Sure!

Here are advanced multiple-choice questions derived from the "Philosophy of Science
and Ethics" material:

### Advanced Multiple Choice Questions:

82. **According to Thomas Kuhn, what triggers a scientific revolution?**
a) Accumulation of anomalies that cannot be explained by the current paradigm
b) Development of new experimental techniques
c) Gradual improvement of existing theories
d) Consensus among scientists on the best research methods
- **Answer:** a

83. **Paul Feyerabend's critique of methodological monism is best characterized by which

statement?**
a) Science progresses through a strict adherence to a single scientific method
b) Scientific progress requires a plurality of methods and approaches
c) The success of science is due to its universal methodological rules
d) All scientific theories are ultimately unverifiable
- **Answer:** b

84. **What distinguishes scientific realism from instrumentalism in their view of scientific
theories?**
a) Scientific realism focuses on empirical adequacy, while instrumentalism seeks true
descriptions of reality
b) Instrumentalism sees theories as tools for prediction, while scientific realism views
them as true descriptions of unobservable entities
c) Both emphasize the predictive power of theories
d) Both consider unobservable entities as critical to scientific theories
- **Answer:** b

85. **In the context of the Duhem-Quine thesis, which of the following best illustrates the
problem of holism in hypothesis testing?**
a) Multiple hypotheses can be tested independently
b) Empirical data can confirm one hypothesis at a time
c) Testing a hypothesis always involves auxiliary assumptions that can affect the outcome
d) Hypotheses are directly tested against observations without interference
- **Answer:** c

86. **What is the primary implication of the theory-ladenness of observation for scientific
objectivity?**
a) Observations are completely independent of theoretical influence
b) Theoretical assumptions inevitably shape and influence observations
c) Observations can be entirely objective if done correctly
d) Observations provide a direct window to reality
- **Answer:** b

87. **Which of the following best describes the core idea behind structural realism?**
a) Scientific theories should be interpreted as literally true descriptions of the world
b) Only the mathematical structure of scientific theories accurately reflects reality
 c) Scientific theories are useful instruments for prediction
d) Science aims to provide true accounts of both observable and unobservable entities
- **Answer:** b

88. **Which concept suggests that the meanings of scientific terms are determined by the
theories they are part of, making it difficult to compare theories across paradigms?**
a) Incommensurability
b) Falsifiability
c) Underdetermination
d) Empirical adequacy
- **Answer:** a

89. **How does Bas van Fraassen's constructive empiricism differ from traditional scientific
realism?**
a) Constructive empiricism denies the existence of unobservable entities
b) Constructive empiricism focuses on empirical adequacy rather than truth
c) Scientific realism rejects the empirical adequacy of theories
d) Constructive empiricism accepts all scientific theories as true
- **Answer:** b

90. **Which of the following best captures the idea of epistemic relativism in the philosophy
of science?**
a) There is a single, objective scientific method that applies universally
b) The truth of scientific theories is relative to the historical and cultural context
c) All scientific theories are equally valid
d) Scientific progress is linear and cumulative
- **Answer:** b

91. **What is the primary concern of the demarcation problem in the philosophy of
science?**
a) Distinguishing between true and false scientific theories
b) Separating science from pseudoscience
c) Identifying the ethical implications of scientific research
d) Understanding the relationship between science and technology
- **Answer:** b

92. **Which philosopher is associated with the idea that scientific progress is driven by
'research programs' rather than isolated theories?**
a) Thomas Kuhn
b) Karl Popper
c) Imre Lakatos
d) Paul Feyerabend
- **Answer:** c

93. **Which of the following best explains the notion of 'paradigm shift' as introduced by
Thomas Kuhn?**
a) A gradual accumulation of knowledge leading to scientific progress
 b) A complete and radical change in the underlying assumptions and methodologies of a
scientific discipline
c) A minor adjustment within an existing theoretical framework
d) An unchanging set of scientific principles
- **Answer:** b

94. **Which concept is central to Karl Popper's philosophy of science and serves as a
criterion for scientific theories?**
a) Verification
b) Induction
c) Falsifiability
d) Incommensurability
- **Answer:** c

95. **In the philosophy of science, what is meant by 'scientific underdetermination'?**

a) Scientific theories can be proven with absolute certainty
b) Empirical evidence is insufficient to conclusively support one theory over another
c) Theories are under constant revision and improvement
d) Scientific progress is driven by technological advances
- **Answer:** b

96. **Which of the following best describes the main idea of scientific anti-realism?**
a) Scientific theories aim to provide true descriptions of reality
b) The truth of scientific theories is contingent upon empirical verification
c) Scientific theories do not necessarily reflect an objective reality but are tools for
organizing observations
d) Science is an inherently objective and value-free endeavor
- **Answer:** c

97. **Which philosopher proposed that the methodology of scientific research should be
flexible and adapt to changing circumstances rather than follow rigid rules?**
a) Thomas Kuhn
b) Karl Popper
c) Imre Lakatos
d) Paul Feyerabend
- **Answer:** d

98. **What is the significance of the 'context of discovery' versus the 'context of justification'
distinction in the philosophy of science?**
a) It highlights the difference between the creative process of developing hypotheses and
the logical process of justifying them
b) It emphasizes that scientific theories are discovered through experimentation
c) It asserts that scientific knowledge is justified through cultural and social contexts
d) It separates the empirical basis of science from theoretical speculation
- **Answer:** a

99. **Which approach to the philosophy of science holds that scientific theories are accepted
not because they are true, but because they are empirically adequate?**
 a) Constructive Empiricism
b) Scientific Realism
c) Instrumentalism
d) Logical Positivism
- **Answer:** a

100. **What does the concept of 'incommensurability' imply about competing scientific
theories?**
a) They can be directly compared using a common standard
b) They often rely on fundamentally different concepts and methodologies, making
comparison difficult
c) They are equally valid interpretations of the same phenomena
d) They can be reconciled through empirical testing
- **Answer:** b

Certainly! Here are additional advanced multiple-choice questions derived from the
"Philosophy of Science and Ethics" material:

### Advanced Multiple Choice Questions:

121. **What is the central claim of the 'no miracles argument' in support of scientific
realism?**
a) Scientific theories are merely useful fictions
b) The success of science is best explained by the truth of its theories
c) Scientific progress is an illusion
d) All scientific theories are equally valid
- **Answer:** b

122. **Which of the following is a criticism of the 'underdetermination thesis'?**

a) It fails to acknowledge the role of empirical evidence in theory choice
b) It overemphasizes the importance of auxiliary assumptions in hypothesis testing
c) It undermines the objectivity of scientific inquiry
d) It does not account for the historical context of scientific theories
- **Answer:** c

123. **What role does the 'context of discovery' play in scientific research?**
a) It refers to the logical structure and justification of scientific theories
b) It involves the historical and sociological factors influencing the generation of new ideas
c) It is concerned with the empirical testing of hypotheses
d) It deals with the application of scientific knowledge in practical contexts
- **Answer:** b

124. **Which philosopher argued that scientific theories should be evaluated based on their
ability to predict novel phenomena?**
a) Karl Popper
b) Thomas Kuhn
c) Imre Lakatos
d) Paul Feyerabend
 - **Answer:** c

125. **What is the main idea behind 'methodological pluralism' in the philosophy of
science?**
a) There is a single correct method for scientific inquiry
b) Different scientific methods can coexist and contribute to scientific progress
c) Scientific methods are irrelevant to the validity of theories
d) Science progresses by strictly adhering to one methodological approach
- **Answer:** b

126. **How does the 'theory-ladenness of observation' challenge the notion of objective
observation in science?**
a) Observations are always independent of theoretical influences
b) Observations are shaped and influenced by the theoretical framework of the observer
c) Observations provide direct and unmediated access to reality
d) Observations can be entirely objective if conducted properly
- **Answer:** b

127. **Which of the following best describes 'scientific antirealism'?**

a) Scientific theories aim to describe the true nature of reality
b) Scientific theories are useful for organizing observations but do not necessarily reflect
reality
c) Scientific progress is linear and cumulative
d) Science is inherently objective and value-free
- **Answer:** b

128. **What does the concept of 'empirical adequacy' entail in the philosophy of science?**
a) Theories should be true descriptions of unobservable entities
b) Theories must accurately predict and explain observable phenomena
c) Theories are evaluated based on their practical utility
d) Theories should be verified through repeated experiments
- **Answer:** b

129. **Which of the following is a key tenet of 'logical positivism'?**

a) Theoretical entities must be real to have scientific value
b) The meaning of scientific statements lies in their empirical verification
c) Scientific theories are true descriptions of the world
d) Science progresses through the accumulation of verified facts
- **Answer:** b

130. **Which philosopher is associated with the idea that 'anything goes' in scientific
methodology, rejecting the notion of a universal scientific method?**
a) Thomas Kuhn
b) Karl Popper
c) Imre Lakatos
d) Paul Feyerabend
- **Answer:** d
131. **What is the primary focus of 'virtue ethics' in moral philosophy?**
a) The consequences of actions
b) The adherence to moral rules
c) The character and virtues of the moral agent
d) The social contract between individuals
- **Answer:** c

132. **Which of the following best captures the concept of 'scientific paradigms' as described
by Thomas Kuhn?**
a) Fixed sets of rules and methodologies universally accepted by scientists
b) Theories that are universally true and unchanging
c) Frameworks consisting of theories, methods, and standards that guide scientific
practice
d) Specific experiments that test scientific hypotheses
- **Answer:** c

133. **How does 'scientific realism' differ from 'instrumentalism'?**

a) Realism focuses on empirical adequacy, while instrumentalism seeks true descriptions
of reality
b) Instrumentalism sees theories as tools for prediction, while realism views them as true
descriptions of unobservable entities
c) Both emphasize the predictive power of theories
d) Both consider unobservable entities as critical to scientific theories
- **Answer:** b

134. **What is the significance of 'paradigm shifts' in Kuhn's philosophy of science?**

a) They represent minor adjustments within an existing theoretical framework
b) They denote radical changes in the underlying assumptions and methodologies of a
scientific discipline
c) They describe the linear accumulation of scientific knowledge
d) They imply the rejection of empirical evidence in favor of theoretical constructs
- **Answer:** b

135. **Which ethical principle in research emphasizes fairness and equality in the
distribution of benefits and burdens?**
a) Beneficence
b) Respect for Persons
c) Justice
d) Fidelity
- **Answer:** c

136. **Which concept suggests that scientific theories are social constructions influenced by
historical and cultural contexts?**
a) Scientific Realism
b) Constructive Empiricism
c) Social Constructivism
d) Logical Positivism
- **Answer:** c
Certainly! Here are additional advanced multiple-choice questions derived from the
"Philosophy of Science and Ethics" file:

### Advanced Multiple Choice Questions:

101. **Which of the following best describes Kuhn's concept of 'normal science'?**
a) A period of revolutionary breakthroughs and paradigm shifts
b) Research conducted under a prevailing paradigm, solving puzzles within that
framework
c) The initial phase of scientific inquiry before a paradigm is established
d) The application of scientific knowledge to practical problems
- **Answer:** b

102. **According to Karl Popper, what is the role of falsifiability in scientific theories?**
a) To confirm the truth of scientific hypotheses
b) To provide evidence for the correctness of theories
c) To demarcate scientific theories from non-scientific ones
d) To ensure the practical applicability of scientific discoveries
- **Answer:** c

103. **What does the term 'paradigm' refer to in Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific
revolutions?**
a) A single scientific theory that explains all phenomena
b) A framework of theories, methods, and standards that defines scientific practice
c) An experimental method universally accepted in science
d) A hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and confirmed
- **Answer:** b

104. **Which philosopher is most associated with the idea that science should aim for
'empirical adequacy' rather than truth?**
a) Thomas Kuhn
b) Karl Popper
c) Bas van Fraassen
d) Imre Lakatos
- **Answer:** c

105. **Which of the following best characterizes the philosophy of logical positivism?**
a) The belief that scientific theories should be true descriptions of reality
b) The emphasis on verification and empirical evidence as the basis of scientific
knowledge
c) The view that science progresses through paradigm shifts
d) The rejection of empirical evidence in favor of theoretical constructs
- **Answer:** b

106. **In the context of scientific methodology, what is a 'hard core' according to Imre
Lakatos?**
a) A set of theories that are subject to falsification
b) The foundational assumptions of a research program that are protected from refutation
 c) The empirical data collected through experiments
d) The practical applications of scientific research
- **Answer:** b

107. **Which of the following is a key critique of scientific realism posed by

instrumentalists?**
a) Scientific theories do not aim to provide true descriptions of the world
b) Theories should be judged based on their predictive accuracy, not their truth
c) Realism cannot account for the success of science
d) Instrumentalism denies the existence of unobservable entities
- **Answer:** b

108. **What does the 'pessimistic meta-induction' argument suggest about scientific
theories?**
a) Scientific theories will eventually be proven true
b) Historical patterns of scientific theories being discarded suggest that current theories
may also be false
c) Science progresses towards increasingly accurate descriptions of reality
d) All scientific theories are equally valid
- **Answer:** b

109. **Which ethical theory emphasizes the greatest good for the greatest number in
decision-making?**
a) Deontology
b) Virtue Ethics
c) Utilitarianism
d) Contractarianism
- **Answer:** c

110. **In the context of scientific ethics, what does the principle of 'informed consent'
require?**
a) Researchers must obtain voluntary participation from subjects after explaining the risks
and benefits
b) Scientists must disclose all research findings to the public
c) Ethical review boards must approve all research studies
d) Participants must be paid for their involvement in research
- **Answer:** a

111. **Which philosophy of science concept is concerned with the idea that scientific
progress is non-linear and occurs through radical shifts in understanding?**
a) Cumulative Progress
b) Paradigm Shifts
c) Empirical Adequacy
d) Instrumentalism
- **Answer:** b

112. **What is the main idea behind the concept of 'epistemic virtues' in scientific inquiry?**
a) Scientific theories should be judged solely on empirical evidence
 b) Scientists should adhere to moral and ethical standards in their research
c) Qualities such as open-mindedness, rigor, and creativity contribute to good scientific
practice
d) Science should avoid making value judgments
- **Answer:** c

113. **Which philosopher's work led to the development of the 'falsifiability' criterion in
demarcating science from pseudoscience?**
a) Thomas Kuhn
b) Karl Popper
c) Imre Lakatos
d) Paul Feyerabend
- **Answer:** b

114. **What is the main critique of the 'correspondence theory of truth' from the perspective
of pragmatism?**
a) Truth is determined by how well a statement corresponds to reality
b) Truth is an evolving concept that depends on practical consequences and usefulness
c) The correspondence theory fails to account for unobservable entities
d) Empirical evidence is the only criterion for truth
- **Answer:** b

115. **Which of the following best describes 'scientific instrumentalism'?**

a) Scientific theories provide true descriptions of both observable and unobservable
entities
b) Scientific theories are useful tools for predicting phenomena, regardless of their truth
c) All scientific theories are equally valid
d) Science progresses through a linear accumulation of knowledge
- **Answer:** b

116. **How does 'constructive empiricism' view unobservable entities in scientific theories?**
a) They are real and must be accurately described
b) They are useful fictions that help predict observable phenomena
c) They are irrelevant to the practice of science
d) They must be discarded if they cannot be observed directly
- **Answer:** b

117. **Which ethical principle in scientific research emphasizes minimizing harm and
maximizing benefits to research participants?**
a) Justice
b) Beneficence
c) Respect for Persons
d) Fidelity
- **Answer:** b

118. **What is a key feature of 'scientific realism'?**

a) Theories are judged based on their empirical adequacy
b) Science does not aim to describe unobservable entities
 c) Scientific theories aim to provide true descriptions of both observable and unobservable
aspects of the world
d) Theories are useful only for predicting phenomena
- **Answer:** c

119. **Which concept in the philosophy of science deals with the idea that scientific theories
are not determined solely by empirical data but also by theoretical frameworks and
assumptions?**
a) Empirical Adequacy
b) Underdetermination
c) Instrumentalism
d) Realism
- **Answer:** b

120. **Which ethical framework emphasizes the role of character and virtues in moral
decision-making?**
a) Utilitarianism
b) Deontology
c) Virtue Ethics
d) Contractarianism
- **Answer:** c