION
Cell division can be described as a multiplication of cells. It is a phase in the life
of a cell.
There are 2 types of cell division:
(i) Meiosis or reproductive growth
(ii) Mitosis or vegetative growth

Mitosis
Mitosis is a growth division which occurs in the somatic cell (body cell division
that are not involved in the production of gametes) resulting in the formation of
2 daughter cells.
There is duplication of chromosome to maintain the diploid (2n) number of
chromosome in the somatic cell.
This type of cell division occurs during asexual reproduction e.g. during repair of
wear and tear tissues or during growth.
In unicellular organisms, usually each cell can divide, while in multicellular
organisms, all cells cannot divide.
In plants, mitosis occurs normally only in cells located at the tips of shoots and
roots, in the cambium or in other specific parts. These cells which can divide are
said to be MERISTEMATIC, and a group of meristematic cells such as that found
at the tip of stem is called meristem. Mature plant cells do not normally divide,
but a wound may cause mature plant cells to become meristematic.
In animals, cells which can divide are not located at the tips of the body, but are
in various tissues all over the body.
Mitosis consists of a division of nucleus (karyokinesis) followed by a division of
the cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
Mitosis occurs in 4 phases / steps:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
In the beginning of the cell division, the nuclear content is organisized as a
thread-like structure which are untangled with a mesh.
Note: Each chromosomes makes an exact copy of itself so that it is made up of
2 parallel strands called chromatids.
The number of chromosomes in each somatic cell of an organism is called the
diploid number (2n).
The pathway made my the centrioles is called a spindle fibre.
Prophase (1st stage)
1. Centrioles pairs separate and moves to opposite poles.
2. The nuclear membrane and nucleous dissappers
3. Chromosome become shorten and thicken and becomes visible.
4. The chromosomes replicate and form two chromatids –joined at the
centromere.
5. Spindles are formed.

Metaphase (2nd stage)

1. Chromosomes are arranged at the equator
2. Chromosomes attach themselves at the centrometres to the spindle.
3. Centromere divides as they move apart making the Chromatids to
separate.
Anaphase (3rd stage):
1. The paired chromose are pulled apart as the spindle fibre
2. Each sister chromatid moves to the opposite pole
3. Two sets of chromatids grouped together at the opposite pole.

Telophase (4th stage)

1. Chromatids arrive at the pole
2. The spindle gradually disappears.
3. The nuclear membrane reappears
4. Nucleolus reappears, chromatids becomes invisible (chromosomes begin
to disappear)
5. The cytoplasm constrict and divide into two daughter cells with diploid
number (2n)

Importance of mitosis
 1. Growth, development and specialization takes place as a result of mitosis.
2. It ensure consistency of DNA configuration or it ensures exact copy of
DNA or sum total of inherited factors or transmission of genes to daughter
cells.
3. It ensure retention of diploid number
4. It assists in repair of tissues within organisms
5. It involves asexual reproduction e.g. binary fission, spore formation,
budding.
6. It ensures transfer of exact genetic code from parents to offspring

Meiosis
Meiosis is a reduction in cell division and the resulting four daughter cells
are haploid. Meiosis takes place in reproductive cells i.e. ovules and pollen grains
in plants, ovaries and pollen grains in plants, ovaries and testis in animals. In
animals, meiosis results in the formation of gametes (sex cells such as eggs and
spermatozoa).
The process of gamete formation is called gametogenesis. The process
involved in the production of spermatozoa by the testes is called
spermatogenesis while that of eggs or ova production by the ovaries called
Oogenesis.
When diploid cell undergoes meiosis the chromosomes replicate once the
nucleus and cell divide equally (i.e. duplicate) twice. This results in the diploid
parent cell giving rise to four haploid gametes cells.
Meiosis in brought about by two nuclear divisions, but only one duplication of
the chromosomes. The second meiotic division is concerned with separating the
chromatid.

First Meiotic Division

Prophase I:
 The nucleolus disappears
 Centrioles pairs separate and moves to opposite poles
 Spindle fibres are formed.
 Nuclear membrane disappears
 Chromosome becomes thicker, shorter and more visible
However, there is a fundamental difference because in mitosis, homologous
chromosome do not associate with each other in anyway. But in meiosis, the
homologous chromosome come to lie side by side, a process known as synapsis.
In this case, each pair of homologous chromosome constituent a bivalent.
As the homologous chromosome lie close together, the chromatids may
become joined at a point called chiasmata. When they separate again, portions
of chromatids may have been swapped. The exchange of genetic material is
called crossing over.
Metaphase 1:
As in mitosis, the chromosome arranged themselves at the equator. The
important differences from mitosis is that here, homologous chromosomes move
together i.e. the bivalent chromosome behave as a unit.

Anaphase 1:
The homologous chromosome separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
(not the chromatids). This results in only half the number of chromosome going
to each daughter cell.

Telophase 1:
 The chromosomes arrive at the two poles of the dividing cell. The
cytoplasm divides so that two daughter cells are formed, each with half the
number of chromosomes in the cell that divide.
Now nucleus membrane may not reform in each daughter cell and the
chromosomes do not disappear from view this time, the daughter cells are
already in the prophase of the 2nd meiotic division.

Second Meiotic Division

Prophase 2:
The chromosomes are visible, each consisting of 2 chromatids joined at
the centromere. The single centrioles divides into 2 and as before, each
migrates to a different pole of the cell laying down the spindle fibres for the
second meiotic division.

Metaphase 2:
The chromosomes arrange themselves at the equator at the equator with
their centromeres attached to the spindle fibres. Each centromere divides into 2
and the chromatids start to separate.
Anaphase 2:
The chromatids separate and are pulled by the spindle fibres towards the
opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase 2:
The chromatids arrive at the 2 poles of the cell. A nuclear membrane
reappears and surrounds each group of chromatids and the spindle fibres
disappear. The cytoplasm divides into 2 and each daughter cell now contains a
number of chromatids equal to the number of chromosomes in the cell as it was
at the end of the first division.
 At the end of meiosis, 4 daughter cells are formed from 2 original one cell.
The number of chromosomes in the original cell is described as diploid (2n),
while the number of chromosomes in each of the 4 daughter cells is described
as haploid (n).
If meiosis does not occur, the gametes would have the same number of
chromosomes as the somatic cells.
Importance of meiosis
1. It ensures that the zygote (fertilized egg) has a diploid number of
chromosomes.
2. It brings about the reduction of organisms chromosome number to the half
the original number in the sperm and egg.
3. Random assortment of genes during meiosis lead to genetic variation among
offsprings of the same parents.
4. It can lead to marked gene change (mutations) which also brings about
variation among individuals.
Difference between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
1 Occurs during the growth of Occurs during gametes production
somatic cells and asexual
reproduction
2 The daughter cells are formed with Four daughter cells are formed with
diploid number (2n) of homologous haploid number (n) of chromosomes.
chromosomes.
3 Chromosome number of parent and Chromosome number of daughter
daughter cells are the same cells is half the number in the parent
cell.
4 No crossing over / exchange of Crossing over/ exchange of genetic
genetic materials. material occurs.
5 Offspring produced are exact Offspring produced by meiosis in
replicate (clones) of the parent sexual reproduction will show
variation among themselves.
6 Only are nuclear division occurs Two nuclear division occurs
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
1. Interphase is the same in mitosis and first division in meiosis
2. Centrioles divide in both mitosis and meiosis at interphase. Doubling of
chromosomes takes place in interphase stage in both mitosis and meiosis
3. Nucleolus gets dissolved in the nuclear materials at the prophase of both
division
4. Spindle is laid down in the cytoplasm by centrioles which divide in interphase
5. Both mitosis and meiosis form new cells from pre-existing cells through cell
division.

Life processes involved in Meiosis

1. Formation of spermatozoa (male gametes) in testis
2. Formation of ova/ eggs (female gametes) in ovaries
3. Formation of pollen grains in the anther of flowering plants
4. Formation of ovules ( in the ovary) of flowering plants.
Life process involved in mitosis
1. Formation of new cells in the malpighian layer of the skin
2. Production of red blood cells and white blood cells in the bone marrow
3. Cell division in the liver
4. Repair or healing of wounds
5. Binary fission
Interphase
The interphase follows the completion of one cell division. It is a resting period
of cell. The cell does not actually rest but it start to synthesis body materials and
prepare for the next division. During interphase, each chromatid synthesis its
opposite only to make a chromosome. New protoplasm is synthesized,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrosomes and other cell organelles
which broke down during mitosis are formed.

Measuring Growth
We can measure the growth of organism by using growth indicator known as
parameters of growth e.g. mass, length or height or width, area or volume,
number of leaves etc.
In most growth studies, mass may be measured as wet mass or dry mass.
Wet mass is the mass of the organism undernormal conditions. It is not a
reliable indication of growth. Dry mass is the mass of an organism afterall the
water in it has been removed.
Growth Curves and Patterns
We get a growth curve when growth measurements are plotted against set
intervals of time. For many whole organism or parts of organisms, this curve is
S-shaped and known as a sigmoid curve.
 There is an initial lag phase (no growth), the organism prepares to grow at this
phase. Growth begins slowly and later becomes more and more rapid as the
number of cells involved becomes larger. Then there is a steady phase or rapid
growth. After sometimes, growth starts to slow down and finally comes to a
stop. This may be because an organism has reached its maximum size or it may
be due to lack of food.

Secondary growth: This is an irreversible increase in the width of a stem or root

of a dicot plant brought about by cell division in the cambium (lateral meristem).
Stages of growth
1. Cell division (mitosis)
2. Cell elongation and enlargement
3. Cell differentiation
4. Cell maturation

Growth in plants
Primary growth in flowering plants is an irreversible increase in the length of a
stem / root / embryonic tissue brought about by cell division in the apical
merritems.
Importance of primary growth in plants
1. Allows the leaves to reach adequate sunlight for photosynthesis
2. Raises /lift flowers to height for wind /insect pollination
3. Raises fruit / seeds high to be dispersed effectively
4. Allow roots reach new water sources
5. It allows root to grow deep to give firm anchorage to plants
Note: Primary growth is also the first growth in plants.
A germinating seed grows by the lengthening of its radicle and plumule. The
root and apices of a plant can be divided into the regions of:
(a) Cell division
(b) Cell elongation
(c) Cell maturation
The region of cell division is also known as the apical meristem, it consists of
meristematic cells i.e. cells capable of active division. In the region of cell
elongation, the cells become enlarged to their maximum size by the stretching
of their walls. Cells in the region of maturation have attained their permanent
size and become specialized to carry out certain functions.
Stem apices include the terminal buds and the lateral / axillary buds. The
apical meristems are divided into three regions namely: the outmost, middle and
innermost regions.
The outermost region in the root gives rise to the piliferous layer and the root
cap. In the stem, the outermost region gives rise to the epidermis.
The middle region gives rise to the cortex endodermis. Excess food is usually
stored in the cells of the cortex and it is also a packaging tissue.
 The innermost region gives rise to the pericycle, cambium, vascular tissue and
pith (the vascular tissue is made up of phloem and xylem tissue).
Drawing of the transverse section of the dicot stem

Drawing of the transverse section of the monocot stem

Drawing of the transverse section of the dicot root

Drawing of the transverse section of the monocot root

 The cambium is a meristematic tissue and it is present in both young and old
stem, but only develops in the older root.
The pith is a packaging tissue, strengthening tissues appear in the cortex and
pericycle in the plants. Apical meristem bring about growth in length, height of
plants and in shoots, they give rise to branches, leaves and flowers.
Secondary growth occurs in perennial dicotyledons after the primary growth,
this is an increase in the width or girth of plants, it is brought about by the
cambium (lateral meristems)
The vascular cambium produces new xylem and phloem cells (i.e. secondary
xylem and phloem) while the cork cambium produces a thick layer of water
proof cork cells which eventually forms the bark. The bark replaces the
epidermis which becomes ruptured during secondary growth. Monocot doesn’t
have cambium so they don’t carry out secondary growth.
Growth patterns in plants
As said earlier, growth of plants is studied by measuring dry mass, or length or
shoot or root of a plant. Annual plants shows a typical sigmoid growth curve.
Perennials show a series of sigmoid curves with each curve representing the
growth during one growing season, this shows that they have an unlimited
growth.
Factors affecting plant growth
1. Availability of nutrients and water
2. Physical factors e.g. humidity, light, temperature, pH etc.
3. Plant hormones (internal factor)

Apical and intercalary growth

A meristem is a tissue that retains the ability to divide by mitosis and turn out
new cells. Growth which occurs in the apical-stem and apical-root meristem is
called apical growth.
Growth which occurs at the meristem of the base of internodes is called
intercalary growth. It is responsible for the development of the branching
system of the stems and roots.

Limited and Unlimited Growth

In most plants, growth continues year in year out after maturity, this is why
most plants are seen to achieve very great heights and large stem widths and
also development of leaves, flowers and fruits containing seeds are recorded
from time to time throughout their life history this is known as unlimited growth.
Animals in their own case have a limited growth, for example it has been
discovered in human beings that growth in height stops in female at about 17
years and about 20 years in males.
Growth of plants is restricted to special regions known as meristems which may
be apical lateral or intercalary.

Isometric (equal) growth and allometric (unequal) growth

In both plants and animals, the vegetative and somatic part developed before
the reproductive structures. It is clear that all parts of the living organism do not
grow at the same time. All parts of the body that grow side by side at the same
time show isometric.
The organs or structures in which rate of growth is different from the rest parts
of the organism are said to show allometric growth.
Monocotyledon are advanced plants. They tend to be more efficient and
specialized because they have fewer parts, as such they show a very high
degree of adaptation to their environment. The dicotyledons are the more
primitive angiosperms.
Growth patterns in animals
Generally animals show intercalary growth. Most invertebrates and some
vertebrates, like turtles, fishes show unlimited growth in which the rate of
growth slows down with increasing age. Such animals takes the form of an s-
shaped or sigmoid curve growth.
In arthropods, like insects and crustaceans where exoskeleton is present,
growth takes places after moulting or ecdysis, during moulting the exoskeleton
splits longitudinally along the dorsal line of the larval nymph and is covered with
a soft new exoskeleton. The nymph/ larva rapidly grows in size, the new
exoskeleton thickens and gradually hardens, slowing down the rate of growth in
the larva/nymph. The growth finally stops until the next moulting takes place

Graph showing intermittent growth curve of insect

The above growth type is known as an intermittent growth.
Birds and mammals show limited growth, they grow to a maximum size and
then stop growing. Their growth curve is a typical sigmoid.
Graph showing a typical sigmoid growth curve of a human

Drawing of experiment to show that auxin is produced in apical meristem

Similarities of growth in plants and animals
1. Both multicellular plants and animals grow by mitotic cell division of pre-
existing cells to form new cells
2. Both achieve a certain amount of vegetative or body growth before
reproductive growth sets in
3. Both show sigmoid growth curve
4. Both requires food for growth
5. Both secrete growth hormones for their growth
6. Growth is irreversible in both plants and animals
Differences in function between Apical and Lateral bud
Apical bud Lateral bud
It brings about increase in the height It brings about branching or spreading
of a plant. of the crown of the plant.

Differences between growth in plants and animals

Growth in plants Growth in animals
1 Mainly restricted to growing Diffuse / takes place in all parts of
regions /apical/ meristem the body / intercalary
2 Continuous through life in growing Limited to certain periods in life/
regions / unlimited growth limited growth
3 Indefinite number of parts or no Definite number of parts /fixed
fixed number of organs number of organs
 PLANT HORMONES
Regulation of growth by hormones
Growth is regulated by hormones. Hormones are substances secreted by
endocrine gland (ductless gland), which are transported by the blood stream to
the other parts of the body and which cause response in a specific organ or
tissue.
In plants and animals, there are hormones that regulate growth.
Plant hormones are: Auxin (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)), cytokinin, Abscisic acid,
Gubberellin, ethylene, floregen, formin, Dormin etc.

1. Auxin: They are found located at the tips of shoot and root.
Functions
(i) They promote cell elongation i.e shoot and root
(ii) Breaks dormancy of seeds encouraging early germination
(iii) Retention of fruits
(iv) Induce or initiate flowering in plants
(v) They stimulate or initiate root formation
(vi) They prevent fruit fall.
(vii) They inhibit the growth of lateral buds
(viii) It causes apical dorminance
(ix) Influence tropic responses in plants
(x) Stimulates cell division
(xi) Promote fruit ripening
(xii) Inhibit abscission or leaf fall
(xiii) Renewal of cambium activity
(xiv) Induces pathenocarpy (fruiting without fertilization)

2. Gibberellin: This is a plant hormone which produced in young foliage leaves

and root apices of roots and stems, embryo.
Functions
(i)Stimulates cell division e.g. growth of fruits and auxiliary buds
(ii) Stimulates cell elongation e.g. stem growth
(iii) Induces dormant seeds to germinate
(iv) Increases plant growth, flower and fruit size e.g. when sprayed on
flowering grape vine to induce the development of seedless grapes and
increase the fruit size.
(v) Production of fruits without fertilization.
3. Cytokinins: These are a kind of plant hormones produced in actively growing
tissues such as embryos, developing roots and fruits
Functions
i. They stimulate cell division
ii. They stimulate the development of shoot buds from cells
iii. They promote the growth of lateral buds
iv. They retard (slow down) aging of plant organs
 v. They break dormancy in some seeds
vi. They induce flowering in some plants
vii. They stimulate growth in leaves
viii. They increase resistance of plants to diseases
ix. Cytokininins and auxins interact to produce cell division and cell
enlargement.
4. Ethylene (ethene): This is a gaseous growth regulator produced in leaves
stems and young fruits.
Functions
i. Inhabits stem elongation
ii. Accelerates the abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits
iii.Causes the changes that take place during ripening of fruit
iv.It hastens the ripening of fruits
v. It is associated with the process of ageing of plant organs
vi.Retards the growth of axillary buds.
5. Abscisic acid or Dormin:It is also known as growth inhibitor. It is produced in
many parts of the plant such as stem, leaf, seed and fruits.
The effects opposes those of auxin, gibberellins and cytokinnins
Functions
i. It inhibits bud development and growth.
ii. It inhibits mitosis in meristematic cells, such as vascular cambium
iii. It causes dormancy in seeds
iv. It stimulates the formation of the abscission layer which leads to fruit fall, leaf
and flower fall.
v. Control opening and closing of stomata

Experiment to show that Auxins are produced in the Apical cells of a shoot
Aim: To show that auxins are produced in the apical cells of a shoot
Materials: 3 potted seedlings of maize labeled A, B, C, Agar block, sharp knife,
mica sheet or Aluminium foil or slip
Methods:
1. Cut tips of shoot in A to serve as a control experiment and leave decapitated
shoot for about 48 hours.
2. Select another potted seedling B, and cut off tip of shoot (coleoptiles)
3. Place the cut tip on an agar block for about 2-6 hours.
4. Place agar block on stump of the decapitated shoot and leave for about 48
hours
5. Select a third seedling C and cut off tip of the shoot
6. Place tip of the cut shoot on mica sheet for 2-6 hours
7. Place mica sheet on cut surface of decapitated shoot and leave for about 48
hours
Observation
1. Growth ceased in decapitated shoot A
2. When agar block was placed in stump of B in which growth had stopped,
growth resumed.
3. When mica sheet was placed on stump of sheet C in which growth had
stopped, growth did not resume.
Conclusion
This shows that a chemical substance (auxin) produced at the tip or apical cell
of the shoot is responsible for the growth of the shoot. Auxin is produced at the
apical cells of a shoot.

In animal, growth is regulated by 2 hormone.

1. Pituitary hormone: This has a very important effect on growth. If the pituitary
gland is removed from a young animal, it ceases to grow and fails to develop
sexually.

Functions of Pituitary gland

i. Stimulates growth / growth of long bone
ii. Stimulates production of sex - hormones
iii.Stimulates production of anti-diuretic hormone / regulation of water re-
absorption in the kidney
iv.Produces hormones which control endocrine glands
v. Induces birth by contraction of uterine muscle / production of oxytocin
vi.Induces milk secretion / production of prolactin
vii. Controls egg and sperm production
2. Thyroxine: The thyroxine also has a strong effect on growth. It is secreted
from the thyroid gland.
Function
i. If an animal does not growth a normal size
ii. Thyroxine stimulates mental growth development
iii.In frogs, if tadpoles do not produce enough thyroxine, they will not
metamorphose into adult frogs. If they produce too much thyroxine,
metamorphosis is faster than normal.
iv.Too much thyroxine causes hyperactivity. The individual eats too much and is
too active and loses weight.
Tutorial Question
Explain how light brings about tropic movement in the stem and root of a
flowering plant.
Answer to tutorial: How light brings about Tropic Movement
On the stem
When unilateral light falls on the stem, the auxin hormone is displaced from the
lighted side to the dark side. The increase in auxin concentration on the dark
side, increases growth on that side causing the stem to bend towards the light
i.e. positive phototropism.
In the root
When unilateral light falls on the root, the auxin is displaced from the lighted
side to the darkside increase in the auxin concentration retard growth in dark
side causing the root to bend away from the light i.e. negative phototropism.
What Happens to a growing seedling placed horizontally
When a growing seedling is placed horizontally, the shoot bends upwards
showing a negative geotropism or positive phototropism but the root bends
downward showing positive geotropism or negative phototropism.
MODERN APPLICATION OF AUXIN IN AGRICULTURE
1. High concentration of auxin can be used to spray weed because it is an
effective weed killer i.e. it can be used for weed control.
2. It can be used to cause flowers to develop into fruits without fertilization i.e.
parthenocarpy.
3. It is also used in ripening of fruits i.e. auxin can be applied artificially to make
fruit ripeuniformly when they are picked unripe and stored in an atmosphere
of carbondioxide. The auxin is added to make them ripe uniformly.
4. It also stem cuttings which are dipped in auxin solution of appropriate
concentration are capable of initiating root development.
5. It prevents fruit fall.
MODERN APPLICATION OF GIBBERELLIN IN AGRICULTURE
When sprayed on flowering grape vines gibberellins induce flower development
of seedless grapes and also increase fruit size
MODERN APPLICATION OF CYTOKININ IN AGRICULTURE
It prevents yellowing in stored green vegetables

MODERN APPLICATION OF ABSCISIC ACID IN AGRICULTURE

When sprayed on fruit crop it induces them to fall at the same time
MODERN APPLICATION OF ETHENE OR ETHYLENE IN AGRICULTURE
It helps to ripen stored unripe fruits artificially when needed

IRRITABILITY
A living organism is sensitive. It is able to react and respond to change in its
environment and with itself. Some of these changes are due to abiotic factors in
the environment.
Irritability therefore, can be defined as the ability of living organisms to respond
to stimulus and changes in the environment (i.e. external and internal
environment). A stimulus is any change in external and internal environmental
conditions which can bring about a response in a cell or organism.

Kinds of stimuli
There are two kinds of stimuli
1. External stimulus
2. Internal stimulus
External stimulus
This is the stimulus that is coming from outside the body e.g. abiotic factors like
light, temperature, gravity, touch, water and chemical substances i.e. food and
water
Internal stimulus
This is the stimulus within the body e.g. changes in metabolic conditions,
disease condition, sexual urges.
Generally, organisms have the means of detecting stimuli. In animals, stimuli
are detected by special cells called receptor e.g. those found in human skin or
sense organs.
Plants has no specialized system for detecting stimulus, rather it is the
protoplasm of the young cells of the shoot and root apices that acts as a
receptor of external stimuli.
The responses made by an animal are generally shown by movements. Either
the whole organism moves or part of the organism moves towards or away from
the stimulus.
If the organism moves towards the stimulus, it is called positive response while
those that move away from the stimulus shows negative response.

Types of response
Movement is response to external stimuli may be
i. Nastic movement
ii. Tactic movement
iii.Tropic or tropism movement
Types of responses
1. Nastism
2. Tactism / Taxism
3. Tropism
Nastic movement in plant
These are non-directional movement shown by a part of a stationary plant in
response to a non-directional stimuli which is usually described as “diffuse”.
Examples of Nastic movement are:
i. The closing up of the leaves of a mimosa plant on being touched.
ii. The closing up of the lid of a pitcher plant on the entry of an insect.
iii.The sleeping movement of the leaves of the flamboyant tree in response to
low light intensity and temperature
Tactic Movement
It is a directional movement in which the whole organism moves in response to
external stimuli movement can be negative or positive.
Examples of tactic responses are:
i. Phototaxis –light
ii. Hydrotaxis – water
iii. Chemotaxix – chemical
iv. Gectaxis – gravity
v. Rheotaxis – Current
 vi. Thermotaxis - Temperature
Tactic movements occur in motile organism and in motile parts of organisms
e.g. sperms
i. Phototaxis
It is movement in response to light stimulus by organisms e.g. euglena,
chlamydomonas, swim towards low light intensity (+ve phototaxis) and away
from high light intensity (-ve phototaxis). Earth worms wriggle away from light
(+ve phototaxis).
ii. Hydrotaxis
Is the response of a whole organism in response to stimulus of water / humidity
e.g wood louse moves towards areas of high humidity and frogs too (+ve
hydrotaxis)
iii.Chemotaxis
Is the movement of organism in response to a chemical stimuli e.g. sperms of
seed weed swims towards the chemical produced by the egg cell (+ve
chemotaxis). Adult mosquito, Amoeba, paramecium all move away from
chemical (-ve chemotaxis).

iv.Thermotaxis
e.g. motile bacteria swims from cold region to warm regions (+ve thermotaxis)
Tropic or tropism movement
They are directional movement movements shown by a part of a stationary
plant in response to a directional stimulus. The stimulus is usually applied from
one direction and the response is also made in one definite direction. The
response may be towards the stimulus (positive) or away from it (negative). The
stimulus is therefore, unilateral (from one direction) and the response is
directional.
Types of tropic responses
The types of tropic responses are named according to the type of stimulus
involved. They are:
(i) Geotropism – gravity
(ii) Phototropism – light
(iii) Hydrotropism – water (Root bends towards moisture)
(iv) Thigmotropism – Touch (also Haptotropism)
(v) Chemotropism – chemical
(vi) Thermotropism – temperature etc
(a) Geotropism
This is the growth response shown by the tip of roots and stems of a plant.
Experiment has shown that root of the plant grows to the stimulus of gravity
while shoot grows away from gravity (-ve geotropism).
Drawing of experiment to show effect of gravity on plants
Effect of Gravity on Plant Growth
The main root grows down in response to gravity, that is, positively geotropic.
The main stem or shoot grows upward away from gravity, that is, negatively
geotropic

Experiment to demonstrate the effect of gravity on the root of a plant

(A)
(1) Select germinating bead seedling and put them on a moist or wet
blotting paper
(2) Pin 1 seedling in an horizontal position
(3) Place another seedling in a vertical position with the radical pointing
upward
(4) Place the third upward vertically with radical pointing upwards to serve
as a control experiment
(5) After 2 to 3 days it would be observed that the radical of the seedling
placed horizontal bends or grows downward
(6) The radical of the seedling placed vertically, bends or grows upward
indicating positive geotropism
(7) The seedling placed vertically with radical facing downwards aid not
bend.

(B)
(1)Take a clinostat and two bean seedlings
(2)Pin a seedling on damp moist or wet corn of the clinostat
(3)Pin the other seedling on damp, wet or moist blotting paper attached to
the cotton tile
 (4)start the motor of the clinostat
(5)Observe the seedling after 8 to 10 hours
(6)It will be observed that the radical of the seedling placed horizontally
bends or grows downward
(7)Indicating or showing positive geotropism

Experiment to demonstrate Geotropism response of shoots and roots

AIM: To demonstrate geotropic response of shoots and roots
APPARATUS: Beaker, soil and seedlings
METHOD: Some bean seedlings were grown in a beaker containing soil. The
beaker was then placed on its side in a dark cupboard. The side of the beaker
facing upwards was marked and the arrangement left for 2 days.
After 2 days, the beaker was removed from the cupboard and the seedlings
were examined
OBSERVATION: It was noticed that the shoots have grown upward i.e. towards
the side of the beaker that was marked thus demonstrating negative geotropic
response.
To examine the direction of growth of the roots, a few of the seedlings were
gently upward and examined. It was seen that the main root (primary root) has
grown downwards, they from the marked side of the beaker, thus exhibiting a
positive geotropic response.
CONCLUSION: Since the root of the plants grow towards gravity, it is said to be
positively geotropic while the shoot grows away from gravity so it is negatively
geotropic.
NOTE: The instrument used to demonstrate geotropism is known as clinostat.

(b)Phototropism
This is a growth movement which the tip of shoot and roots show to the stimulus
of light. The shoot of plant grows towards light (+ve phototropism) while the
root grows away from light (-ve phototropism)
Experiment to demonstrate Phototropism response of shoots and roots
AIM: To demonstrate phototropic response of shoots using seedlings.
APPARATUS: Blacked box, germinated seedlings, light
METHOD: A few seedlings with actively growing shoots are placed vertically in a
closed blackened box which has a mall opening on one side for the entry of
light.
OBSERVATION: after sometimes, it will be seen that there is a bending of shoot
towards the direction of the light rays.
CONCLUSION: Since the shoot bends towards the rays of light it shows positive
response.
(c) Thigmotropism
This is a response shown by plants organ to the stimulus of touch especially by
weak-stemmed plants such as yam, morning glory, pumpkin and a good number
of plants having tendrils. Many plants have tendrils which twist round a support
(as positive response to touch), on the other hand the root tips grows away
from stems or other obstacles in the soil (as a negative response to touch).
Note: Parts of higher plants that can respond to stimuli are: flowers, leaf, root,
stem and tendril.

Differences between tropic and nastic movement

Tropic Movement Nastic Movement
1 Movement is not reversible Movement is reversible
2 It is a growth movement Not Movement is not reversible
3 Movement are not due to changes in Movement are due to changes in
cell turgor/ cell turgidity cell turgor/ cell turgidity
4 Response is towards the direction of Response is directed stimulus or
the stimulus or responds to unilateral responds to diffuse stimulus
stimulus
5 Response is slow Response is fast
6 Directional/ positive/ Negative Non-directional/neither positive
response non Negative response

MOVEMENT
Movement is an activity which results in a change of shape, form or position. It
is one of the characteristics of living things. There are several kinds of
movement.
Cyclosis (Protoplasmic streaming)
The flowing of the cytoplasm in living cells from one part of the cell to the other
is known as protoplasmic streaming (cyclosis).
Protoplasmic streaming helps in the circulation of materials within a cell.
Protoplasmic streaming is brought about by two (2) actions.
Cytoplasm can exist in a fairly liquid form called Plasmosol or in fairly solid form
called plasmagel . The first thing which happens in cytoplasmic streaming is that
the cytoplasm changes from plasmagel to plasmosol from the anterior end to
the posterior end.
Organelles for movement are flagella, cilia is found in the gullet of paramecium
in the cells of living organisms in the human wind pipe.
The cytoplasm exerts pressure at the posterior end on the plasmosol, as it is
formed causing it to flow forward. At the anterior end of the streaming
plasmosol is again converted to plasmagel.
Functions of cyclosis
1. In the cytoplasm, there are many organelles each is bounded by a different
permeable membrane and separated from each other. Therefore, the
interchange of materials between the organelles is partly by cyclosis.
2. The chloroplasts of some plants move independently (when the source of light
is altered) by cyclosis thereby placing their broad surface parallel or
perpendicular to the surface of the leaf in order to receive sufficient sunlight
for photosynthesis.
3. The streaming of the food vacuole in paramecium is brought about by
cyclosis.

Movement in euglena
Euglena carries out two methods of movement. These are slow creeping
(euglenoid) movement and flagella movement.
i. Slow creeping (euglenoid) movement
This type of movement is carried out by gradual change of the shape of the
whole cell. Firstly, the posterior end of the cell is drawn forward making the cell
to be rounded and then the anterior end of the cell is extended, thus making
euglena to creep forward.
ii. Flagella movement
This is by the lasting of the flagellum by rowing or undulating motion which
makes the flagellum to draw back water and propels the animal forward rapidly.
Movement in hydra
1. Swaying
2. Swimming
 3. Gliding: Alternate contraction and elongation of the muscles of the basal
disc results in a gliding movement of the animal.
4. Looping
5. Somersaulting
Movement in birds
Most birds move by flying use of their feathers (i.e. quill feather).
The wings of birds which act as aerofoils are convex above and concave below.
Adaptation of the flight or quill feather for flight
1. Vane is stiff to enable it withstand air pressure during flight
2. Vane is brood to provide a large surface arera for air lift
3. Vane is made up of barbs interlocked by barbules, providing air tight surface
for flight.
4. The quill is light and hollow for buoyancy.
5. It is water proof, to prevent birds from getting wet.
Structures of biological importance of the quill feather
1. Presence of quill feather serves as water proof or protection and also keep the
bird warm
2. Vane is flat and broad to provide surface area for flapping during flight and
against dessication.
3. Rachis / shaft is centrally placed to provide point of attachment to the barbs
4. Overlapping arrangement of quill feather over the body of birds allows smooth
movement and little resistance in flight
5. Coloration of quill feather for courtship display / camouflage.
6. The barbs with hook interlocks to form vane

REPRODUCTION
This is a process whereby new individuals / generation are produced by matured
individuals/ organisms of the same species / kinds, in order to ensure the
continuity of species. It also involves the transmission of genetic materials from
one generation to the next.
To ensure that living organisms do not go into extinction, they have resorted to
the production of new individuals resembling themselves.
Types of reproduction
i. Sexual reproduction
ii. Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
This involves one matured parent which divides to produce two or more
daughter cell, each having hereditary traits identical to those of the parent
without the production of gametes.
It ensures rapid increase in number. It is common in simple organisms as well
as flowering plants. Asexual reproduction occurs under a favourable
environmental condition and when food is plenty.
Asexual reproduction often produces clones i.e. offspring which are identical to
the parent but if they are not identical it might be as a result of mutation.
Sexual reproduction
It is the fusion (joining) of male and female gametes (sex cell) from different
individuals of the same species to form a zygote, which later develops into an
embryo organism.

Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
i. Gametes are formed No gametes formed
ii. Zygote is formed No zygote is formed
Iii Fusion / fertilization occurs No fusion / fertilization occurs
iv. Two matured individuals are required One matured individual are
required
V There is variation in the offspring No variation in the offspring
(identical)
vi. Less offspring produced More offspring produced
vii. Has resistance stages to tide over Rarely has resistant stage.
adverse conditions
Types of asexual reproduction
Methods of asexual reproduction include:
i. Binary fission
ii. Spore formation
iii. Budding
iv. Fragmentation
v. Vegetative propagation
Binary fission: In this type of asexual reproduction the matured parent organism
divides by mitosis into two (binary) halves. Each half develops into a new
individual. Binary fission is common in unicellular organisms such as bacteria,
amoeba, paramecium, chlamydomonas. Their adaptation to the new
environment is very fast.
Spore formation: some multicellular and unicellular organisms produces spores
which are small and large in number. They are also light and can be easily
dispersed by water, air, winds and animals. Under favourable conditions each
spore can develop into an independent organism. Spores are commonly
produced by bacteria, fungi, mosses, ferns, algae. Spores are produced in a
structure called sporangia. The sporangia are borne at the ends of upright hypae
called sporangiophores.
Sometimes, under adverse conditions, amoeba encysts within the cyst, the
protoplasm divides into many parts, each surrounded by a resistant coat to form
a spore. When conditions become suitable again, the cyst burst and each spore
develops into new individual.

Drawing of spore formation in rhizopus

Budding: In this method, the matured parent organism form an outgrowth

(bud), then grows into a new organism and detach itself from the parent e.g
yeast, hydra, annelids.
Drawing showing budding in Hydra
 Drawing of budding in yeast

Fragmentation: in this method, a part of an organism breaks up (fragments) into

many pieces and each piece grows into a new individual e.g. spirogyra, sponges
Vegetative propagation: This is the development of new plants from some of the
parent plant part of plants. These parts include the stems, roots and leaves.
They occur mainly in higher plants. Vegetative propagation can be classified as
the natural and artificial vegetative reproduction.
Natural vegetative reproduction
It has Underground stems which include rhizome, corm, sucker and bulb.
(i)Rhizome: It is underground horizontally growing stem with food reserves. The
stem bears axillary buds and terminal buds. Leaves and flowers are produced
at the growing tips. It has scale leaves (perennating organ), nodes and
internodes and adventitious roots e.g canal lily, ginger, some grasses etc.
A parennating organ is one that can be used to propagate a new one.
Adaptive features of Ginger
1. scale leaves for protection
2. Buds for propagation of growth
3. Adventitious root for anchorage or absorption of nutrient
4. Modified stem for storage of food
Diagram of Ginger
(ii) Corms: Underground shoot, swollen underground stem that grows vertically.
It has terminal buds, lateral buds, adventitious roots, internodes and scale
leaves e.g. cocoyam, caladium etc.
Adaptive features of Corm
1. Buds for proapagation
2. Scale leaves for protection
3. Adventitious roots for anchorage or absorption of nutrient
4. Modified stem for storage of food
Drawing of Corm
(iii) Stem tuber: They are modified underground root at the tip of the lateral
branches grows from axillary buds situated at the lower buried portion of the
main stem.
As the branches grows upwards this accumulates to form swollen tuber
(parennating organs). Mainly it is the axillary buds on the tuber that grows into
new aerial shoot e.g. yam, irish potato etc.
Drawing of yam-stem tuber

(iv) Root tubers

These are modified roots which grow underground and act as food storage
organs. It is the adventitious roots on tuber that grows into new plants e.g.
cassava, sweet potato etc.
Note: Carrot has a tap root and fibrous root attached to the tap root. It is
slender and yellow (orange)
Drawing of cassava –root tuber
(v) Sucker
This is an underground stem that grows horizontally to the ground level. It
produces new aerial shoot as well as adventitious root from the terminal bud
e.g. banana, pine apple.

(vi) Bulbs
These are condensed shoots fleshy leaves. The stem is very short and never
grows above the ground. At the beginning of a new season a new adventitious
root develops from the base of the stem and grows into the soil. The terminal
and axillary buds are supplied with food stored in the fleshy leaf which later
grows above the soil to produce a new aerial shoot. The food manufactured by
the new shoot is deposited at the base of the new leaves. Hence forming new
bulbs e.g. onion, garlic, lily.
Drawing of the longitudinal section of an onion bulbs
Vegetative propagation is by the terminal or lateral bud which sprouts into new
arial shoot. The onion bulb stores sucrose and vitamins
Adaptive features
1. Scale leaves for protection
2. fleshy leaves for storage of food
3. Adventitious root for anchorage or absorption of nutrient
4. Terminal or axillary bud for growth of propagtion
2. Runner: Creeping stems which on the surface of the soil. They produce
adventitious roots whenever their nodes touches the ground. If the internodes
die, the buds develop into new independent plant e.g. sweet potato, some
grasses

3. Bulbils: Bulbils are detachable buds. They grow on parts of some plants such
as the inflorescence of sisal, the stems of some wild yam and leaves of
kalanchue. When mature, the bulbils drop to the ground take root and grow into
a new plant e.g. Bryophyllum leaf, wild yam.
Biological significance of Bryophyllum
1. For vegetative reproduction
2. Storage organ (stores water, mineral salt etc)
3. Characteristic of parent plant are preserved
4. It can photosynthesize
Bryophyllum is propagated vegetatively by the sprouting of the adventitious
buds of margins of leaves
Drawing of Bryophyllum

Note: strobilization
A jelly fish and a tapeworm young individuals are produced from special zones
of an active cell division called Meristematic zone of elder animals (stock) by the
process called strobilation. The young ones remain undetached for sometime
and at times until maturity. The stock and its product therefore becomes chain-
like in appearance with younger segment or strobil, near the stock.
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Methods of artificial vegetative propagation includes:
i. Layering
ii. Marcotting
iii. Cutting
iv. Grafting

i. Layering
A branch or shoot growing near to the ground is bent over so that one or two of
the nodes could touch the ground. A slit is made on the node and the branch
pegged to secure it in position. The node is covered with soil. Adventitious roots
grows out of the node.
When the roots are well established, the stem is secured from the parent plant
and transplanted to the field to become a new plant. Examples of plants
propagation by layering are tomato, cocoa, kolar and coffee.
 (ii) Marcotting
In this, not grows from the part of a branch at which a ring of tissue has been
removed. This branch can then grow into a new plant. This method is used to
propagate garden shrubs and fruit trees like mango and lemon.
 (iii) Grafting
This is a kind of propagation where a plant is formed on another plant. There
are two.
Types of grafting
(a)Bud Grafting (budding): In this, a bud on a parent is inverted into the stem
of another plant, the bud is called the scion and the new plant is called the
stock e.g. grape fruit. Make a T-shaped curve of the size of the bud on the
stock and expose cambium.
(b)Stem grafting
In stem grafting, a small branch with a bud is cut off, this is the sawn. It is
inverted into the stem of another growing plant, which is the stock, the two are
bent in position e.g. oragnge.

Advantages of vegetative propagation

1. Plants formed are like their parents. This enables the desirable quality to be
maintained.
2. It enables plant without seeds to reproduce
3. Offspring grows fast and matures on time
4. Desirable qualities of parent plants are retained
5. Young plants uses food reserves of the parent as it becomes established
6. Only one matured parent is needed
7. They are less susceptible to adverse weather condition
8. Growth in young plants is rapid since there is no resting period.
9. Needs no pollination
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation
1. Overcrowding occurs which leads to competition
2. There is no opportunity for variation and new desirable quality
3. Offspring may not do well in a different environment
4. No hybrid vigor (No variation)
5. Defects in parents are transmitted to offspring
6. Reduce resistance to disease.
Sexual Reproduction
Is the fusion or joining of male and female gametes or sex cell from two
different individuals of the same species to form a zygote.
Gametes are formed by a kind of cell division called meiosis in which the
chromosome number is half. Hence the gametes cell is said to contain a haploid
number of chromosome.
The fusion of two haploid gamete is known as fertilization the resulting cell is a
single cell ZYGOTE which a diploid number of chromosomes. The zygote then
divides and develops to produce the offspring whose somatic cells are all diploid.
When the fusion gametes are very similar in appearance e.g. in lower forms of
organisms, they are called ISOGAMETES. Sexual reproduction is isogametes is
called CONJUGATION e.g. chlymadomonas, paramecium, spirogyra and
rhizopus.
When the fusing gametes are truly different, they are called HETEROGAMETES.
Sexual reproduction in heterogametes is like fertilization; it is usually in male
amnd female forms. The male produces sperm while the female produces
egg/ova.
Conjugation
This is the fusion of two similar cells or isogametes during which there is an
exchange of nuclear material from one cell to another. The resulting zygote is
called zygospore.
In lower animals and plants e.g. protozoa, fungi and algae, there is no formation
of specialized reproductive organs called Gonads. The male gametes is known as
the known as the sperm and it is produced in the testes by meiotic cell division
called spermatogenesis.
Reproduction in Rhizopus
Rhizopus reproduces by two methods:
Asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
For asexual reproduction to occur, the tip of each sporangiophore enlarges to
form the sporangium. Within the sporangium lies a number of spores. Each
spore has a few nuclei and resistant wall. The central part of the sporangium is
occupied by a cone shape structure called the columella.
The wall of the sporangium gradually darkens as the spores ripen. The wall later
ruptures and the spores are liberated and as they are very light, they are easily
carried away by the wind.
When these spores fall on suitable substrate, each one germinates. Germination
follows the absorption of water by spores. The wall of spore ruptures and a
delicate hypha grows out of it. The new hypha elongates rapidly and branches
repeatedly to give rise to a new mycelium.

Sexual Reproduction
This is also known as conjugation. It occurs when the hyphae of two different
mycelia come into contact with each other.
In rhizopus, for conjugation to occur, the hyphae of one mycelium must be a
plus (+) strain while those of the other must be a minus (-) one i.e. through the
hyphae of the two mycelia are similar structurally, they are physiologically
different. However, they cannot be considered as male or female, sincethere is
no morphological distinction between the gametes or the structures which
produce them.
When the two hyphae come into contact with each other, each one gives out a
short side branch or projections on their walls which develop into the
progametangium (plural: progametangia) at the point of contact with several
nuclei.

(a) The progametangia come into contact with each other.

(b) Cross-wall formation occurs to divide into 2 parts resulting in the formation
of gametangia. The portion which connects the gametangium with the rest
of the mycelium is known as the SUSPENSOR
(c) The cross wall at the point of contact dissolves to form a single cell. This
allows the contents of the two gametangia to mix. The nuclei fuse together
in pairs and the whole structures increase in size and form a zygote
The zygote develop a thick wall to form a resistant zygospore

(d) A thick – walled zygospore is formed and when the zygospore is ripe, t is
easily detached from the two parent plants and carried away by the wind.

(e) Under favourable condition the zygospore germinates rapidly into hyphae
which bear sporangia.
Sexual reproduction is a means by which the fungus can with stand
unfavourable conditions. The thick warty coat of the zygospore enables delicate
material inside to resist drought and intense heat.
SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

SKELETON
This is the hardened structure or framework which gives support, shape and
protection to the delicate part of the body of an organism. The main types of
material found in the skeleton of animals are chitin, cartilage and bone.
i. Chitin / cuticle: this is tough, light and flexible material found mainly in
the skeleton of arthropods. It is a carbohydrate that is very similar to
cellulose (cell sap). It is freely permeable.
ii. Cartilage: It is found in the skeleton of complex vertebrates. It is a
tough and flexible tissue which has great tensile strength. It acts as a
shock absorber i.e cushioning the effects of bones moving against
bones when animal moves. Cartilage form the entire skeletal system of
some animals e.g. sharks. There are basically three types of cartilage
in mammals;
(a)Hyaline cartilage
(b)Fibro cartilage
(c) Elastic cartilage
Hyaline cartilage: This makes up the rings which support the trachea and
bronchi and keep them dilated or open. It also covers the surfaces of moveable
joints and supports the protruding part of the nose.
Fibro cartilage: It is tougher than the hyaline cartilage and is found in the disc
between the small bones of the vertebral column.
Elastic cartilage: It is found in the external ear (pinna), epiglottis. It also
supports the Eustachian tube and the external ear canal.
(iii) Bone: This is the major component of the vertebrate skeleton and it consists
of living bone cells (osteocytes), protein, fibres and mineral salts mainly calcium,
2
phosphate and calcium carbonate: the minerals make up 3 of the mass of a
bone. Hence, the bone is a stronger and more rigid tissue than cartilage.
However, unlike the cartilage, the bone have their own blood supply to nourish
them.
Ossification is the hardened of the cartilage tissue into bones through the
addition of mineral salts e.g. in a growing young vertebrate.
Differences between bones and cartilage
S/ Bone Cartilage
N
1 It is made up of living and non- It is made up of mainly living cells
living cells
2 It is not flexible It is very flexible
3 It is made up of mainly mineral It is not made up of mainly mineral
salts salts
4 Bone cannot be replaced by Cartilage can be replaced by bone
cartilage
TYPES OF SKELETON
The main types of skeleton in animals are:
(a)Hydrostatic skeleton
(b)Exoskeleton
(c) endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton
Soft – bodied animals like slug, caterpillar, earthworm, leeches, sea anemons etc
use fluid pressure to provide support. These tubular animals have a muscular
body wall. This fluid inside presses against the muscular body wall causing
muscles to contract, exerting a force against the fluid. Fluid helps to maintain
the shape and form of the animal and is known as hydrostatic skeleton.
Exoskeleton
This is secreted by the cells covering the body of the animal. The main
component is chitin which is sometimes strengthened by deposits of protein and
mineral salts especially calcium carbonate.
Exoskeleton is made up of series of plates or tubes attached to joints by sheet
of unmodified chitin. This makes the exoskeleton flexible which is important for
movement.
The living animal is attached to the exoskeleton by muscles hence, the
exoskeleton support the animals against gravity at the same time in conjunction
with the muscles enables the animal to move about. Animals with exoskeleton
moults periodically i.e. they shed their old exoskeleton and grow rapidly in size
while the new exoskeleton are still soft and extensible. Moulting is also known
as ecdysis.
Endoskeleton
This is an internal bony framework, found mainly in all vertebrates with the
exception of cartilaginous species, the endoskeleton of vertebrates are
composed mainly of bones. Unlike exoskeleton, bones are living tissues they
grow steadily as the animal grows, so that moulting is not necessary.
Bones of many shapes and sizes make up the endoskeleton of the vertebrates.
These bones are attached together at moveable joint by tough flexible fibre
called ligaments.
Functions of the skeleton
1. For protection of delicate organs e.g. the skull protecting the brain, the
vertebral column protects the spinal cord, the ribcage in the thoracic
region protects the heart.
2. Gives shape to the body
3. It gives support and rigidity to the body
4. The skeleton brings about breathing movement e.g. the ribcage
5. It is a site for attachment of muscle
6. Red blood cells are produced in the marrow of long bones
7. It stores mineral salts like calcium carbonate and phosphate

Drawing of human skeleton

Vertebrate skeleton
The skeleton of vertebrate can be classified into two (2)
i. Axial skeleton
ii. Appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton: It consists of the skull, vertebral column (backbone), sternum
(breast bone) and the ribs.
Appendicular skeleton: It consists of the forelimbs, hind limbs, pelvic girdle,
pectoral girdle.
The Axial skeleton
1. Vertebral column: This is made up of several small bones known as
vertebrae (singular: vertebra). There are 33 vertebrae in man and 44-47
in rabbit due to the presence of a tail.
Each vertebra is separated from the one above and the one below by a
compressible pad of cartilage known as intervertebral disc. The vertebrae
are held together by sheet of tough fibrous materials called ligaments.
They can therefore only move slightly in relation to each other.
The vertebrae are:
i. Cervical vertebrae: Neck region
ii. Thoracic vertebrae: chest region
iii. Lumbar vertebrae: upper region
iv. Sacral vertebrae: lower abdominal region
v. Caudal vertebrae: tail region
Types of vertebrae
S/N Types Location Man rabbit Rat
1 Cervical Neck 7 7 7
2 Thoracic Chest 12 13 13
3 Lumbar Upper abdominal 5 7 6
4 Sacral Lower abdominal 5 3-4 4
5 Caudal Tail 4 16 27-30
Total 33 45 -46 57-60
Features of a typical vertebrae
The vertebrae are all built basically on the same pattern but have undergone
slight variations in different positions in the column so as to be able to perform
specific function.
A typical vertebra has the following features
(a) Centrum: solid piece of bone found at the ventral / anterior part. It is
for strengthening.
(b) Neural canal: Passage / hole of the spinal cord
(c) Neural arch: it forms an arch over the centrum and surrounding the
neural canal it provides surface for muscular attachment.
(d) Neural spine: Project upwards, dorsally from the neural arch. For
muscle attachment
(e) Transverse processes: lateral projects from the sides of the neural arch
for muscle attachment.
(f) Zygapophysis: These are articular surfaces for adjacent vertebrae.
Those facets at the anterior part is known as pre-zygapophyses while
the one at the porterior end is known as post –zygapophyses.
Cervical vertebrae
They have short neural spine and vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood
vessels. The first two are different and have special functions. The remaining 5
are called ordinary cervical vertebrae
Drawing of the anterior view of cervical vertebra

Atlas
It is the 1st cervical vertebra. It has the following features
i. Large neural canal
ii. Flat, broad transverse process
iii. No centrum
iv. Reduced neural spine
 v. Two large prezygapophysis
The atlas associates with the occipital condyle of the skull frontally.
The function is that it provides nodding movement of the head
Axis
This is the 2nd bone of the cervical vertebra. It is very different from the atlas. It
has the following features.
i. Broad thick centrum
ii. Odontoid process
iii. Large neural canal
iv. Small transverse process
The function is that it provides the rotational movement of the head
Differences between the atlas and the axis
S/N Atlas Axis
I It has no centrum Centrum is present
Ii Small neural spine Large neural spine
Iii Lack odontoid process Odontoid process present
Iv It has pointed cervical ribs It has flat cervical ribs
Drawing of the anterior view of Atlas vertebra

Drawing of the anterior view of Axis vertebra

 Drawing of the posterior view of the Axis vertebra

Thoracic vertebrae
These are found in the chest region. The features include:
i. Long prominent neural spine (distinguishing feature)
ii. Well developed transverse process
iii. Large neural canal
iv. Large centrum
v. Tuberculum and capitulum facets (distinguishing feature)
Functions
i. For muscle attachment
ii. For protection of spinal cord
iii. It provides points for attachment of rib bones
 Drawing of the anterior view of the thoracic vertebra

Drawing of the side view of the thoracic vertebra

Lumbar vertebrae
The features are:
i. Long transverse process directed forwards, downwards and outwards
ii. Large and thick centrum
iii. Broad flat neural spine
iv. Additional metapophysis and anapophysis
Function: For attachment of muscles of the abdomen
Drawing of the anterior view of the Lumbar vertebra
Drawing of the posterior view of the Lumbar vertebra
Sacral vertebrae
In adult rabbit and man these vertebrae are fused together to form a rigid
structure called sacrum.
The sacral vertebrae have the following features:
i. Large and fused
ii. Large centrum
iii. Narrow neural canal
iv. Neural spine reduced to small notch
v. Flat transverse process
The transverse process of the first sacral vertebra are large and wing like and
are firmly attached to the upper part of the pelvic girdle while the other sacral
vertebra are not joined to any part of the skeleton but are attached to the
muscles of the back.

Drawing of the dorsal view of the sacral vertebra

Caudal vertebrae
The number of caudal or tail vertebra varies from one animal to the other. Man
has 4 caudal vertebrae which are fused together to form coccyx while the
animals have some which are not fused together.
The caudal has the following features:
i. No neural spine
ii. No neural canal
iii. Small centrum
iv. Small or no transverse process
The skull
The mammalian skull is made up of several flat bones which are joined together.
The joints are called sutures.
The skull consists of 3 parts and they are:
i. Cranium which is the brain box
ii. Snout which is the face and supports the orbit which contains the eyes,
nose, ear and the muscle of the cheek.
iii. The jaws: the upper jaw called the maxilla and the lower jaw called
jaw called the mandible
The parts of the skull which are clearly visible are:
i. Premaxillae that makes up the upper jaw.
ii. Nasal bone that covers the side of the temple region
iii. Temporal bone that covers the side of the temple region
iv. Occipital bone that form the posterior part of the skull.
Fontanelles: Pulse beating is felt there on infant’s head. It allows movement of
the bones of the head, so that the head of the baby is properly shaped in order
to pass through the pelvic of the mother during delivery.
Drawing of the lateral view of the Human Skull

Ribs and Breast bone

A rabbit has 12 pairs attachment to the vertebral column at the back (dorsally)
and the breast bone (sternum) infront. The ribs are attached to the thoracic
vertebrae of the vertebrae coumn. Of the 12 pairs of ribs, the first (1 st) seven
are attached directly to the first seven thoracic vertebrae and the sternum. The
eighth and ninth pair of ribs is not attached directly to the sternum but to the
seventh pair of ribs in front. However, they are attached to the 8 th ad 9th thoracic
vertebra at the back.
It should be noted that the first seven ribs are called the true ribs, because they
are attached directly to the sternum while the 8 th and 9th ribs are called the false
ribs because they are not attached to the sternum directly but to the 7 th rib. The
last three pairs of ribs i.e 10th, 11th and 12th are attached to the vertebral
column only. They are not attached to the sternum either directly or indirectly.
Hence, they are known as floating ribs. The ribs, vertebral column and the
sternum together form the rib-cage of the thorax.
Each rib consists of 2 parts:
a. A bony part, known as the vertebrae part which is attached to the
corresponding thoracic vertebra.
b. A sternal part, made up of cartilage. This part is attached to the sternum.
The vertebral part of each rib ends in a fork, one arm of each is shorter than the
other. The shorter arm called the tuberculum articulates with the tubercular
facets of the corresponding thoracic vertebra. The other arm of the fork is called
the capitulum and this articulates with the capitular facets

Diagram of the anterior view of the ribs and their attachment in rabbit

Drawing of the chest region showing the ribs

Appendicular sketeton
The appendicular skeleton is composed of the pectoral girdle and the pelvic
girdle, the fore and hind limbs.
The pectoral girdle: This is made up of 2 halves each. It consists of a set of
bones that are attached transversely to the upper part of the vertebral column.
The two halves are not fused together, but attached firmly by muscles. Three
bones make up each half of the pectoral girdle – the scapula (or shoulder
blade), the coracoid and the clavicle (collar bone).
In mammal, the scapula and coracoid are fused together and are sometimes
referred to as the scapula coracoid while the clavicle remains a single unit.
The scapula is a triangular flat bone. The base of the triangle lies adjacent to
the vertebral column while the narrow apex lines at the shoulder. A cavity
known as the glenoid cavity occurs at the apex. This depression or cavity on the
scapula known as the glenoid cavity is the hole or cavity into which the head of
the humerus articulates to form the ball and socket joint.
Above the glenoid cavity is a small hook-shaped bone which represents the
reduced coracoid bone. On the outer surface of the scapula is a ridge or spine,
that runs from the base to the narrow apex near the glenoid cavity. It ends in
two projections known as the acromion and metacromion processes.
The later is larger of the two and is more posterior. Several muscles and
ligaments are attached to the two processes, the spine, the edges and the flat
surfaces of the scapula, so providing form support for the fore limbs.
One end of the clavicle is attached by ligaments to the inner side of the apex of
the scapula while the other end is attached to the sternum.
The pelvic girdle: It also consists of two halves each of which lies on either sides
of the vertebral column. In this way, it supports the hind limbs unlike the two
halves of the pectoral girdle, the left and right halves of the pelvic girdle are
fused in the median line in an area ventral to the vertebral column. The line of
fusion is known as the pubic symphysis. Each half of the girdle is known as the
the innominate bone and is composed of 3 bones – the ilium, the ischium and
the pubis.
The illium is the largest and longest of the three bones. Its inner dorsal edge is
firmly attached to the first sacral vertebra. The ischium and pubis are much
smaller than the illium, enclosing a hole between them known as the obturator
foramen. It is through this hole that nerves, blood vessels and muscles pass. On
the outer surface of each innominate bone, at the point where the 3 individual
bones meet is a hollow known as acetabulum. The head of the femur of each
hind limb fits or articulates into this cavity to form ball and socket joint.
 Diagram of the scapula bone

Drawing of the pelvic girdle of a rabbit

Drawing of the pectoral girdle of a rabbit

The pentadactyl limbs
The fore and hind limbs of all vertebrates are built on a basic pattern known as
the pentadactyl pattern and the limbs are therefore known as pentadactyl limbs.
This type of limb consist of a proximal long bone, followed by a pair of long
bones placed side by side, a set of a small bones in 3 rows, 5 thin long bones
and finally 5 digits (penta means 5 and dactyl means digits).
The tarsals are 8 in number. They are the ankle bones, they are arranged
in 2 rows. We have 3 behind, which articulate with the tibia and fibular in the
ankle and the metatarsals with the anterior to the fat metatarsals are 5 bones in
the foot. The first one is shorter than the remaining 4. The bones of the digits
are called phalanges in the foot, the first toe is called big toe has 2 phallanges
and the remaining 4 toes have 3 phallanges each in the hand we have 2
phallanges in the thumb and 3 in each of the 4 others. The metacarpals of the
thumb is shorter than the 4 others. There are 5 metacarpals in one hand.

Drawing of the pentadactyl limbs

The fore limbs
The upper arm consists of a long bone known as the humerus. The upper
(proximal) part of this bone ends in a distinct head which fits into the glenoid
cavity of the pectoral girdle to form the shoulder joint (i.e. the scapula forms the
ball and socket joint with humerus at the proximal end). The lower (distal) end
of this bone (i.e. humerus) ends in a grooved pulley like surface known as
trochlea.
The adjacent pair of bones, the radius and ulna make up the fore arm. They are
attached to the trochlea and the joint is known as the elbow joint (i.e ulna and
radius forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the distal end).
Two observable features of the humerous are:
i. It possesses head without neck
ii. Short shaft
The radius is a simple, narrow, long bone which is slightly curved. The ulna is
longer than the radius, it has a notch or cavity which fits into the trochlea of the
humerous. This cavity is known as the sigmoid cavity or the sigmoid notch.
Behind this cavity the extends to form a projection known as the olecranon
process or the elbow.
The wrist consists of a small irregular bones arranged in 3 rows. The proximal
row consist of 3 bones which articulates with the ulna and radius. The middle
row consists of one small bone and the distal row of 4 bones. There are actually
5 small bones in the distal row, but 2 of them have fused to form a single bone.
The bones of the wrist are known as carpals and the wrist itself is known as
carpus.
Following the 3rd row of 4 carpals are 5 long metacarpals which form the first
part of the hand. Each metacarpal bears a digit which is made up of smaller
bones known as the phalanges. There are therefore, 5 digits in all.
In man, these digits are known as fingers. The thumb is the shortest of the 5
digits and is made of 2 phalanges only. The other digits have three phalanges
each. The distal phalanx (plural: phalanges) of each digit ends in a sharp tough
claw.

Drawing of the posterior view of the humerus

 Drawing of the ulna and radius

The hind limb

The hind limb is built on the same pattern as the fore limbs, but has slight
variations.
It consists of the thigh, the shank and the hind foot. The thigh is made up of a
long bone, the femur. This bone is longer than the humerus of the fore limb.
It has a distinct head which fits into the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle to form
the hip joint.
The following are the observable features of the femur:
i. It is longer than the humerus
ii. Possesses a distinct head with short neck
iii. There is presence of great trochanter and lesser trochanter
iv. Presence of patella groove
v. Presence of condyle
The shank is formed by the tibia and fibula which are fused together in the
rabbit to form a single bone called tibia-fibula.
The proximal end of the tibia has 2 grooves into which the condyles of the
femur fits. The fibula is a narrow bone whose proximal end is independent but
whose distal end is fused to the tibia. A small triangular bone, the knee cap or
patella occurs at the junction of the tibia and femur. This junction is also known
as the knee joint.

Function of the femur

i. It supports the upper leg / thigh
ii. Formation of red blood cells / erythrocytes in the cells of the bone
marrow.
iii. Provides articulating surfaces for the tibia – fibula
iv. Forms ball and socket joint with the pelvic girdle
v. The patella groove articulates with the patella (knee cap)
Pelvic girdle is adapted to articulate with the femur in the following ways:
The concave articulating surface i.e. acetabulum is deep and admits the entire
head of the femur to form the ball and socket joint. The short neck suspending
the head of the femur assists in this union.
The ankle or tarsus is made up of 6 small bones called tarsals. This number is
arrived at from the original plan of a 9 by the fusion of 2 pairs of bones to form
2 bones and the reduction or loss of one in the distal row. The proximal tarsals
are elongated while one of them projects backwards to form heel bone.
The foot of the rabbit has only 4 digits. It follows, therefore, that there are only
4 metatarsals (bones of the foot)
Each of the digits consists of 3 small phalanges. Most mammals including man,
however have 5 metatarsals and 5 digits. In man, the digits are known as toes.
As in the digits of the forelimbs the distal phalanx of each of these digits ends in
a claw.
Drawing showing muscle and its attachment to the bones of the upper arm of a
human

Drawing of the anterior view of the femur

Functions of humerus
i. It provides surface for attachment for the extensor or triceps muscle
ii. It articulates with the scapula and ulna
iii. Red blood cells are manufactured in the bone cells of humerus
iv. Supratrochlea foramen provides a passage for blood vessels
v. For movement
Description of the scapula bone
i. It has a flat, broad and triangular shape.
ii. There is presence of reduced spine
iii. Presence of the suprascapula
iv. Presence of glenoid cavity
v. Presence of coracoid, acronium and metacromion process
Similarities between biceps and triceps
i. Both are skeletal or voluntary muscles
ii. Both are antagonistic in function
iii. Both originate from the scapula
iv. Both have tendons at their ends.
Differences between biceps and triceps
S/N Biceps Triceps
I It brings about flexing or upward It brings extension or straightening
movement of the arm of the hand
Ii It has two (2) insertion to the It has three (3) insertion to the
scapula scapula
iii Biceps is attached to the radius Triceps is attached to the ulna

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscles are elastic materials in the body made up of cells which are similar in
size and shape performing the same function. These cells are bounded together
by connective tissues.
Muscles are attached to the bones by tough tissues called tendon.
Types of muscles
i. Skeletal muscles e.g. striated or striped or voluntary muscle
ii. Cardiac muscles e.g. Heart or involuntary muscle
iii. Smooth muscles e.g. involuntary muscles found in the walls of intestine
(digestive, excretory muscles) and blood vessels.
Drawing of the human muscles

Muscular movement
Movement is brought about by contraction and relaxation of muscle. One end of
the muscle is attached to an immovable or rigid bone e.g. scapula. This is the
origin. The outer end is attached to a moveable bone e.g. radius. This is the
insertion.
The bending and straightening of the upper arm are brought about by biceps
and triceps muscles. The arm is straightened when triceps contracts and biceps
relaxes. When the biceps contracts and triceps relaxes, the upper arm is bent.
How muscles of the fore arm bring about movement
Muscles occur in pairs and they work antagonistically i.e. they work
together in opposite ways.
To bend the forearm when an impulse is received from the central
nervous system, the biceps of flexor contracts while the triceps or extensors
relaxes. The contraction of the biceps brings pulling on the radius,
simultaneously making the triceps to relax thereby bending the forearm.
 To straighten the forearm, the tricep muscles contracts and pulls on the
ulna, simultaneously the biceps relaxes, this brings about straightening of the
forearm.
Drawing of the muscle when straightening the forearm

Drawing of the muscle when bending the forearm

JOINT
A joint is a place where 2 or more bones meet or articulates. There are two
types of joints namely:
1. Immovable joint: These are fixed joint that will not allow any movement
e.g. found in the skull and pelvic girdle.
 2. Movable joint: These type of joint allows wide range of movement. They
are:
(a) Ball and socket joint: This allows movement in all directions. It is
found at the shoulder between the scapula and humerus and also
found at the hip between the pelvis and femur
(b) Hinge joint: It allows movement in one plane or direction. It is
found at the knee between femur, tibia and fibula and at the elbow
between humerus, ulna and radius.
(c) Gliding and sliding joint: It allows slight movement e.g. wrist, finger
and movement between vertebrae.
(d) Pivot joint: found between the head and atlas. It provides nodding
movement.
At a joint the bones are held together by ligament, the 2 bones are protected by
a layer of cartilage and in between the 2 bones is synovial fluid enveloped by
the synovial membrane.
Parts of a typical Joint
1. Ligaments: These are elastic bonds of tissue, they hold 2 bones together
at a joint.
2. Articular cartilage: They are found at the surface of bones at joints. They
prevent the articulating surfaces from wear and tear during movement
thereby acting as a shock absorber cushioning the effect of bones moving
against bones.
3. Synovial membrane: It secretes the synovial fluid
4. Synovial fluid: It lubricates joints thereby preventing friction and shock
between 2 articulating bones.
5. Capsule: This is the space that contains the synovial fluid.
Injuries to bones and joints
i. Fractures: These are broken bones as a result of accident
ii. Sprain: This is the condition where the ligaments in the joints are torn
because of sudden movement.
iii. Dislocation: This is the displacement of a bone from its normal position
at a joint

Drawing of a typical joint

Drawing of the ball and socket joint of hip

Drawing of the hinge joint of knee

Supporting tissues in plants
Plants also need support, particularly trees and shrubs which may stand metres
high. Some trees like the Iroko or mahogamy, have trunks almost as hard as
stone. This hardness is as a result of possessing supporting tissues. The
supporting tissues in plants are:
i. Collenchyma
ii. Sclerenchyma
iii. Turgid parenchyma
iv. Xylem
COLLENCHYMA
It is a simple tissue consisting of one type of cell only. The structures and the
position of collenchymas cells suggest its primary supporting function. The cells
are elongated with tapering end walls.
The walls are thickened at their corners. It forms supporting tissue in young
stems, leaves and flowers. It is found immediately beneath the epidermis called
the hypodermis, at the upper and lower sides of veins of the leaf. It is flexible.
Its plastic nature allows it to stretch and make it strong enough to withstand the
bending and twisting strains to which young plant are constantly subjected to by
the external conditions.
SCLERENCHYMA
This is located in the pericyde at the outer edges of vascular bundles of
flowering plants. Each sclerenchyma cell is thickened by the deposition of lignin,
the main component of the wood. The lignified cells provide the strength and
rigidity to stems. These cells are dead in old stems.
Two forms of sclerenchyma are known:
(i) The stone cells (sclereids): These are short and irregular in shape.
Stone cells give strength to the cortex and when they form a
continuous layer, sometimes replace the epidermis.
(ii) Fibre cells: These long slender cells and they occur mostly in
strands or in bundles. The economic importance of jute and local
sponge are due to these fibre cells
Sclerencyma gives flexibility to plants but the majority give strength and
hardness because of the presence of lignin.
TURGID PARENCHYMA
This is a simple tissue made up of living unspecialized plant cells, they are
spherical in shape. They have thin cell wall composed mainly of cellulose and a
large vacuole containing cell sap.
Turgid parenchymatous cells press against one another and become tightly
packed, thereby providing support in the areas where they are found. All
parenchyma cells in the cortex, vascular bundles and pith of stems and roots
act as supporting cells when turgid.
Turgid parenchyma therefore, gives primary support because of turgidity due to
water pressure and also because of rigid nature of cellulose cell wall.
Function of turgid
1. It gives support in stems of herbaceous plant
2. stores food and water
3. It is found in the leaf and mesophyll.
XYLEM
This is the water conducting tissue which also has a strengthening function. It
lies within the cambium. The 4 types of cells that make up of the xylem tissue
are:
i. Tracheids (xylem tracheids)
ii. vessels (xylem vessels)
iii. Xylem fibres
iv. Wood parenchyma (xylem parencyma)
Of these, the first three are lignified and so provide mechanical support.
It is found in the vascular tissue of stems, roots and leaves.
The xylem is for conduction of water and dissolve mineral salts and support.
1. Xylem tracheids: They are for passage of water and dissolved mineral
salts.
2. xylem vessels: They are long tubes that are formed by the joining of
several elongated cells stacked one on top of another.
3. Fibros: They are similar to sclerenchyma fibres with thick walls. They are
for support.
4. xylem parenchyma: They are made of cells with large vacuoles. They are
also for support.
PHLOEM TISSUES
They are located inside the vascular bundles all plants. They are made up of 4
cells which are:
(a)sieve tubes
(b)phloem parenchyma
(c) campanion cells
(d)phloem fibres
(a)Sieve tubes: The are long, slender and they overlap. They are cylindrical cells
arranged vertically. They are living and conduct manufactured food.
(b)Phloem parenchyma: These are made up of parenchymous cells and when
turgid. They give strength and support to plants. They also help in food storage.
(c)Phloem fibres: They are concerned with strengthening of the organs in which
they are found.
(d)Companion cells: They are vertically elongated like the sieve tube and they
assist in the conduction of food substances.
Generally, the phloem tissues conduct or translocate manufactured food from
areas where they are formed to areas where they are used or to storage organs
and they also provide support.
Drawing of Parenchyma cells

Drawing of Collenchyma cells

Drawing of Sclerenchyma cells

 Functions of supporting tissues in plants
i. Strengthening
The walls of collenchyma cells are the thickened, but in particular, their walls
have thickened corners which provides strength (rigidity) to the stem.
The walls of sclerenchyma cells are thickened and lignified (lignin is the main
constituent of wood), these lignified cells, therefore, provide support to stems
and roots.
Xylem tissue contains xylem vessels, xylem tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem
parenchyma. Xylem vessels, tracheids and fibres have walls thickened with lignin
and the protoplasm dies as the cells are thickened with this substance.
Xylem vessels are longtubes concerned with conduction of water and with
strengthening. Xylem parenchyma also have strengthening function. Xylem
tracheids are mainly concerned with strengthening.
All these supporting tissue work together to strengthen the plant so as to
withstand wind and striking objects.
ii. Rigidity
It is important that the stem of a plant be rigid enough to hold the leaves up,
and to provide support for the flowers and fruits. The supporting tissues gives
plants the rigidity they need.
iii. Resilience and flexibility
Plants on land must constantly sway in the direction of breezes and wind and
then, regain their former positions. Those in seas and rivers are also carried in
directions dictated by the water flow.
The positioning of most of the supporting tissue of the stem in bundles around
the edge means that the stem can bend without snapping i.e. it is flexible.
When the wind dies down, the plant will unbend and return to its original
straight position after being bent by wind or water is called the resilience of the
plant. Resilience is also due to the strengthening or supporting tissues.
(iv)Conduction: Supporting tissue like the phloem and xylem are for conduction
of manufactured food and water respectively.
Uses of fibres to plant
i. Fibres gives strength and support to plants
 ii. They also provides flexibility in plants
iii. The sclerenchyma fibres in plants are used for making clothes, sacks,
mats, ropes, sponges etc.
Plants such as Hibiscus spp, jute, sisal contain some of the strongest plant fibres

Drawing of the transverse section of dicot stem

Drawing of the transverse section of monocot stem

Drawing of the transverse section of dicot root

 Drawing of the transverse section of monocot root

Epidermis: It gives protection to the inner tissue and prevents dessication.

Piliferous layer: This is the outermost covering of the root. It has no cuticle
and root hair originates from it.
Cortex: It is found between the epidermis and vascular bundles. It is wide. It is
made up of 3 tissues which are collenchymas on the outside, parenchyma in the
middle and on inner endodermis. Food is stored in the cortex.
Vascular bundles: It is made up of the xylem, phloem and the cambium.
Cambium: It is found between the xylem and phloem in dicot plants only. And it
brings about secondary thickening.
Pith: It is the central part of the stem. It is found only in the dicot stem and
monocot root. It is made up of parenchyma cells.
Differences between Dicot and Monocot roots
 Dicot root Monocot root
1 Dicot root has only one scar Has many xylem bundles arranged
shaped xylem bundle centrally
placed
2. Pith is absent Pith is present
3. Cambium and cork cambium Secondary thickening does not occur
develop during secondary due to absent cambium
thickening
4 Few phloem bundles preset Many phloem bundles present

Differences between Dicot and Monocot stem

Dicot stem Monocot stem
1 Tissue below epidermis is the Tissue below epidermis is the
collenchyma sclerenchyma
2. It has a wide cortex It has a narrow cortex
3. The pericycle is made up of The pericycle is made up of
sclerenchyma which caps sclenchyma which completely
individual bundles surrounds each vascular bundle.
4. Vascular bundles are few and Vascular bundles are numerous and
arranged in a ring of cambium scattered all over the ground tissue.
5. Cambium present so secondary Cambium absent so secondary
thickening occurs thickening does not occur.
6 Pith absent Pith present
Support in herbaceous plants
Support is provided in herbaceous plants in the following ways:
(1)By turgidity, water is preserved
(2)Due to presence of water and vacuoles inside parenchyma cells.
(3)Thickening of the walls of collenchymas cells.
Support of woody plants
Support is provided in woody plants in the following ways
1. Sclerencyma in the cortex
2. By the xylem strengthened by deposit of lignin in the walls
3. Secondary growth or thickening provided extensive wood or secondary
xylem and bark.
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Transportation is the conveyance of material from one part of an organism to
another.
Transport is important because of the following reasons:
i. In lower organisms, such as bacteria, algae, protozoa etc transportation
is achieved by osmosis and diffusion, due to the relatively large surface
area to volume ratio. However, as an organism grows bigger and
increases in complexity, its surface area to volume ratio diminishes and
part of the organism becomes remote from one another, hence transport
systems are developed to circulate materials within higher organisms.
ii. Transport system ensures circulation of materials within an organism
iii. It also ensures the removal of metabolic wastes to site where they can
be expelled from the body.
Need for transportation in living organisms
i. It helps to regulate body temperature by distribution in vertebrates
ii. It helps to regulate water balance in the animals
iii. Plant and animal hormones are carried from the site of production to
the target organs by the transport system.
iv. Excess useful substances that can be stored are transported to tissues
or storage organs by the transport system.
v. The substances required by reproductive cells for development are
moved to them or carried to them by the transport system.

Importance of transport system in mammals

1. To move materials throughout the body of the organism
2. To transport oxygen from the lungs to all cells of the body and digested
food like amino acid, glucose, fatty acid from the small intestine to all
parts of the body.
3. To transport waste products of metabolism from point of production to
various excretory organs like kidney, lungs and skin.
4. To transport hormones produced by the endocrine gland to target organs
5. Mammals have a large size which has reduced the surface area to volume
ratio. Diffusion is therefore inefficient to transport materials because of
this, a transport system is required.
Materials for transportation
Materials circulated within living organisms (plants and animals) include digested
food like simple sugar, amino acid, vitamins, fatty acids and mineral salts
(respiratory gases - CO2 and O2), hormones, excretory wastes.

Media for transportation

i. Cytoplasm in unicellular organism
ii. Cell sap in plants
iii. Body fluid in invertebrates
 iv. Blood and lymph in vertebrates
In specialized complex organisms long distance transport system which can
make substances move rapidly is employed. The substances are moved by mass
flow system. This is bulk transport of material as a result of a pressure
difference between two points.
Features of a transport system
i. A circulatory fluid : In most cases blood
ii. A pumping device which help to drive the circulatory fluid around the
body-heart
iii. A system of branched tubes / vessels connected to the heart, through
which the fluid can circulate
Types of circulatory system
i. Open circulatory system
ii. Closed circulatory system
Open circulatory system
This is found in some animals e.g. insects and mollusc. Here, the heart pumps
blood out into a blood vessel which branches and open into spaces in the body
cavity called haemocoel. The organs and tissues are bathed in blood and
exchange of materials occurs between the body cells and the blood. Blood in the
spaces eventually flow into the blood vessels leading to the heart. Blood flows in
one direction and moves slowly due to the help of valves.
Closed circulatory system
Is found in most higher animals. In this circulatory system, blood is carried in
the blood vessels. Blood is taken away from the heart through the arteries and
returned through the veins. Capillaries link the arteries and veins and they have
the thinnest walls.
Exchange of materials takes place between the blood and the body cells by
diffusion through the walls of the capillaries. This type of circulatory system is
found in vertebrates.
The closed circulatory system is further divided into:
i. Single circulation
ii. Double circulation
Single circulation: This implies that for one complete circulation, blood has to
pass through the heart once. This is found in fishes.
Double circulation: This implies that for one complete circulation, blood has to
pass through the heart twice, each time going through a separate path way. The
2 pathways are referred to as pulmonary circulation (i.e. circulation from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart) and the systemic circulation (i.e
circulation from the heart to other parts of the body and back to the heart.)

Transport in mammals
The main features of the mammalian transport system are:
i. Blood
ii. The heart
 iii. The blood vessels: arteries and capillaries and veins
iv. Double circulation : a pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation
THE BLOOD
The mammalian blood is a suspension of different types of cells. They are:
i. Red blood cell (Erythrocytes)
ii. White blood cell (Leucocytes)
iii. Platelets (thrombocytes)
iv. Plasma: contains 90% of water
Plasma: This is a pale yellow liquid made up of mainly water. Many substances
are dissolved in it including plasma protein, antibodies, hormones, enzymes,
salts, digested food materials and waste materials. The primary function of
plasma is to transport substances that are dissolved in it as well as the cells that
flows in it. 55% of the blood is plasma, the remaining 45% are the corpuscles.
Red blood cell: It is also known as Erythrocyte. It is a biconcave disc, non-
nucleated (no nucleus) cell in mammals. It is surrounded by an elastic
membrane which enables the cell to pass through narrow capillaries whose
internal diameter is smaller than its own.
The inside of the cell is completely filled with oxygen carrying pigment called
haemoglobin. This pigment gives a group of red blood cells their characteristics
red odour, despite the fact that each cell is yellow in colour when built singly.
The lifespan of red blood cell is 120 days before they are destroyed in the
spleen. New ones are produced in the bone marrow.
The haemoglobin contained in the red blood cell is broken down to bilirubin and
ferritin and released into the blood. The liver stores the iron in ferritin which is
used for the production of red blood cells and gets rid of bilirubin near the bile.
The primary function of the red blood cell is to transport oxygen in the form of
oxyheamoglobin from the blood to the body cells. The adaptive feature shown
by red blood cells to these functions is:
i. Its biconcave shape gives it a large
ii. To give it a surface area to volume ratio and also its lack of nucleus
permits more haemoglobin to be packed into the cell
iii. It contains a pigment haemoglobin which has a high affinity for oxygen
i.e. haemoglobin and this haemoglobin combines with oxygen is then
transported as oxyhaemoglobin from the blood to the cells of the body
iv. They have elastic membrane which enable them to pass through
narrow capillaries whose diameter is smaller than its own
v. It transports little carbon (iv) oxide.
White blood cells (WBC):
These are also called leucocytes and are nucleated, colourless and larger than
the red blood cell. The human blood contains about 10,000WBC/ km by blood.
During infection the number of WBC may increase.
They are produced in the bone marrow, lymphatic tissue and spleen. There are
different types of leucocytes which differ in sizes, shapes and functions.
The major functions of the WBC are as follows:
i. Clumping: Lymphocytes produces chemical called antibodies which
cause bacteria to clump with antibody.
ii. Neutralization e.g. Lymphocytes produce anti-toxins which neutralizes
the toxins produced by pathogen and make them harmless (i.e.
produces immunity)
iii. Engulfing: e.g. phagocytes engulf the disease causing organisms and
digest them.
Generally we can say (the WBC are the soldiers of the body) they are for
defence.
Lymph: these are dissolved substances that pass out of the plasma and enter
the spaces between the cells and tissues (i.e. interstitial fluid). It contains
leucocytes and thrombocytes
Lymph duct join the veins at the neck. Small glands at the junction of lymph
vessels are lymph nodes which filters out bacterial and other particles from the
lymph.
Functions of lymph
1. it defends the body
2. it absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Functions of Lymphatic system
i. It collects fluid from the intercellular and transport back to the blood
stream
ii. It carries excretory product
iii. produces WBC
iv. lymph nodes filter out bacteria.
Drawing of the white blood cell
Platelets: They are smaller than the red blood cell, irregular in shape and non-
nucleated. They are formed by the fragmentation of granular cytoplasm of much
larger cells produced in the bone marrow. They are for blood clotting. They are
known as thrombocytes. They are the source of thromboplastin which initiates
blood clotting.
Functions of blood
i. Haemoglobin in the red blood cell pick up oxygen from the lungs and
carry it to all part of the body. Red blood cells in the blood transport
oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin from the lungs to all parts of
the body.
ii. For transport of digested food substances like amino acids, fatty acids,
glycerol, glucose, vitamins, mineral salts from the small intestine
through the blood stream.
iii. For transport of waste product of metabolism such as urea carried
from the liver to the kidney for excretion.
iv. For transport of hormones from site of production to points or parts
where they are used or target organs.
v. Helps in the circulation of heat within the body of animals
vi. Leucocytes (WBC) defends the body against bacteria, as well as
neutralize the toxins which these organisms may produce.
vii. Formation of clots by the platelets over injured parts of the body
prevents excessive loss of blood and entry of germs.
viii. White blood cells (phagocytes) destroy bacteria invading the body or
foreign materials by engulfing them.
ix. Blood help to maintain the water content of the body
x. Water is distributed to all parts of the body by blood
Process of blood clotting
1. When a blood vessel is damaged and exposed to air, platelet plugs are
formed due to the exposure to air and the platelet will release a chemical
 which makes the muscles in the walls of the damaged vessels to constrict
and so reduce blood flow or bleeding.
2. But if the damaged is great and the plug cannot seal the wound, the
platelet will release an enzyme called thrombokinase or thromboplastin.
3. The thrombokinase will convert prothrombin to an active enzyme called
thrombin
4. The thrombin in the presence of calcium ions convert fibrinogen to fibrin
5. The fibrin will form a mesh of fine threads which traps blood cells, forming
a clot that covers the wound and block the cut in the blood vessel thereby
preventing further bleeding and white blood cells that are entangled in the
mesh will also prevent entry of pathogenic organisms.
Importance of blood clotting
i. It prevents the excessive loss of blood from the body
ii. It prevents harmful microorganism from entering the body
iii. Blood clotting ensures healing of wounds.

THE HEART
The heart pumps blood round the circulatory system. It lies inside the thoracic
cavity and is surrounded by a membrane called pericardium. The pericardium is
filled with a fluid called pericardic fluid which limits or reduces friction. In
mammals and birds, the heart is completely divided into left and right heart by a
septum. The heart is made up of cardlike muscle and it is cone
The heart is a muscular bag and it contains 4 chambers
i. The left and right auricles/atrium
ii. The left and right ventricles
Oxygenated blood are confined to the left side of the heart while deoxygenated
blood are confined to the right side. The opening between the left auricle and
left ventricle is guided by the bicuspid valve or mitral which is so named because
it contains 2 membranous flaps. The opening between the right auricle and right
ventricle is guided by the Tricuspid valve which is so named because it contains
three membranous flaps.The walls of the ventricles are thicker than the walls of
the auricle.
Note: The valves ensure unidirectional flow of blood i.e. auricle →ventricle
The 2 largest veins, superior (anterior) vena cana and inferior (posterior) vena
cava transports deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body (except the
lungs) into the right auricle. Oxygenated blood is transported into the left auricle
from the lungs through the pulmonary veins. Deoxygenated blood is transported
into the lungs through the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle.
Oxygenated blood is transported to all parts of the body (except the lungs)
through the aorta (the largest artery) from where the carotid artery supplies the
head. The left ventricle has a thicker wall than the right ventricle because it is
involved in a larger systemic circulation while the right is involved in the smaller
pulmonary circulation.
Incomplete double circulation
This is a situation where the blood passes through the heart twice it is similar to
the type of circulations found in mammals but different in the sense that the
ventricles are not divided into left and right parts e.g. frog, toad, lizard.

Mechanism of heart beat

For this pumping action of the blood, the heart is made up of special muscles
called cardiac muscles. Its contraction and relaxation brings about the pumping
action of the heart. During the heart beat, the 2 sides of the heart work
together. The heart beat occurs in 2 stages they are:
i. Diastole
This is the resting period of the heart chambers especially the ventricles.
In this case, the 2 auricles contracts creating a high pressure in the blood
contained in them. The pressure causes the valves between the auricles and
ventricles known as bicuspid and tricuspid valves to fold downwards and
backwards into the ventricles. Then blood moves from the auricles to the
ventricles.
ii. Systole
This is the period when the chambers, especially the ventricles contract. This
involves the contraction of the 2 ventricles, thus forcing the deoxygenated blood
into the pulmonary artery and oxygenated blood into the main aorta.
Note: One complete heart beat consist of one contraction of systole and one
relaxation of diastole of the ventricle and it lasts for about 0.8 seconds.
Differences between Diffusion and Circulatory system
Diffusion Circulatory System
1. It occurs mainly in small organisms It occurs mainly in multi-cellular
organisms
2. They do not require the expenditure of It requires the expenditure of
more energy. more energy.
3. It takes place at a slow rate Takes place at a quick rate
4. It is less efficient It is more efficient.

Different between Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

Open circulatory Closed circulatory
1. Blood bathes the major organs and tissues Fluid with nutrient get to the bod
directly from capillaries as tissue lub and l
2. Blood returns directly to the heart Blood returns to the heart throu
veins
3. The blood ends up in blood spaces Blood flows through the artery, ve
(haemocoeis) within the body capillaries.
4. There are no small blood vessels or capillaries Smaller blood capillaries unite th
connecting arteries with veins arteries with the small veins

Blood Vessels Organ supplied

Carotid artery Head
Subclavian artery Fore limbs
Pulmonay artery Lungs
Hepatic artery Liver
Mesenteric artery Stomach and intestine
Renal artery Kidney
Gonadial artery Gonads
Intercostal artery Wall of thorax
Iliac artery Hind limbs
Coronary artery Heart
Chordae tendineae controls the action of the bicuspid valve
Adaptation of the Mammalian Heart to its Function
1. It is made up of cardiac muscles that makes it work tiredlessly and
continuously throughtout life
2. It is conical and hollow which allows it receive large volume of blood
3. It is enclosed within a double layered membrane called pencardium which
protects it.
4. Walls of the left ventricle is thick and more muscular to enable it pump
blood with force and high pressure out of the heart to the body
5. Presence of tricuspid and bicuspid valves to prevent back flow of blood.
6. It contains septum that divides the heart to prevent mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood.
7. Contains coronary arteries and veins that distribute blood and nutrient to
all parts of the heart and remove waste from it respectively.
The loud lub sound in a heartbeat is due to the closing of the bicuspid and
tricuspid valve while the soft lub sound is due to the closing of the semi-lunar
valve to prevent flow of blood in arteries back into the ventricles.

THE BLOOD VESSELS

There are 3 major blood vessels. They are:
i. Arteries
ii. Veins
iii. Capillaries
Direction of Blood flow in the body
ARTERIES: are so named because they carry blood away from the heart. In
order to withstand the high pressure of blood that flows in them, they have thick
walls which are muscular and elastic. These thick walls enable the arteries to
constrict or dialate and hence regulates the amount of blood flowing in them.
Drawing of the transverse section of the arteries

VEINS: are so named because they carry blood towards the heart. The blood in
them is at a low pressure; hence the wall of a vein is not thick, muscular or
elastic, when compared with an artery of the same size. Most veins have valves
which prevents backflow of blood. The flow of blood along vein is assisted by
the movement of skeletal muscles. The superior vena cava drains blood from the
head and fore limb. The inferior vena cava drains blood from the hind limb and
trunk.
Drawing of the transverse section of the vein

Differences between arteries and veins

S/N Arteries Veins
i. Carry oxygenated blood away from Carry deoxygenated blood
the heart towards the heart
ii Deep seated in the body Superficially located in the body
iii Lumen is narrow Lumen is large
iv Thick, elastic and muscular walls Thin inelastic walls
v All arteries carry oxygenated blood All veins carry deoxygenated blood
except the pulmonary artery except the pulmonary vein
vi Pulse is readily detected due to Pulse not readily detectable
pumping action of the heart
vii Valves are absent Valves are present
vii Artery blood is bright red in colour Vein blood is dull red
because of the presence of oxygen
ix Blood flows in arteries under the Blood flow due to the muscles of
pressure from the heart beats/pulse the wall of the vein
x Start as large vessels and Start as tiny vessels and
subsequently subdivide subsequently unite / merge into
large vessels.

CAPILLARIES
Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels that forms a network linking arterioles
to venules. The blood in the capillaries at arteriole end is at a higher pressure
than at the venule end.
The wall of the capillaries are a cell thick and they make available a large
surface area for the exchange of materials between the blood and the body
cells.
Drawing of the transverse section of the capillary

Double Circulation
The diagram below shows double circulation plan in human for one complete
circulation, blood passes through two separate path ways. The pathways are
pulmonary and systemic circulation.
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix as they pass through the left
and right side of the heart respectively. The liver is the only organ in the body
that receives double blood supply from the heart.
One from the hepatic artery containing blood rich in oxygen. Another from the
hepatic portal vein from the got containing blood rich in digested food.

Drawing of double circulation in human being

Pulmonary circulation ( in mammals)

This is the circulation of blood between the heart and lungs and the process is
as follows:
i. Deoxygenated blood moves from vena vaca to the right auricle
ii. The muscles of right auricle contrast and tricuspid valve opens
iii. Deoxygenated blood moves into the left ventricle the tricuspid valve
closes.
 iv. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
v. Passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
vi. To the lungs capillaries
vii. For exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide (for oxygenation)
viii. Oxygenated blood from the lungs then return by the pulmonary vein
ix. To the left auricle
Systemic circulation
This is the circulation of blood between the heart and all part of the body and
the processes are as follows
i. The heart contracts to open the valves to the left ventricle
ii. Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle
iii. Through the aorta to the systems of the body
iv. It branches to smaller arteries
v. Which supplies all the part of the body with oxygen
vi. It returns back to the right auricle of the heart as deoxygenated blood.
vii. Through a major vein called vena cava

Differences between Pulmonary Circulation and Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation

1. The circulation is between the heart The circulation is between the heart
and the lungs and the rest of the body.
2. Oxygenated blood is carried to the Deoxygenated blood is carried to
heart the heart
3. Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated veins carry deoxygenated blood
blood
4. Pulmonary artery carries Arteries carry deoxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood
5. Blood is pumped low pressure Blood is pumped at high pressure
6. Few blood vessels are involved Many blood vessels are involved

Roles of Systemic Circulation in transport system

Systemic: The role of systemic circulation is to transport product of digestion
e.g. amino acids, glucose etc oxygen, water, hormones and other substances to
all part of the body and collect excretory products like water, urea, carbon (IV)
oxide from the cells of the body to organs that will excrete them
Pulse
This is the expansion of the arteries in order to accommodate the volume of
blood rushing through them.
The heart contracts to pump blood into arteries for circulation of blood to all
parts of the body and the force with which the blood is pushed into the artery
causes them to expand in order to accommodate the volume of blood rushing
through.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Transport system in plant is made possible by two major physical process
namely diffusion and osmosis. Other methods include passive and active
transport. These are in turn influenced by transpiration.
Transport of materials is carried out by conducting tissues known as vascular
tissues in all flowering and non-flowering plants like gymnosperms and ferns.
Materials are transported mainly in:
i. Plant sap
ii. Cell sap
iii. Cytoplasm
The plant sap is the fluid in the vascular tissues which contains about 97.6% of
water, dissolved organic and inorganic solute.
The cell sap is the watery fluid contained in the vacuoles of plant cells. It help in
the uptake of water from the soil by the root hairs and its subsequent transport
into the vascular tissues in the root.
Translocation
This is the movement of manufactured food from the leaves to various parts of
the plant where they are used or stored. This is brought about by vascular
tissues which are grouped together in bundles. Each bundle in known as
vascular bundle which are arranged in characteristic patterns in roots, stems and
leaves to form a mass flow distribution. Veins in leaves are also composed of
vascular bundles. Translocation is the movement of manufactured food from the
sight of photosynthesis e.g. green leaves to growing tips or region to storage
organs through the phloem tissue
The two main types of vascular tissues are:
i. Xylem
ii. Phloem
XYLEM: It is made up of dead cells and concerned with upward movement of
water, dissolved mineral salts and some organic nitrogen and hormones. It
consist of xylem vessels, tracheids, wood fibres and wood parenchyma
PHLOEM: It transports manufactured food (organic and some inorganic
substances) from leaves in downward direction. It consists of sieve tube,
companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
Transport of gases
The carbondioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out of the plant through the
opening called stomata (stoma – singular) on leaves and lenticels on stems and
roots.
Absorption of soil water
Soil water is absorbed into the plants by the root hairs which grow in a region
behind the root tip. This is carried out by osmosis. Since the cell sap contains a
solution of higher concentration than the soil solution and the membrane of the
root hair is selectively permeable, soil water moves into the root hair cells.
It is from here water is absorbed in other cells of the root by osmosis. This is
repeated until the water reaches the xylem tissues for upward transport to other
parts of the plants.
Drawing showing path of water from soil to xylem vessels in a root

Absorption of soil water

i. The hairs are in direct contact with water in the soil and a film of water
surrounds both the root hair and the soil particles
ii. The cell sap in the root is more concentrated than the soil water.
iii. Water passes by Osmosis
iv. From the soil through the thin layer of cytoplasm in the root hair and
passes into the vacuole
v. The extra water raises the turgor pressure of the vacuole
vi. and forces water out into the cell wall towards the inside of the root
vii. the cell next to the root hair has a lower turgor pressure
viii. and so water passes through the adjourning cell buy osmosis
ix. In this way, water is absorbed until it reaches the xylem vessels where
water is conducted upwards.
Capillary Action
The xylem vessels which extend from the roots to the leaves from very fine
capillary tubes so water raise up the tube as a result of capillary action due to
the attractions between the water molecules and the walls if the xylem vessels.

Experiment to demonstrate the translocation of food in plant (Ringing

experiment)
1. Removes a ring of bark containing the phloem tissue from a
photosynthesizing potted plant
2. Leave it for 2-3 weeks
3. The part above the ring will swell indicating accumulation of food
4. while the part below the ring will remain the same
5. But eventually shrivels leading to the death of the plant
6. The sap above and below the ring is tested with fehling’s solution A and B
7. The sap above the ring turns to brick red precipitate indicating the
presence of sucrose or sugar
8. while no colour change occurs from the sap below the ring
9. showing that sugar or sucrose is absent
10. This experiment shows that manufactured food substand in plant
is translocated by the phloem.
The uptake of mineral salts
Mineral salts are absorbed by the root hair. The concentration of ions in the cell
sap of the root cell is high while that of the soil solution is low. Active transport
and diffusion is involved in the uptake into the root cells. The energy for the
process is from oxidative breakdown of glucose in the root cell.
Mineral salts from the root hair cells pass through the xylem of the root and
then upwards to the leaves where they are used for photosynthesis.
Transport of water in xylem tissue is due to:
i. Root pressure
ii. Capillary action
iii. Transpiration pull
Root pressure is the pressure of the incoming water into the root, this is due to
different in osmotic pressure between the cell sap and the concentration of soil
nutrient. The cells sap being more concentrated tends to draw up nutrient.

Transpiration
This is the loss of water vapour from the aerial part of leaves of plant to the
atmosphere through the stomata, lenticels or cuticle. A potometer is used to
measure the rate of transpiration.
Transpiration pull
The escape of water vapour through the stomata in the leaves create certain
pressure (suction pressure) which draws water up the stem. This is called
transpiration pull. It leads to continuous flow of water called transpiration
stream.
Types of transpiration
i. Stomata transpiration
ii. Lenticular transpiration
iii. Cuticular transpiration
Importance / advantage of transpiration
i. It helps to cool the plant
ii. It moves mineral salt to all part of the plants
iii. It helps to transport water for physiological functions of the plant cells
iv. It helps to rid the plant of excess water
v. It regulates the volume of water in plants.
vi. It enhances the movement of water in the xylem vessels for
distribution to plant cells for cellular activities.
Disadvantages of transpiration
Excessive loss of water through transpiration by a plant can cause wilting which
can kill it.
Factors affecting rate of transpiration
i. Wind: The higher the rate of wind, the higher the rate of transpiration.
ii. Humidity: High humidity brings about low rate of transpiration because
the air around the leaves is soon saturated with water vapour from the
leaves. Transpiration therefore is faster in dry conditions than in
humid conditions.
iii. Availability of soil water
iv. Size of stomata
v. Light
vi. Temperature: High temperature leads to high rate of transpiration
Reduction of transpiration
i. By closure of stomata during the day
ii. Reduction of leaf size or leaf modified into spine
iii. Dropping of leaves during dry season
iv. Development of thick cuticles
v. Presence of hairs over leaf surface
vi. Presence of sunken stomata

Guttation
It is the loss of water in a liquid form at early morning through leaves in plants.
EXPERIMENT I
Experiment to show that xylem tissue conducts water upwards from
the root
i. A young herbaceous plant or balsam or water plant is uprooted
ii. The roots are washed with water to resume the soil particles
iii. A solution of a dye/eosin or red ink is made in a beaker
iv. The root system of the plant is immersed in the solution
v. Expose the set-up to sunlight and allow to stand for about 1-6 hours
vi. Remove the plant and wash the roots thoroughly
vii. Make transverse sections of the root, stem and leaf.
viii. Observe the section under microscope
 ix. It will be observed that only the xylem tissue picks the colour of the
dye or strained red.
This indicates the water moves through xylem
Drawing of the experiment to show that xylem conducts water upwards from
the root

EXPERIMENT II
Aim: Experiment to demonstrate transpiration in plants
Materials required: Bell jar, leafy plant or twig, polythene bag, plastic sheet, oil
layer, droplet of liquid, pot or beaker, glass sheet and Vaseline paste.
Method: The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram below. When a
potted plant is used, the soil surface should be covered with plastic sheet but
when a leafy twig dipped in a beaker of water is used, the water surface should
be covered with plastic sheet but when a leafy into the bell jar.
All joints in the set up must be air tight. The set up should be placed on a glass
sheet with a bell jar inverted over the plant. All joints are greased with Vaseline
paste to prevent gaseous water entry into the bell jar. The whole set-up is
placed in the sunlight or near the window for about 2-5 hours. In the control
experiment, plant without leaves is used.
Observation: It is observed that droplets of liquid are seen on the inner surface
of the bell jar in the main experiment while no liquid droplet is seen in the
control experiment. The liquid is then collected and tested with blue cobalt
chlorine paper which turns pink, indicating that the liquid droplet is water.
Conclusion: Green plants transpire

Experiment III:
Aim: Experiment to demonstrate the rate of transpiration in plants using
potometer.
Materials required: Potometer, water, leafy shoot, cut under water, graduated
scale and capillary tube.
Method: The experiment is set up as shown below. A leafy shoot is cut under
water so that no air bubbles enter the xylem cells and it is inserted as shown in
the diagram. As water is lot from the leaves by transpiration, it is drawn up from
the end that is cut, causing air to be drawn into the open end of the capillary
tube. All joints should be air tight and sealed with Vaseline paste.
Observation: the air bubble moves along the capillary tube. Increase in the
speed of wind or high temperature in the environment tends to increase the rate
of movement of air bubble along the capillary tube.
Conclusion: The presence and movement of air bubble in the capillary tube can
be used to compare the transpiration rate under different environmental
conditions.
A potometer is an instrument used to measure the rate of transpiration
and it works in the following ways
1. As the plant loses water by transpiration.
2. More water is absorbed to maintain the transpiration stream
3. Which causes air bubbles to move from one point to another in the tube.
4. The distance travelled by the bubble in a given time interval is read on the
scale
5. This reading is taken several times
6. During the duration of the experiment, the rate of transpiration is
calculated by average distance travelled by the unit time.
Precautions necessary for correct reading in the photometer
The leafy shoot must be cut under water to prevent the blocking of xylem
vessels by air
Air bubbles should not move out of the graduated medium, this is controlled by
refilling the water reservoir.
Limitation of instrument
The instruments measure the rate of water absorption. It does not measure the
amount of water transpiration.
Another method that can be used to measure the rate of transpiration is the
weighing method.

Experiment V
Aim: Experiment to demonstrate root pressure
Materials required: Manometer, a young plant, knife, rubber tubing
Method: The experiment is setup as shown below. Cut the stem of the young
plant about 9-12cm from the ground with the knife. Attach the stump with the
aid of rubber tubing into the manometer and allow the experiment to remain for
few hours.

Drawing the experiment to demonstrate root pressure

Observation: The watery sap is seen to force the mercury upward. This is due to
root pressure. The amount of root pressure can be determined by measuring the
difference in the level of mercury in the two limbs of the manometer
Conclusion: The mercury difference in the two limbs shows that root pressure
has taken place
Experiment VI
Aim: Experiment to demonstrate transpiration pull
Materials required: A young plant cut under water, retort stand, clamps and a
mercury manometer.
Drawing the experiment to demonstrate transpiration pull
Method: The experiment is set up as shown above. Cut a young shoot under
water and connect the shoot by means of rubber tubing to a glass tube filled
with water. The opposite end of the glass tube must be closed with the thumb.
The lower end below the mercury surface is placed in a through. Support the
set-up with clamps and a retort stand. Allow the plant to carry out transpiration.
Observation: The mercury level is seen to have risen due to transpiration pull since
water is lost through transpiration.
Conclusion: The force created as a result of the rise in mercury level is known as
transpiration pull.
Similarities between Transpiration and sweating
i. Both involve loss of water from the body of the organisms
ii. Both processes result in cooling
iii. Water is lost through pores

Differences between Transpiration and sweating

Transpiration Sweating

i. Occurs in plants through somata Occurs in mammals / skin/ through sweat

pores

ii. Transpiration involves only loss of Loss of water, salts and nitrogenous wastes
water

iii Water is lost in the form of vapour Water is lost in liquid form

iv Occurs during the day Occurs both day and night

Similarities between Transport in Animals and plants
i. Tubular or cylindrical vessels are necessary in plants and animals
ii. Liquid medium is required for transportation in plants and animals
iii. Materials or food nutrients and hormones are transported in dissolved or
fluid form
iv. Diffusion plays a major role in transportation in both plants and animals

Differences between Transport in Animals and plants

Plants Animals

1. Cell sap is the medium of Blood is the medium of

transportation transportation

2. Root pressure or transpiration Heart generates forces for transport

generates forces for pull of nutrients

3. Water/mineral salts manufactured and Water, food substances and mineral

food are transported through different nutrients are transported in the same
vessels (xylem and phloem) vessels.