UNIT FIVE

HUMAN BIOLOGY AND HEALTH

 Learning competencies
• Name the parts of the nervous system.
• Explain the structures and functions of the human
nervous system.
• List the three types of neurons, indicate their
structures and explain their functions.
• Discuss how the nervous and endocrine system
works
• Describe the effects of drug abuse on the normal
functioning of the nervous and endocrine system.
 Brainstorming
• Which parts your body systems get involved
for coordination and rapid responses to the
changes in the environment?
 Body -co-ordination
• All living organisms need some level of awareness of their
surroundings; to avoid danger, find food and, in some cases, find
a mate.
• It requires co-ordination and control within an organism to
respond to changes in the surroundings.
• Single-celled organisms do not have nervous systems or any
type of nervous co-ordination and control and neither, as far as
we know at the moment, do plants.
• But most other living multicellular organisms have some sort of
nervous system, even if it is very simple
• Humans have the most complex nervous System of all
organisms on earth.
• The two systems involved in coordinating the function the body
to maintain body homeostasis are:
– Nervous system and
– endocrine system
 Difference between NS and endocrine system
Nervous system
• Composed of nerve cells
• It uses electrical signals (nerve
impulses) and
chemical(neurotransmitter)=
method of message
transmitting.
• Signals are transmitted through
nerve cells.
• produce immediate (but short-
lived) responses.= second to
minute.
• The whole system is physically
connected.
• The effect is localized
Endocrine system
• Composed of glands
• Uses chemical signals
(hormones) to transmit the
signal to the effector organs.
• Signals are transmitted through
the blood
• produce slower (but long
lasting) responses since
they transmit through
blood.= minute to days
• The whole system is not
physically connected.
• The effect is widespread.
 The nervous system
• The nervous system uses nerve cells to pass
electrical impulses along their length.
• They stimulate their target cells by secreting
chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, directly on
to them.
• The nervous system is responsible for the reception
and processing of sensory information from both
the external and internal environments.
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system (PNS) consists of nerves outside the CNS.
 The function of NS
• Nervous system has three major functions:
• Sensory input/function- Gathers information from both inside and
outside the body
• Sensory or afferent/ affector neutron detects internal or external
changes (stimuli) and sends the message to the central nervous
system (CNS), the brain or spinal cord (processing areas).
• Integration function- Processes the information in the brain and spine
• Interneurons/relay neuron/ association neuron- in the brain or
spinal cord process and interpret the message from the sensory
neurons, and relay the massage back to body parts.
• Motor output/ function -Sends information to the muscles, glands, and
organs
• Motor or efferent/effector neurons receive the message from
interneuron and produce a response at the effector organ (a
muscle or a gland).
• It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including
all other body systems allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its
delicate balance.
Cont…
Figure 5.1 Nervous system with their brief functions
 Basic cells of the nervous system
• The nervous system is composed of only two principal types of cells .
– Neurons-
– Neuroglial cells(glial cells)/supporting cells
• Neuron
– neurons are the basic unit /functional cell /of nervous
system.
– the "building block" of the nervous system
– The basic unit of communication in the nervous system .
– Nerve cells that are specialized to detect and react to
stimuli, by generating and conducting nerve impulses.
– They are specialized to respond to physical and chemical
stimuli, conduct electrochemical impulses, and release
chemical regulators.
– neurons enable the perception of sensory stimuli, learning,
memory, and the control of muscles and glands.
• Neuroglia cells=glial cells (from the Middle Greek glia =
glue).
• are about five times more abundant than
neurons.
• aid the functions of neurons.
• providing homeostatic, structural, and
metabolic support and nourishment to the
neurons.
• To myelinate their axons to ensure rapid signal
transmission and to be the main defensive and
immunocompetent cell.
 Neurons and their functions
All neurons consist of : (1) a cell body, (2) dendrites, and
(3) an axon
1. Dendrites /slender finger-like projection /(receptive region)-
receives input
– tree-like branches from nerve cell bodies that receive
signals from sensory receptors or other nerve cells at
synapses
– Dendrites connect to neighboring nerve cells.
– receive stimulus and conduct impulses toward the cell
body.
– Incoming signals from dendrites can result in nerve
signals that are then conducted by an axon.
– Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites,
known as dendritic trees.
– The number of dendrites which a neuron has can
range from 1 to 1000s depending on the function of
the neuron.
 Cont…
2. Cell Body/soma (biosynthetic center and processing
region)
• The largest part of a neuron.
• The cell body is the neuron’s core.
• Contains nucleus and specialized organelles
• Contains genetic information, maintains the neuron’s
structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
• It is enclosed by membrane that both protect it and
allow it to interact with its immediate surrounding.
• Most of the neurone cell bodies are located inside the
central nervous system and form the gray matter.
• The Cell bodies that are located in the peripheral
nervous system are called ganglia.
3. Axon /nerve fibre/ (impulse/out generating and conducting
region)
• It is extremely long and thin.
• The average axon is only 10 μm in diameter but in a large
animal like an elephant or a giraffe they can be up to 4 m
in length.
• axon conducts nerve impulses away from the soma (to
another neuron, or to an effector organ /a gland or a
muscle).
• When a neuron receives a stimulus the axon transmits
impulses along the length of the neuron.
• At the end of the axon there are specialized structures
which release chemicals that stimulate other neurons or
muscle cells.
• Individual axons are termed nerve fibers, and collectively
they form a nerve.
• Each neurone has only one axon that conducts
information away from the cell body.
 Cont…
• Neurons are also irritable which means they react to the world
around them – and they can conduct electricity. This is the
result of the structure of the axon.
• The axon membrane changes its permeability to sodium ions to
create an electrical impulse
• All neurons only contain 1 axon.
• Longer axons are enclosed by a myelin sheath produced by
type of neurolgia cell called Schwann cells/neurolemmocytes/.
• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the
Peripheral Nervous System.
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which protects and electrically
insulate it and speeding up impulse transmission.
• Because of it’s insulating properties, it keeps the electrical signal
strong and also moving faster along the Axon, as compared to a
Neuron without the Myelin.
 Cont…
• The periodic gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the
axon of certain neurons where there is no myelin sheath
are called nodes of Ranvier.
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath.
• Impulses travel from dendrite → cell body → axon
Cont…
Cont…
 Cont…
• myelin sheath insulates the axon against
depolarization, and forces action potential to occur
in the gaps (node of Ranvier) in between the
myelin sheath.
• myelinated axons make up the white matter in the
nervous system.
• unmyelinated axons make up the gray matter in the
nervous system.
 Classification of neurons based on functions
• a) sensory or (affector/ afferent) neuron:
• carry messages from sensory receptors(nerve ending) of the
body/organ to the central nervous system.
• Sensory neurons are triggered by stimuli such as sound, touch, heat,
and light.
• endings of its dendrite may be modified to become nerve
receptors.
• They have typically a long dendrite and short axon.
• usually unipolar in structure.- have one axon
• b) interneuron Neuron/relay/association neuron:
• Lie between sensory and motor neuron.
• They makes up more than 99% of all neurons in the body.
• relays nerve impulse from sensory neuron to motor neuron .
• located totally inside the tissues of the brain or spinal cord.
• Their primary function is processing and integration sensory data .
• usually multipolar in structure.= have multiple dendrites and a single
axon.
 Cont…
• c) motor or efferent neuron:
– conducts nerve impulses from the CNS to the effector
organ (muscles or glands) respond to the changes in the
surroundings.
– The muscles or organs of the body that bring about the
response to the original stimulus are known as effectors
– Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites.
– usually multipolarin structure.
– Motor neurons play a role in voluntary and involuntary
movements.
– These neurons allow the brain and the spinal cord to
communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the
body.
– accelerator motor neurons cause an increase of activity in
the effector organ; while inhibitory motor neurons cause
a decrease of activity in the effector organ.
Relationship of Functional Neuron
Types
Figure 5.3 Types of neurons
 Nervous co-ordination
• How nervous co-ordination works?
• a stimulus is picked up by a sensory receptor.
• sensory receptors are nerve endings that can sense
stimuli, e.g. pressure, pain, temperature, and start a
nerve impulse that sends this information back to the
brain.
• Stimulus → Reception by sensory receptor → afferent
neuron → integration by interneurons in CNS →
efferent neurons → action by effectors or muscles,
glands.
• The afferent (affector) neurons and efferent (effector)
neurons carry messages to and from CNS and are vital
for the co-ordination of body.
 Nerves and nerve tracts
• Nerves are bundles of neurons with blood vessels and connective tissue.
• some carry only affector neurons/sesnsory neurons and
are known as affector nerves
• The optic nerves for vision and olfactory nerves for smell are
examples of nerves with a purely sensory function.
• Some carry only effector neurons/motor neurons and are
known as effector nerves.
– autonomic nerves are motor nerves.
• whilst others carry a mixture of effector and affector
neurons and are called mixed nerves.
• Most of peripheral nerves, such as the sciatic nerves in the legs, are mixed nerves.
• The term nerve tract refers to groups of neurons within the central
nervous system.
• All the neurons in a nerve tract are concerned with either sensory or motor
activity.
• These tracts are often referred to as white matter; the myelin sheaths of
the neurons give them a white color.
 Class work
• 1. What are the differences between a neuron and
a nerve?
• 2. What makes up the central nervous system?
• 3. What is an effector organ?
Nerve Neuron
A whitish fiber of neuron cells which carry Is specialized cell involved in transmitting
impulses to CNS and from CNS to the impulses throughout the body
effector organs

Found only in the peripheral nervous Found in both PNS and CNS
system
Composed of bundle of neurons, blood Composed of an axon, cell body, and
vessels and lymphatic's dendrites.

Nerve is covered by three layers Neuron has three major parts ; soma,
endoneurium, perineurium, and dendrites and axon
epineurium

Acts a conducting zone for transporting Chemicals and electronic signals generated
signal here

Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, sensory Types include sensory neuron, interneuron,
nerves, motor nerves are the main four motor neuron s
types
 The Nerve impulse and transmission
• How The Neuron Works?
• Resting potential (non-signaling)– Neuron at “rest”
• The axon is not conducting an impulse.
• The voltmeter records a membrane potential equal to about -65 mV (millivolts),
indicating that the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside .
• The resting potential (about -40mv to -90mv). How?
• The cell maintain a negative resting membrane potential by pumping potassium
back into the cell and pumps sodium out of the cell at the same time.
• Neuron surface is polarized
• Outside is overall positively charged, while inside is overall negatively charged.
• The interstitial fluid has high concentration of Na+ ion which is about 16 times
higher outside the neuron than inside neuron.
• The axoplasm(cytoplasm a nerve axon) has high concentration of K+ ion which is
about 25 times higher inside than in outer interstitial fluids.
• +++ + + + lots of Na+, less K+ + + + + ++++++++++++ outside the axon
• - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
INSIDE THE AXON
• -------------+----+----------------+-------+--
 cont’d
• Some Na+ ions and K+ ions are present inside, but
the overall charge is negative
• Membrane of neuron has gated channels to move
Na+ and K+ ions.
• The larger negatively charged ions in the cell
(proteins, amino acids, phosphate, sulphate etc.)
cannot diffuse out.
• The Na+ and K+ ions outside are attracted to the
negative ions inside the cell and start to diffuse in.
 Cont’d
• The membrane of neuron at resting is more
permeable to K+ ion than Na+ ion.
• So, K+ leaves the neuron faster than Na+ enter the
neuron.
• The difference in permeability results in
accumulation of high concentration of cation (+ve
charged ion) outside the neuron compared to the
concentration of cation inside.
• Na+and K+ are transported across the membrane
against their concentration gradient by carrier
protein, which is called Na-K pump and energy is
used through ATP.
Figure 5.4 Resting potential
 Cont…
• For every 3 Na+ ions they pump out of the cell, in
exchange they pull 2 K+ ions back into the cell. (a 3
out, 2 in ratio).
• This maintains more positive ions outside the cell
than inside, maintaining the resting potential
polarization
Cont…
 Action potential/ depolarization
• Potential: difference in charge across plasma membrane.
• Nervous system relies on nerve impulses travelling along the neurons.
• Each nerve impulse is a minute electrical event that is the result of charge
differences across the membrane of the axon.
• Action potential is :
– short-term change in the electrical potential on the surface of a cell when it is
stimulated.
– a rapid change in polarity across a portion of an axonal membrane as
the nerve impulse occurs.
– the wave of positive charge inside the axon when the neuron is
stimulated.
– An action potential in response to a stimulus takes place very rapidly
and is measured in milliseconds.
– An individual neuron is capable of transmitting hundreds of action
potentials (impulses) each second.
• Threshold - The level of stimulation a neuron needs for an action potential
to occur. (e.g. a particle of dust landing on your skin is below threshold, you
don’t feel it but a fly landing on your skin is above threshold, you feel it)
 Cont…

▪The action potential is the basis of all the electrical signals in

the nervous system of the human body.
 Cont…
• Action potential is when neurons membrane has been
stimulated to carry an impulse .The membrane depolarizes
(polarity reverses).
• Stimulation causes a wave of depolarization to travel along
the neuron, from the dendrites, through the cell body to
terminal brushes.
• When the neuron receives an impulse the membrane
becomes highly permeable to sodium.
• The gated K+ channels close and the gates of the Na+
channels open Na+ ions move into the axon, making the
interior more positive than the outside of the neuron.
• This causes a depolarization in this area of the neuron,
causing the polarity to be reversed area of the axon (more
positive inside).
• Membrane potential rises from 0 to + 35 mv.
 Cont…
• The sodium rushes in displacing the potassium for a very short
time the polarity of the affected region changes and becomes
positive on the inside and negative on the outside.
• It is a very short periods that change in potential and last for 3
milliseconds.
• This action sets off a chain reaction where the membrane next
to the affect one becomes permeable In this fashion the
impulse is transferred the length of the neuron.
• Depolarization is started by a nerve impulse.
• Acetylcholine released by the axon terminal makes the
sarcolemma very permeable to Na+ ions, which enter the cell
and cause a reversal of charges to (-ve) outside and (+ve) inside.
• Folds of the sarcolemma called T tubules carry the
depolarization into the interior of the muscle cell.
A. Action potential begins:
B. Action potential ends C. Action potential graph
depolarization occurs
Figure 5.6 Conduction of Action Potentials
 Repolarization of the neuron
• Are as are depolarized only for a split second
• Brings the cell back to resting potential.
• Na+ channels begin to close and the K+ channels open. This
repolarizes the cell to resting potential.
• There is much more potassium inside the cell than out, so when
these channels open, more potassium exits than comes in. This
means the cell loses positively charged ions, and returns back
toward its resting state.
• Nerve become less permeable for Na+ than K+.
• So many K+ flow out and inside charge become more negative
than that it was originally.
• Na-k pump starts and normal concentrations of Na and K ions are
reestablished.
• Each pump actively transports two K+ ions into the cell to every
three Na+ ions transported out.
 Hyperpolarization
• makes the cell more negative than its typical resting
membrane potential.
• As the action potential passes through, potassium
channels stay open a little bit longer, and continue
to let positive ions exit the neuron. =
hyperpolarization.
• As the potassium channels close, the sodium-
potassium pump works to reestablish the resting
state.
• When both the Na+ and k+ channel have been
closed, there is no further movement of ions and
the membrane potential is -90mv, Na+/K+- ATPase
acts to restore the chemical gradient of the ions.
 Refractory period
• The refractory period is a state of recovery that occurs after a neuron
has fired an action potential.
• During this period, another action potential cannot be easily produced.
• This encourages unidirectional flow of action potentials because they
cannot travel backwards to inactive neurons.
• a refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is
incapable of repeating a particular action, or the amount of time it takes
for an excitable membrane to be ready for a second stimulus once it
returns to its resting state following an excitation.
• It most commonly refers to electrically excitable muscle cells or neurons.
• During refractory period, neurons are less likely to send action potential.
• Absolute refractory period(unresponsive to stimulation)
• a neuron cannot send another action potential
• corresponds to depolarization and repolarization
• relative refractory period(partially responsive to stimulation)
• They can send an action potential, but it requires a greater than normal
stimulus
• corresponds to hyperpolarization.
 Brainstorming
• Explain how impulse crosses the synaptic cleft?
• Describe the function of acetylecholinestrase?
 Synapses
• Neurons are not continuous ‘wires’ running about the body.
• Synapses – is the gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite
or cell body of another neuron or an effector muscle=Neuron-neuron synapses
• Neuromuscular junctions -the junction between an axon terminal of a motor
neuron and a muscle fiber.
• They work in the same way as a normal synapse, except the chemical crossing the
gap causes the muscles to contract.
• Pre-synaptic neuron
– The neuron that carries the wave of depolarization (impulse) towards the
synapse.
– the presynaptic neuron have several rounded synaptic knobs at their terminals,
which dendrites do not have.
– Synaptic knobs have arrays of membranous sacs, called synaptic vesicles, that
store neurotransmitter molecules(acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine).
– The synaptic knob comes close to, but does not touch, the postsynaptic
neuron.
– The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons is called the
synaptic cleft.
– the presynaptic neuron stimulates or inhibits a postsynaptic cell.
– Synaptic transmission is a one-way process carried out the axon terminal.
 Cont…
• Post-synaptic neuron
– The neuron that receives the stimulus from across the synapse.
• The Synaptic Response
– When the axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron receive an impulse,
special calcium ion gates in the membrane open.
– This triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from
synaptic vesicles in the membrane by exocytosis.
– The neurotransmitters diffuse into the synapse area, binding
with special sites on the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrites call
receptor sites.
• The synapse insures one-way transmission of impulses.
• The electrical impulse cannot cross the gap – it relies on
chemical transmission across the synapse.
• The neurons in brain have thousands of synapses, each one
connecting it to other neurons.
• Synapses are very important for the co-ordination of
information in central nervous system.
 Class work
• How impulses pass from one
neuron to another all over the
body?
 Neurotransmitters /the body chemical messengers/

• The electrical impulses that travel along neurons have to

cross these synapses, but an electrical impulse cannot
leap(jump) the gap.
• Neurotransmitters- chemicals in the junction that transmit
nerve impulses across synapses.
• Neurotransmitters are produced in cell body of presynaptic
neuron.
• when an impulse arrives at the end of a neuron, chemicals
are released. These chemical transmitters
(neurotransmitters) cross the synapse and are picked up
by special receptor cells in the end of the next neuron.
• In turn this starts up an electrical impulse, which then
travels along next neuron.
 cont,..

Figure 5.8 Signal transmission through a synapse.

Cont…
 CONT…
• Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or
inhibitory.
• Excitatory neurotransmitter
• promotes the generation of an action potential in the
receiving neuron.
• Inhibitory neurotransmitter
• Blocks the transmission from going into the next
neuron.
• decrease the likelihood that the neuron generate
action potential (action potential).
• Some medicines – and some poisons – work by
blocking chemical transmission across a synapse or
by speeding it up.
 Cont…
• One of the most common and abundant chemical transmitters found
in synapses is a chemical called acetylcholine
• acetylcholine is synthesized from acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) and
choline via the enzyme choline acetyltransferase.
• A number of well-known poisons work by affecting acetylcholine.
• Botulinus toxin /neurotoxin/:
• produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, a gram-
positive anaerobic bacterium.
• blocks nerve signals to muscles. How?
– affects the first membrane and stops the release of
acetylcholine.
– No transmission of impulses across synapses prevents the
nervous system from working and causes death.
 Cont…
• Strychnine(pesticides) and organophosphorus compounds
(insecticides and nerve gas)
• Strychnine- highly toxic, may be used as a military toxic or
terroristic agent.
• deactivate the enzymes on the second membrane and so
prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine.
• The nerves fire continuously and the muscles contract all the
time causing rigid paralysis.
• Curare (used on arrow tips by South American Indians) :
• stops the second membrane from responding to the chemical
transmitter.
• This causes paralysis as the muscles can no longer be
stimulated by the nerves.
Divisions of the Nervous System
 Cont…
• The human nervous
system consists of :
– The Central
Nervous System
(CNS)
– The Peripheral
Nervous System
(PNS).
 Central Nervous System(CNS)
• CNS is composed of/ made up of /:
• The brain (located in the cranial cavity) and
• The spinal cord (located in the vertebral cavity), which serve as
the main control centers for all body activities.
• They receive data and feedback from the sensory organs and from
nerves throughout the body, process the information, and send
commands back out.
• Brain :
• It is a delicate mass of nervous tissue with the consistency of
thick yoghurt.
• It is enclosed in membranes and protected by :
– the bones of skull in a space known as the cranium.
– the three protective and nourishing membranes
membranes (meninges) that envelop it, lie between the
bony covering and the nervous tissue.
 Cont’d
• The meninges consist of three connective tissue layers:
– Dura mater
• this layer lies closest to the bone of the skull and is a double layer of
tough, fibrous, connective tissue.
• The outer layer is called the periosteal layer (the spinal cord lacks this
layer).
– Arachnoid mater
• is a delicate serous membrane.
• between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater there is a space called the
subdural space.
• The subarachnoid space is below the arachnoid mater and above the pia mater.
• The subarachnoid space contains CSF and is also home to some of the larger blood
vessels serving the brain.

- Pia mater
- a delicate connective tissue layer that clings tightly to
the brain.
- It contains many tiny blood vessels that serve the
brain.
.
 cont’d
• The ventricles (chambers) in the brain (choroid plexuses)
produce a watery medium within the skull known as
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• The brain “floats” in a special cushioning fluid, the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is a thin fluid similar to plasma.
• Cerebrospinal fluid fills the spaces between the meninges membranes to create a
cushion to further protect the brain and spinal cord.
• Function of CSF are
• it acts as a cushion, supporting the weight of the brain and
protecting it from damage;
• it helps to maintain a uniform pressure around the brain and
spinal cord;
• there is a limited exchange of nutrients and waste products
between neurons and CSF.
• It contains proteins and glucose that provide energy for brain
cell function as well as lymphocytes that guard against
infection.
 Cont..
• An average human brain weighs
1300–1400 g (about 3 lb/pound)
yet the cerebral cortex, which
controls most of our conscious
thought and action, is only about
3 mm thick.
• Outer part of the brain is the gray
matter.
• Inside the brain is the white
matter – the bundle of axons
that lead into and out of the
brain.
• The medulla consists of the nerve
fibres or axons and is called the
white matter.
 Gray matter vs white matter
• Gray matter:
– makes up the outer most layer of the brain.
– The brain's surface, or cortex consists of cell bodies and is
called the grey matter.
– has a large number of cell body neurons
– The bulk of brain is made up of grey matter – the cell bodies
of neurons and the synapses that connect them.
– The axons of grey matter are not myelinated.
– is abundant in the cerebellum, cerebrum, and brain stem.
– What does gray matter in the brain?
– Important in cognitive processing including, memory, decision making,
language and attention.
– Emotion regulation
– Mental health
– generating commands, and self-control
– to process sensory information and release new information through axon
signaling found in the white matter.
 Cont’d
• White matter:
• Found inside the brain
• The white color derives from the myelin that coats axon.
• contains a high concentration of myelinated axons .
• conducts, processes, and send nerve signals up and
down the spinal cord.
• White matter tracts relaying sensory information
from the muscles and skin to the brain= essential for
impulse conduction.
• Act as highway and local rods that connects the
towns.
 The parts of human brain
• Twelve pairs of cranial
nerves connect the brain to
eyes, ears, and other
sensory organs and to head
and neck muscles.
• As an embryo develops in
the womb, the brain starts
off as a tube in the head
with three main areas.
–fore brain
–mid brain
–hind brain
 Cont’d
• Forebrain (voluntary action):
– It involves : diencephalon and telencephalon .
• Telencephalon
– cerebrum (the largest brain structure)
• Diencephalon
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Pituitary gland -the “master gland”
– Pineal gland-regulates sleep.
– Limbic system
• Hind brain(involuntary action)
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
– Cerebellum
 Cont..
• Fore brain(prosencephalon)- the largest part the brain.
– The large frontal area of the human brain
• The main function of the forebrain are:
• Home to sensory processing,
• It act as center for :
– touch, smell,
– hearing, visual reception and
– temperature reception
• high reasoning /thinking : Intelligent
• Memory
• Emotions , hunger, fullness, sleepy
• commands whole internal systems.
 1. Cerebrum/ Consciousness/
• Largest part of the brain. It has a number of functions:
• All of the information from our senses is sorted and interpreted in the
cerebrum.
• Controls voluntary muscles that control movement and speech
• reasoning, emotions, learning.
• Memories are stored in this area.
• Decisions are made here
• High Intellectual Functions Occur here.
• The cerebrum is divided into two halves/hemispheres: Right and left hemispheres.
• The two hemispheres are joined by a mass of white matter (inner most
layer) called the corpus callosum which transfers impulses from one
hemisphere to the other.
• Each hemisphere is covered by a thin layer called the cerebral cortex.
• The surface of the cortex is made of grey matter(cell bodies).
– grey matter areas in the brain and spinal cord that consist of
unmyelinated nerve cells.
• The cerebral hemispheres /cortex are involved in all the higher levels of
thought, creativity, memory, voluntary movement, communication.
 Cont..
• Some areas of the cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) are involved in:
– the coordination and interpretation of affector input from sense organs.
– other areas are involved in sending out effector impulses to control the actions
of the body in response to the affector information.
• Each side of the body is controlled by the opposite side of the brain – so what you
see with your right eye goes to the left-hand side of your brain.
• The left-hand side of your brain is:
• good at processing information
• largely controls speech
• The right hand side is better at:
• spacial awareness and recognizing faces.
• If the right-hand side of the brain is damaged you may be unable to recognize even
your closest family.
 Cont..
• Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided
into four lobes.
• Frontal Lobe
– Involved in muscle control and reasoning.
It allows you to think critically.
– Personality, emotion and behavior
– Primary motor cortex (voluntary
motion). Efferent neurons.
• Parietal Lobe/Sensory functions (Touch & Taste)
– Primary sensory cortex. Afferent neurons.
– receives sensory information from our skin
and skeletal muscles.
– It is also associated with our sense of taste
• Occipital Lobe/visual cortex/
– Receives information from the eyes
– Primary visual cortex.
• Temporal Lobe/auditory cortex/
– Receives information from the ear
 2. Diencephalon/The region
• It connected to both the midbrain (part of the brain
of fore brain/
stem) and the cerebrum.
• 1. Thalamus /the neural railway station of the
brain/:sorting station.
– is superior to the hypothalamus and inferior to the
cerebrum.
– the third ventricle is a narrow cavity that passes through
both the thalamus and hypothalamus.
– Many of the functions of the thalamus are concerned
with sensation.
– Directs sensory impulse to the cerebrum.
– Receives information from all
senses (except smell) before being directed to other
areas of the brain for processing.
– Relay & distribution of many
sensory & motor signals to specific parts of cerebral
cortex.
– It determines which signals require conscious awareness,
and which should be available for learning and memory.
• Thalamus - Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays
information to various brain regions.
• The thalamus is also involved with consciousness,
alertness, and sleep.
 Cont’d
• 2. Hypothalamus (“under the thalamus”)
• connects to the midbrain and the cerebrum.
• is the center for homeostatic control of the
internal environment.
• Main control center for the autonomic
nervous system, devoted to involuntary
internal functions.
• Controls and Regulates :
– Body chemistry and temperature
– Appetite, thirst,
– Water balance
– sleep cycles and other circadian rhythms
– Blood vessel contraction and dilation
– controls sex drive and an endocrine gland that
interacts with the adjacent pituitary gland.
• controlling the pituitary gland and its
hormones.
• Control Emotions:
– Hunger
– Fear
– Pleasure
– Pain and affection
 Brain stem(Medulla, pons, midbrain)
• The Brain Stem Relays Signals Between the Brain and Spinal Cord,
Manages Basic Involuntary Functions and directs basic internal
functions and reflexes.
• brainstem connects brain to cervical spinal cord (neck) and consists
of three main parts:
– Mid brain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
• Together, these three parts work to regulate various involuntary
functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
• Brainstem also plays a critical role in sleep and consciousness.
 The Mid Brain/Mesencephalon/
• It is located below cerebral cortex and at the top of the
brainstem.
• It is sandwiched between the diencephalon (which includes
the thalamus and hypothalamus and the pons.
• acts as a relay station for tracts passing between the
cerebrum and the spinal cord or cerebellum.
• Functions as a relay system, transmitting information
necessary for vision and hearing.
• It also plays an important role in motor movement, pain,
and the sleep/wake cycle.
• Controls in involuntary actions
• The brain stem also has reflex centers for visual, auditory,
and tactile/touch/ responses.
 The Hind brain/rhombencephalon/
• The hind brain /brain stem/
• mostly coordinates autonomic functions that are essential to survival.
• It Involves or made up of:
• medulla
• Pons
• cerebellum- balance and orientation
• The hindbrain responsible for the action of:
• Autonomic functions
– Breathing
– Circulation
– Swallowing , vomiting
– Digestion , respiration
• It act as a screen for information that leaves or enters the brain
• Even if all of the higher brain is damaged and destroyed, you may continue to
breathe if your medulla is intact.
 Cont’d
• 1. The pons means “bridge” in
Latin
• a portion of the brain lying inferior to the
midbrain, above the medulla oblongata and
anterior to the cerebellum.
• Connects cerebrum and cerebellum.
• comprises neural pathways and tracts that
conduct signals from the brain down to the
cerebellum including medulla and tracts
that transmit the sensory signals up into the
thalamus.
• the pons contains bundles of axons
traveling between the cerebellum
and the rest of the CNS.
• the pons functions with the
medulla oblongata to regulate
breathing rate, and has reflex
centers concerned with head
movements in response to
visual and auditory stimuli.
• Responsible for chewing,
tasting and saliva production.
 Cont’d
• 2. The medulla oblongata:
• It is located at the base of the brain where it
attaches to the spinal cord.
• contains many reflex centers .
• it contains tracts that ascend or descend between the
spinal cord and higher brain centers.
• It has a number of major functions:
– It has a cardiac center which controls
a person’s heart rate and the force of
the heart’s contractions.= handle
circulation.
– It has a vasomotor center which is
able to adjust a person’s blood
pressure by controlling the diameter
of blood vessels.
– It has a respiratory center which
controls the rate and depth of a
person’s breathing.
– Used to handle respiration, digestion.
– It has a reflex center which controls
vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
hiccupping, and swallowing.
– Any damage to the medulla oblongata
is usually fatal
 Cont’d
• 3. Cerebellum /the second largest part of
the brain/
• It is the largest part of the hindbrain.
• lies under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum and is separated
from the brainstem by the fourth ventricle.
• Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has left and right
hemispheres.
• A middle region, the vermis, connects them.
• The primary functions of the cerebellum are :
• to maintain posture and balance. How?
– The cerebellum receives sensory input from the eyes,
ears, joints, and muscles about the present position of
body parts, and it also receives motor output from the
cerebral cortex about where these parts should be
located.
– After integrating this information, the cerebellum sends
motor impulses by way of the brain stem to the skeletal
muscles.
• adjust body movement, speech coordination.
• Motor memory
• Coordinating muscle action
• assists the learning of new motor skills such
as playing the piano or hitting a baseball.
• important in judging the passage of time.
 SPINAL CORD
❑ The main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system.
❑ The spinal cord allows the brain to communicate with the PNS.
❑ It is a tubular structure composed of the nervous tissue that extends from the
brainstem and continues distally before tapering at the lower thoracic/upper
lumbar region as the conus medullaris (the terminal end of the spinal cord).
❑ The majority of nerves come out of the spinal cord are known as the spinal
nerves.
❑ They stretch to the arms, legs, trunk and to the rest of the body.
❑ The primary function of spinal cord are:
❑ a transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
❑ Coordinate reflexes
➢ Sensory
➢ Motor
➢ Local reflexes
 The structure of spinal cord
• The spinal cord has a much simpler structure than the brain.
• The spinal cord is encased and protected by the vertebrae making up
the spine.
• The meninges (pia mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater ) and the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surround and protect the CNS.
– Dura matter- is the thick outermost covering (meninges) of the
brain and spinal cord.
– lateral extensions of the pia matter form the denticulate
ligaments, extending between the ventral and dorsal roots unto
the dura mater.
– Denticulate ligaments- are fibrous structures that help to anchor
the spinal in place.
– The CSF is located between the pia mater and the arachnoid
mater.
Spinal cord and spinal meninges.
 Cont’d
• The spinal cord is composed of grey matter in the center surrounded
by white matter supported by neuroglia.
• Gray Matter-consist of unmyelinated axon.
– The arrangement of grey matter in the spinal cord resembles the shape of the
letter H, having two posterior, two anterior and two lateral horns/columns.
– The gray matter (cell bodies and short relay neurons) is made of neural tissue
which contains three types of nerve cells or neurons:
• 1. Sensory neurons/Tracts/- They receive impulses from the periphery of the body
and whose axons constitute the ascending fasciculi of the white matter.
– They are located in the dorsal horns.
• 2. Lower Motor neurons -Transmit impulses to the skeletal muscles
– Located in the ventral horns
• 3. Inter-neurons-They link sensory and motor neurons, at the same or different
levels, which form spinal reflex arcs. (Without going to the brain).
Spinal cord gray matter, spinal roots, and spinal nerves. T
 WHITE MATTER
❑ Consists of mixture of nerve fibers, neuroglia and
blood vessels.
❑ White color is due to high proportion of myelinated
nerve fibers
❑ The white matter of the spinal cord is arranged in
columns/funiculi; anterior, posterior and lateral.
❑ The nerve fibers are arranged as bundles, running
vertically through the cord.
❑ A group of nerve fibers (axons) that share a
common origin, termination and function form a
tract or fasciculus
❑ These tracts are formed by sensory nerve fibers
ascending to the brain, motor nerve fibers
descending from the brain and fibers of connector
neurons.
❑ Tracts are often named according to their points of Depending on their function, the
origin and destination, e.g. spinothalamic,
corticospinal. spinal tracts are divided into
ascending and descending tracts
Cont…
 Cont’d
• At regular intervals along the spinal cord there are
entrance points for affector nerves bringing
information into the CNS and exit points for
effector nerves carrying instructions from the CNS.
• If your spinal cord is damaged you may lose all
sensation below the damaged area, or lose
effector control – or both.
 Peripheral NS
• The peripheral (body) system is made up of :
• The neurons (nerve cells)
• The sensory receptors.
• PNS is the huge network of nerves running all over body
carrying information to and from the CNS.
• The nerves that run to and from the CNS make up the
peripheral nervous system.
• PNS is composed of nerves derived from the brain and spinal
cord (12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves),
which serve as linkage between the CNS and the body.
• Cranial nerves:
• are come out of the brain.
• They go mainly to structures in head and neck, like eyes,
tongue and jaws.
• They help in facial expression, blink eyes, to move tongue.
• They are 12 pairs.
 Cont’d
• Types of cranial nerves:
• Olfactory nerve- sense of smell.
• Optic nerve- the ability to see.
• Oculomotor nerve- ability to move and blink eyes
• Trochlear nerve-a bility to move eyes up and down or
back and forth.
• Trigerminal nerve- sensation in face and cheeks, taste
and jaw movement.
• Auditory/vestibular nerve- sense of hearing and
balance.
• Glossopharygeal nerve- a bility to taste and swallow.
• Vagus nerve(longest one)- digestion and heart rate.
• Hypoglossal nerve- ability to move tongue.
 SPINAL NERVES
❑ Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves
❑ First pair exit vertebral column between skull and atlas, last four pairs exit via
the sacral foramina and others exit through intervertebral foramina.
❑ Eight pair cervical, twelve pair thoracic, five pair lumbar, five pair sacral, one
pair coccygeal.
❑ Each spinal nerve arises as rootlets which then combine to form dorsal
(posterior) & ventral (anterior) roots.
❑ Two roots merge laterally and form the spinal nerve.
❑ Dorsal (posterior) root has a ganglion (dorsal root/sensory ganglion) that
contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurons.
❑ Each spinal nerve then divides into a smaller dorsal and a larger ventral ramus.
❑ transmit and receive messages to and from
the brain.
❑ They are the main communication
between brain and the rest of the
body.
❑ Are the majority of the nerves that come
out of the spinal cord.
❑ They go to the arms, the legs and the trunk
(the rest of the body).
 Cont..
• PNS can be subdivided into Sensory (afferent) nerves and
Motor (efferent) nerves.
• Sensory nerves send nerve impulse from the body to CNS,
while motor nerves send impulse from CNS to effector
organs.
• Motor nerves are divided into :
• The Somatic Nervous system (SNS) which regulates
the voluntary contraction of skeletal muscles
• Autonomic nervous system(ANS) which regulates the
involuntary control of smooth, cardiac muscles and
glands.
 Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

• Relays information from skin, sense organs &

skeletal muscles to CNS
• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for
voluntary.
 Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)
• Regulates bodies involuntary responses
• Relays information to internal organs
• The ANS can be divided into :
– Sympathetic nerves - stimulate activities of the
effector organs.
– In times of :
• Emergency response
• Fight or flight
– Parasympathetic nerves- inhibit activities of the
effector organs.
• when body is at rest or with normal
functions
• allows the body to return to normal after an
emergency situation
CONT..
 Voluntary and reflex control
• Voluntary actions are conscious action. .
–we see a book, reach out and pick it up
–crossing a road-hear an approaching car and
stop moving.
–greeting a friend, eating a meal
• The nervous system is involved in rapid responses
by the human body to changes in the world around
it and within the body as well.
 Cont..
• Receptor cells collect information about a particular
stimulus.
• electrical impulses transmit the information from the
receptor cells along affector neurons to the central nervous
system (CNS).
• Here the information is processed and another electrical
impulse is sent out along the effector nerves to a muscle or
gland (effector) that will then cause the appropriate body
response.
• Muscles contract whilst glands release chemical substances
 A reflex action
• It is a sudden, instinctive, unlearned reaction to a stimulus,
automatic and uncontrolled response of parts of the body or
the whole body to external stimuli.
• A reflex is a rapid, involuntary, stereotyped pattern of response brought by a
sensory stimulus.
• It is the simplest of the innate behaviours.
• Not all reflexes are simple. Some of them can be learnt
• Reflexes occur very fast.
• They are usually involved in helping us to avoid danger or
damage.
• leaving the brain free for thinking about other things.
• The key point about a reflex action is that the messages do not
reach a conscious area of the brain before instructions are sent
out to take action.
• Many reflexes involve the spinal cord while others involve the
brain.
 Cont..
• They involve three types of neuron – affector neurons,
relay neurons and effector neurons.
• Relay neurons connect the affector and effector neurons
directly in the CNS, without input from other areas.
• The receptors, neurons and effectors involved are referred
to as a reflex arc.
• A neural pathway mediating the reflex actions is called reflex arc.
• Reflex arc- is the complete nervous path involved in a reflex
• The brain and spinal cord together act as co-ordinators
that process the information coming from sensory
receptors and neurons and instruct effector neurons and
effectors to react.
 How reflexes work in detail?
• Most reflex actions can be analysed as follows:
• stimulus → receptor → afferent neuron → co-ordinator
→ efferent neuron → effector → response.
• This is very similar to a normal conscious action, except
that in a reflex the co-ordinator is a relay neuron either
in the spinal cord or in the unconscious areas of the
brain.
• Example:If you put your hand down on something hot
this analysis would show:
• hand on hot plate → temperature and pain receptors in
skin → afferent neuron → relay neuron in spinal cord →
efferent neuron → muscles of arm → moving hand
away from hot object.
Figure 3.10 This reflex action moves your hand away from the pin
before you hurt yourself too much.
COMPONENTS OF A REFLEX ARC
Action potentials produced in which responds with a reflex
Sensory receptor Sensory neuron

Effector organ Motor neuron Interneuron

 Cont..
• when you put your finger on a sharp pin:
• finger on a sharp pin a sensory receptor in the skin
afferent neuron → relay neuron in spinal cord → efferent
neuron → muscles of the upper arm→ moving hand
upwards sharply.
• The neuron enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root.
• dorsal root root at the back of the spinal cord
• The effector neuron leaves the spinal cord by the ventral
root.
• ventral root root at the front of the spinal cord
 Types of reflex actions
• There are, three main kinds of reflex actions:
– somatic reflexes
– autonomic reflexes
– Conditioned reflexes
• somatic reflexes involve our :
– special senses (eyes, ears, pressure detectors, etc.) and
produce a response by a muscle.
– Many of these reflexes are protective. examples:
• knee-jerk reflex’ and the ‘withdrawal from heat’
reflex
• The pupil reflex-protects your retina from
damage from too much light.
• The blink reflex, protects your eyes from
physical damage
 Cont..
• knee-jerk reflex is used by doctors to test reflexes and in
ordinary life to prevent stumbling.
• autonomic reflexes involve in
– internal organs and produce responses also in
internal organs.
–controlling heart rate and breathing rate.
 conditioned reflexes
▪In 1902, a Russian scientist called Ivan Pavlov investigated
conditioned reflex action using a dog.
 Cont…
• He noticed that a dog produces a lot of saliva (UR)at the
sight of food(US).
• The production of saliva is a reflex action in response to the
sight of food.
• In this experiment, a bell was rung (NS)every time food was
supplied to a dog.
• After the experiment was repeated several times he
noticed that when the bell was rung the dogs salivated,
even if there was no food present.
• The dog had learnt to associate the sound of the bell with
the presence of food.
• Salivation at the sound of the bell thus became a reflex
action.
 Cont..
• This helps an animal to learn new ways of behaving.
• Conditioned reflexes also produce responses which
are favourable.
• So reflexes are important both for keeping us safe,
and for helping us to learn.
 Class work
• 1. What is a reflex action?
• 2. What is a voluntary action and how does it differ
from a reflex action?
• 3. If you touch something hot, you withdraw your
hand very quickly in a reflex action. Draw a diagram
to show this reflex arc and label it carefully.
 Mental illnesses
• Mental illnesses describe a wide variety of disorders and
diseases that involve :
• Thought processes
• emotional disturbances and/or behaviour that
are considered abnormal
• Mental illness may range from mild depression to conditions
such as psychosis.
• Mild depression- someone feels low and sad for no apparent
reason and cannot lift their mood.
• Psychosis(disconnection from reality)- is very serious mental
illness that makes you behave strangely(unfamiliar) or believe
things that are not true.
– Inability to distinguish between what is real and what
is imaginary.= delusions
– Hallucination - hearing and, smelling, seeing or tasting things that are not
there
 Cont..
• Mental illness can be the result of an imbalance of
the chemical transmitters in the brain.
• The use of illegal drugs, which affect the chemistry
of the brain, is leading to an increase in mental
illness in young people.
 Group discussion
• Discuss the risk factor or the cause of mental
illnesses?
 The cause of mental illnesses
• Biological
– Brain chemistry- imbalance of natural chemicals
• Genetic/ heredity
• Environmental
– Stressful events
– Unhealthy habits
– Drug and alcohol
• Psychological
– Childhood trauma- physical and sexual abuse
– Loss of parents
– Neglect
– Negative thought
 Drug abuse
• Drugs are substances that change a person’s mental or physical
state.
• Drug (or substance) use affects the brain and/or body function and
mental activity.
• Drugs are used for medicine and others are used for pleasure.
• Most drugs tend to be habit-forming, if not physically addictive.
• Some of the substances(drug) are socially acceptable(legal) and
others are illegal.
• Legal drugs are used for the mild pleasure they bring, to be
sociable and because using them becomes a habit.
• Drug abuse is the excessive and wrong use of drugs.
• Taking an excess of a drug cause a risk serious side effects and
even death.
• Drug dependence is the use of a drug again and again and
become addicted.
 Cont…
• Drugs change the chemical processes in your body so you can become addicted to
them (dependent on them). This means you
– cannot manage or function properly without the drug.
• This may be psychological – the need to keep using it becomes a craving or compulsion – or
– a physical dependence where your body no longer works properly without the drug.
• Dependence vs addiction
• Dependence is exhibited by physical symptoms.
• Addiction : manifests as a combination of physical, mental and behavioral symptoms .
• A person who is addicted is also dependent. However, who is A person who is
dependent on a drug may not addicted to it.
• Substance use disorder (SUD) or drug addiction is a disease that
negatively affects a person’s brain and behavior.
• Drug abuse and dependence can hurt the individual user, their
family and the entire community.
• withdrawal symptoms - a set of unpleasant effects upon the body caused
by a sudden stopping of using a drug. Such as:
– Feel very unwell,
– aches and pains,
– shaking, sweating, headaches
– cravings for the drug and even fevers
 Cont..
• Alcohol, tobacco, khat , cannabis(marijuana) and Solvents like
gasoline are the most widely used substances in Ethiopia.
• Alcohol, khat (cathinone ), tobacco(nicotine) and
coffee(caffeine)are the most commonly used legal recreational
drugs in Ethiopia butcannabis is illegal drug.
• Solvents like gasoline are legal.
• All commonly used recreational drugs in Ethiopia have the
following features in common:
– They are addictive.
– They affect brain function and alter behaviour.
– They damage health, resulting in lower productivity
and absence from school/work.
– They adversely affect the individual, families,
community and country.
 Cont…
• Illegal drugs rarely used in Ethiopia are:
• prescription sedatives,
• Cocaine
• LSD(lysergic acid diethylamide)
• Ecstasy and heroin.
• Illegal drugs affect the health, in two quite different ways.
• 1. They cause changes in the body and can damage
vital systems.
• 2. turn to crime or prostitution to raise the money
• They take part in risky activities such as sharing
needles, which increases the risk of becoming
infected with HIV/AIDS or hepatitis.
 Cigarette Smoke Components and Disease
• Smoking is not as common in Ethiopia as it is in many parts of the
world.
• Cigarette smoke is a complex mixture of chemicals.
• Some smoke components, such as
• Gases components:
• carbon monoxide (CO),
• hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and nitrogen oxides
• solid particles that are suspended in cigarette smoke:
• nicotine, phenol, tar
• polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
• certain tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs)-
• volatile chemicals componets:
• formaldehyde, acrolein,
• benzene, and certain N-nitrosamines
 Cont..
• The addictive drug in cigarette smoke is nicotine.
– It affects the brain and produces a sensation of
calm well-being and being able to cope.
– It is very physically addictive.
– It is the major psychoactive component of smoke, causes
powerful changes in heart rate and blood circulation.
– Nicotine appears to cause injury to the arterial lining
• How does nicotine use lead to addiction?
– Nicotine releases a chemical called dopamine in the same regions
of the brain as other addictive drugs.
– It causes mood-altering changes that make the person temporarily
feel good.
– Inhaled smoke delivers nicotine to the brain within 20 seconds,
which makes it very addictive..
 Cont’d
• What is dopamine?
• Dopamine is a chemical released in the brain that makes you
feel good.
• Having the right amount of dopamine is important both for
body and brain.
• Dopamine helps nerve cells to send messages to each other.
• It’s produced by a group of nerve cells in the middle of the
brain and sends out messages to other parts of the brain.
• Within seconds of inhaling cigarette smoke, nicotine causes
the release of dopamine in the brain, which gives people a
good feeling.
• Over time, the brain begins to crave that feeling from nicotine
and people need to use more and more tobacco to get that
same good feeling.
 Cont…
• Major Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking:

– Coronary Heart Disease

– Strokes

– Lung Disease

– Cancers (lip, mouth, esophagus, larynx, throat,

pancreas, bladder and kidney)-many of the
chemicals in cigarette smoke are carcinogenic.

– toxicity to the human reproductive system.

 Coronary Heart Disease
• The chemicals in the tobacco smoke :
• Affect the walls of arteries.
• They make the blood vessels supplying oxygen to the heart
narrow. This reduces the blood supply to the heart and
other areas of the body.
• Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke binds to the
hemoglobin in red blood cells, thereby reducing
the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood .
– They damage the smooth lining of the arteries, which
makes it much more likely that atherosclerosis will occur.
• They damage the inner lining of blood vessels,
thus enhancing the transfer of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol particles across the
arterial wall and into the developing
cholesterol-laden plaque .
 Cont..
• Strokes:
• They blocked the blood vessels taking blood to the brain and lead to stroke.

• They damaged the brain area and lead to paralysis, memory loss and even

death.

• Lung Disease:
• HCN may affect the human respiratory system by its toxic effects on the

cilia that line the respiratory tract.

• tar and other chemicals in tobacco smoke damage the tissues of the lungs

and lead to a greatly increased risk of developing chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer.

 Cont…
• Maternal cigarette smoking has serious adverse effects on the outcome

of pregnancy. These include :

• retarded fetal growth; low birth weight;

• spontaneous abortion; certain complications of

pregnancy,

• bleeding during pregnancy and prolonged premature

• rupture of membranes; and infant death

 Class work

• When a pregnant woman smokes, how

does it affect her baby?
 Cont…
• oxygen starvation of the fetus and placenta :

• Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke can cross the

placenta and bind to the hemoglobin in fetal blood.

• Smoking causes constriction of the umbilical arteries,

impairing placental blood flow.

• Nicotine and HCN, which also crosses the placenta, can

have a number of toxic effects on the fetus.

 Active smoker VS passive smoker
• Both smokers (active smoker) and nonsmokers
(passive smoker)can incur adverse health effects
from the smoke of burning cigarettes.
 Alcohol /depressant drug/
• Why is alcohol described as a
drug?
• Why you feel hungry when you
are drunk?
• Why is alcohol diuretic?
 CONT…
• Alcohol is one of the drugs most commonly used in Ethiopia
but we still drink far less than many other countries.
• For many people alcohol is part of their social life.
• Alcohol, like other drugs, has a powerful effect on the brain,
producing pleasurable feelings and blunting negative feelings.
• In small amounts, alcohol makes people :
– feel relaxed and cheerful.
– It makes you less inhibited.
– So shy people can feel more confident when they’ve
had an alcoholic drink.
• These feelings can motivate some people to
drink alcohol again and again.
• Alcohol use is one of the world’s leading
health risks that results in 2.5 million death
each year.
 The effect of alcohol on human body
• Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a condition characterized
by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use
despite adverse social, occupational, or health
consequences.
• Alcohol has a powerful effect on human body.
• It is very addictive and poisonous.
• liver can usually break it down.
• It gets rid of the alcohol before it causes permanent
damage and death.
• Alcohol acts quickly because it is readily absorbed into
the bloodstream from the stomach.
• alcoholic drink wall of gut bloodstream
nearly every tissue s body.
 Cont….
• Regular use of alcohol may eventually cause:
• Depression
• Poor memory and brain damage
– It gets into nervous system and brain. This slows down your reactions.
– It can make you lose your self-control.
– It contributes to poor muscular co-ordination, resulting in
slurred speech and a lack of balance.
– It cause you to make stupid or dangerous decisions.
• Research has shown that young people who drink alcohol are
– more likely to have unprotected sex.
– more likely to become pregnant
– much more likely to become infected with HIV/AIDS.
 Cont…
• Difficulty getting an excretion - dehydration
– Alcohol is a diuretic, which means it promotes water loss through
urine.
– It does this by inhibiting the production of a hormone called
vasopressin(antidiuretic hormone), which plays a large role in the
regulation of water excretion.
• Increases hunger
– Alcohol stimulates nerve cells in brain’s hypothalamus that
stimulate appetite
• High blood pressure and heart disease
– It dilates blood capillaries near the skin surface producing a feeling
of warmth and well-being.
– It increases the heart rate.
• Cancer
• Liver diseases/cirrhosis of the liver/
 Cont…
• cirrhosis of the liver( end stage liver disease)- a serious
disease of the liver that can be caused by drinking too much
alcohol.
–This disease destroys liver tissue.
–They can also get liver cancer, which spreads
quickly and can be fatal.

»Healthy liver Liver with cirrhosis

 The effects of drinking on society
• Alcohol abuse affects personal lives as well.
–Domestic violence
–road accidents
–Many crimes
• For example, alcohol is a factor in a high percentage of all
fatal road accidents in the Caribbean.
• In fact, a survey in Trinidad a number of years ago showed
that almost 50% of the men admitted to hospital had
alcohol-related conditions.
 Cont…
• binge drinking - consuming excessive amounts of alcohol in
a short period of time.
–It is a recent problem.
–This often involves young people.
–They go out and get very drunk several nights a
week.
–They can become violent and abusive, damage
property and put their own health at risk both in
cars and from HIV/AIDS through unprotected sex.
• As the effects of the alcohol wear off, it
can cause headaches, due to
dehydration, and nausea.
 Catha edulis (Khat)
• Catha edulis (Khat) is a plant grown commonly in the
horn of Africa.
• The plant has a stimulant effect similar to
amphetamine, cocaine or very strong coffee depending
on how much it is consumed.
• khat leaves contain cathinone drug which affects the
brain.
• cathinone drug is absorbed into the bloodstream
through the membranes lining the mouth and the
stomach as the leaves are chewed.
• It acts quickly, within 30 minutes of starting to chew,
before it is broken down and removed by the liver.
• It is a mild stimulant, makes people feel happy.
• It is often used in social situations.
 Cont…
• The negative effects of the drug may be
damaging the economy even more.
• People spend hours chewing and dreaming when they
could be working.
• affects the health of the population directly
and indirectly by the behaviour it causes.
 The effect of khat
• Using khat makes people :
• more likely to be injured in accidents
• more likely to be involved in crime
• more likely to have problems in their family lives.
• less likely to have a job
• reduces appetite- it stops feeling hungry.
• Mood changes, changes in sex drive- inability to get erection
• Excessive talkativeness, unprotected sex, risk of pregnancy and
HIV/AIDS infection
• Hyperactivity, enlarged liver
• Reduce sleeping (insomnia),
• Increase heart rate, body temperature and breathing rate
• Inflammation esophagus, heart attack, change in white blood
cells.
 Cannabis (marijuana)
• cannabis/marijuana and ganja/weed drug - are made from the cannabis plant.
• Cannabis is a plant that contains 400 known chemicals, 60 of which, called the cannabinoids,
are unique to the plant.
• The most potent is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinoid (THC).
• THC is known to affect the brain cells responsible for memory, emotion and motivation.
• Cannabis is illegal in Ethiopia
– It is currently used in a number of social contexts.
– it is used in folk medicine-pain relief for multiple sclerosis(pathological
hardening of tissue)
• A survey showed that 43% of the people in mental hospitals in Ethiopia had abused alcohol,
khat or cannabis.
• Educating peoples is better to reduce the use of drug.
• Cannabis is usually smoked but it can also be eaten.
– liver converts it into a much more powerful drug.
– It can make people feel a great sense of wellbeing and relaxation, happy and
euphoric – and this is why people use it.
– It is a mild hallucinogenic drug.
 Cont..
• Hallucinogens - are psychotoxic drugs that affect the mind
in a way that produces distorted sensations abnormal in
content.
• It produce vivid waking dreams
• The user has a distorted view of the world.
• The effect of cannabis is very variable.
• It affects different people in different ways
• Even the same person can react very differently
depending on how it is used.
• Many people mix cannabis with tobacco, so they have all
the health problems linked to tobacco smoke as well as the
problems cannabis can bring.
 Cont…
• There are many other illegal drugs but they are not widely
used in Ethiopia but they common some places. They
include:
–LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
–Cocaine
–Heroin.
• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide):
–a very strong hallucinogenic drug made in the
laboratory.
–It has a powerful effect on the brain.
• people believe they can fly
• young people high on LSD (an LSD trip)
leaping from buildings.
 Cont…
• Cocaine:
• get a rush of energy and a high where you feel very powerful.
• The downside(drawback) is
• feeling paranoid and depressed.
• It is an extremely addictive drug and expensive.
• Cocaine raises:
• blood pressure
• heartbeat
• temperature
• It can kill you the first time you use it.
• Heroin:
• Is one of a family of drugs known as the opioids formed from the opium poppy.
• People have used opiates, both medically as very good painkillers and as recreational drugs, for centuries.
• Heroin is usually found as a white or brownish powder, which is dissolved in water and
injected either under the skin or directly into a muscle or vein.
• It can also be ‘snorted’ into the nose, smoked, eaten or inserted as a suppository into the
rectum.
• The heroin molecules interact with receptors in the brain to create strong sensations of
pleasure and to block pain.
• Most heroin users do not feel hunger, pain or sexual feelings
• A high dose of heroin kills very easily.
• They risk abscesses, liver diseases such as hepatitis and even heart and brain
damage.
 Sense organs
• By the end of this section you should be able to:
– Indicate the structures of the human eye, ear, skin, tongue
and nose using diagrams or models, and describe their
functions and methods of caring for them.
– Show the structures of the eye using a sheep’s or cow’s eye.
– Describe image formation and accommodation.
– Demonstrate the blind spot.
– List common eye defects in humans and explain their causes
and the available corrective measures.
– Explain how balance is maintained by the inner ear.
– Identify the taste areas of the tongue.
– Conduct an experiment to prove that the actual taste of food
is a mixture of taste and smell.
– Draw and label the smelling organ.
– Draw and label the structure of the skin.
 Sense organs
• sensory organ an organ- that receives and relays
information about the body’s senses to the brain.
• They contains a large number of sensory receptor cells.
• For any nervous system to work there must be sensory
receptors that respond to stimuli.
• Stimuli are the changes in the environment.
• In the human body there are many different types of
sensory receptors that respond to different stimuli.
• Different parts of the body contain different numbers of
sensory receptors.
• Sensory receptors change the energy of the stimulus
into electrical energy in a nerve impulse.
 Cont…

Figure 3.18 Different parts of the body contain

different numbers of sensory receptors
 Cont…

Table 3.1: Table to show the main sense organs of the body
and the type of stimulus they respond
 Types of sensory receptors
• 6Types of Sensory Receptors - based on the type of
stimuli they detect:
• Mechanoreceptors - pressure receptors, stretch
receptors, and specialized mechanoreceptors involved
in movement and balance.
• Thermoreceptors - skin respond to both external and
internal temperature.
• Pain receptors - stimulated by lack of O2, chemicals
released from damaged cells and inflammatory cells .
• Chemoreceptors - detect changes in levels of O2, CO2,
and H+ ions (pH) as well as chemicals that stimulate
taste and smell receptors .
• Photoreceptors - stimulated by light.
– Proprioceptors -(position of body parts or changes in muscle
length or tension).
 Cont…
• Distribution of Receptors in the body:
• General sense(somesthetic, somatosensory)
• receptors widely distributed in skin, muscles,
tendons, joints, and viscera
• they detect touch, pressure, stretch, heat, cold and
pain, blood pressure
• Special Senses - Sensation and perception
– Large and complex organs
– Localized grouping of specialized receptors
» Vision – Eye
» Hearing – Ear
» Equilibrium – Ear
» Taste – Taste receptors
» Smell – Olfactory system
•
 The skin as a sense organ
• The skin is one of the largest organs(20 square feet) in the human
body in surface area and weight.
• It is a remarkably complex organ.
• Skin contains a huge variety of sense organs (touch, temperature,
pressure, pain).
• The function of skin:
– permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold.
– Protective: It forms a waterproof layer around the body
tissues, which protects against the loss of water by
evaporation and prevents gaining water by osmosis every
time while swimming in the river or wash.
• It protects from the entry of bacteria and other pathogens.
• It protects from damage by UV light from the sun.
– It is an excretory organ (nitrogenous wastes are lost in
sweat).
– Thermoregulatory: It is vital in controlling the body
temperature.
 Basic components of the human skin
• Skin has three main layers. Such as:
• Epidermis(upper layer)- thinnest of the three layer of skin
– the outermost layer of skin, made up of dead cells.
– thickness of epidermis varies in different type of skin.
– stop water loss and protect against the entry of
pathogens.
– The epidermis involves three type of cells such as:
– Keratinocytes:
• produce keratin protein, the main component of the epidermis.
• Keratin makes up hair, nails, and the surface layer of the skin.
• Keratin is forms the rigidity of skin and helps with the barrier protection
that skin offers.
– Melanocytes produce skin pigment, which is known as melanin.
– Langerhans cells- involved in the immune system in the skin.
• prevent things from getting into skin.
 Cont’d
• Dermis(the middle layer)- the thickest of the three layer of skin
• contains most of the skins’ specialized cells and structures, including
• Much of the body’s water supply is stored within the dermis.
• the blood vessels:
– Supply nutrients and oxygen to the skin and take away cell waste and cell products
– Transport the vitamin D produced in the skin back to the rest of the body.
• Hair follicles : nourishes the hair
• Sweat gland:
– apocrine gland - found in armpits and pubic region, promotes the growth of bacteria responsible for
body odor.
– Eccrine gland- found over the entire body, regulate body temperature
• Sebaceous gland- secrete oil that helps keep the skin smooth and supple.
– The oil also helps keep skin waterproof and protect against an overgrowth of bacteria and fungi on
the skin.
• Nerve ending- contains the sensory receptors(temperature, pressure),
• Lymph vessels- contains infection fighting cells of the immunity system
• collagen and elastin proteins necessary for skin health because they offer support and
elasticity.
• Collagen is the most plentiful protein in the skin, making up 75-80% of the skin.
• Collagen and elastin are responsible for warding off wrinkles and fine lines.
• Over time, the environment and aging reduce the body’s ability to produce collagen.
• Function of dermis:
• involved in the homeostatic mechanisms of the skin
• involved in temperature control and in sense of touch.
 Cont…
• The epidermis and dermis differ in:
– Thickness
– what is available in the layers.
• The of Due to variation in the thickness the skin can be categorized
as thick and thin.
• Thin skin covers most of the body and can vary in thinness,
with the thinnest skin covering the eyelids.
• Thick skin is present on the soles of the feet and palms of the
hands.
• Thick skin has no hair follicles or sebaceous glands, whereas thin
skin does.
• Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)- innermost layer of the
skin.
– contains fatty tissue which is both an energy store and acts as an
insulation layer.
– Shock absorber
– protecting against heat loss.
 Cont…

Figure 3.33 This cross section through the human skin

Cont…
 Tongue- Taste and smell/chemical sense
• - called “chemical” senses because their function is to
monitor the chemical content of the environment.
• The sensory receptors of tongue and nostrils are
sensitive to solutions of certain chemical substances.
• The sensory receptors of taste are located on the upper
surface of the tongue, and to a lesser extent on the
surface of the throat.
• The receptors for smell are located in the upper parts
of the nasal passages.
• Flavor of food is a composite of both taste and smell
sensation.
• when nose is congested by infection, food “tastes”
different because the olfactory system is “blocked”
•
Sense of taste/gustation
Humans detect taste with taste receptor cells.
• Taste receptors are clustered in taste buds which are not
visible to the naked eye.
• Most of them are buried in specialized structures called
papillae on upper surface of the tongue and other parts of
the oropharynx, such as the larynx, pharynx, and epiglottis.
• These papillae give the tongue its bumpy appearance.
• The papillae on the tongue have no taste function.
• Taste cells have a limited life span(aproximately,10 days).
– After a few days they die and are replaced by new cells.
– This constant renewal allows the taste system to recover from
a variety of sources of damage and
– explains why our taste systems tend to remain robust even
into old age.
• The tongue, palate, pharynx and larynx contain
approximately 10,000 taste buds - each taste bud contains
from 20-50 receptor cells.
• For a substance to be tasted, molecules of it must be
dissolved in the saliva so as to stimulate the taste receptors
on the tongue.
• Dissolved chemicals in the saliva reach the cilia /tiny taste
hair/ of receptor cells .
• When these taste hairs are stimulated, they send nerve
impulses to brain.
• Each taste hair responds best to one of the five basic
tastes.
• The tongue is anchored to the mouth by webs of tough tissue and
mucosa.
• The tether holding down the front of the tongue is called the
frenum.
• In the back of the mouth, the tongue is anchored into the hyoid
bone.
 Cont’d
• There are five basic taste
sensations/Every taste bud detects
five primary tastes:
• sweet, sour,
• bitter and salt
• umami (savory foods rich in
proteins such as meat,
cheese, broth and
mushroom).
– It is recently discovered
taste sensation
• All of the five different taste
organs are spread out all over the
tongue, although some of them Figure 3.30 This ‘map’ of the main taste
may seem to be in a greater areas of the tongue has been taught for
concentration in certain places. many years. Scientists have discovered
• Recent evidence suggests that that in fact there are five different types
taste receptors are uniformly
of taste buds spread evenly across the
distributed across the tongue,
traditional tongue map is no tongue – and the idea for the map
longer valid. comes from a German text which was
translated wrongly many years ago!
 Cont…
• A few substances stimulate only one of the five types of
receptors, but most stimulate two, three, four or five
types to varying degrees.
• The taste sensations experience are produced by a
blending of the five basic sensations in different relative
intensities along with the input of smell from nose.
• The sensation experienced by different people in
response to the same stimulus may not be the same.
• The same substance can give rise to a sensation of
sweet in one person if it stimulates primarily the sweet
receptors. It can give rise to a sensation of bitter in a
second person if it stimulates primarily the bitter
receptors.
• There can be no sensation at all to a third person if it
fails to stimulate any of the receptors.
 Cont…
• This is why the same food can taste delicious to one person
and disgusting to another!
• It is possible for someone to have particularly sensitive
sweet receptors and particularly insensitive sour receptors.
• Such a person might not like sugary food, because it would
stimulate the sweet receptors excessively and arouse a
sickening sweet sensation. But they might be very
fond(strongly felt) of lemons so sour that most people
would reject them. This is because the sour receptors in
this person, being unusually insensitive, would be hardly
stimulated by the lemon juice.
Smell Receptors or Olfactory receptors
• Humans able to detect thousands of different
smells
• Smell is detected by olfactory chemoreceptors .
• olfactory receptors located in roof and walls of
nasal passages/nasal cavity, the hollow space
inside the nose.
• The inside of the nasal passages are covered with
mucus membranes.
• The numbers and the distribution of smell
receptors in the nasal passages are known to
vary within and between individuals.
• Tiny hairs, made of nerve fibers, dangle from all
olfactory receptors.
• They are covered with a layer of mucus.
• If a smell, formed by chemicals in the air,
dissolves in this mucus, the hairs absorb it and
excite olfactory receptors.
 Cont’d
• A few molecules are enough to activate these extremely sensitive
receptors.
• Olfactory Hairs easily fatigued so you do not notice smells.
• Linked to memories - when olfactory receptors are stimulated, they
transmit impulses to brain and the pathway is directly connected to
the limbic system - the part of brain that deals with emotions so you
usually either like or dislike a smell.
• Smells leave long-lasting impressions and are strongly linked to
memories.
• The olfactory epithelium decreases with age.
• During pregnancy sense of smell becomes much more acute due to
action of estrogen which increases during pregnancy.
– may lead to morning sickness
 The similarity of the receptors of taste and smell
• The receptors of taste and smell are essentially similar in function.
• Like taste receptors, olfactory receptors are each responsive to only one
odorant.
• The senses of smell and taste are directly related because they both use the
same types of receptors.
• Both smell and taste use chemoreceptors.
• they work together to create the perception of flavor.
• A person’s perception of flavor is reduced if he or she has congested nasal
passages . This is because of the relationship of the receptors.
• taste is in fact a function of the sense of smell.
• taste sensation produced by stimulation of both taste and smell receptors.
• to be able to taste and smell, chemicals must go into solution in the film of
liquid coating the membranes of receptor cells before they can be
detected.
• One reason why hot foods often have more ‘taste’ than cold foods is because they
vaporise more.
• The vapour passes from the mouth up into the nasal passages, where it stimulates
smell receptors.
• The reason why you cannot ‘taste’ foods well when suffering from a cold is that,
with your nasal passages inflamed and coated with mucus, your smell receptors
cannot work.
• In other words, much of what is called taste is really smell.
 Cont…
• The major functional difference between the two kinds of
receptors is that :
• smell receptors are more specialised for detecting
vapours/odor coming to the organism from
distant sources.
• Taste receptors are specialised for detection of chemicals
present in the mouth itself.
• Furthermore, smell receptors are much more sensitive
than taste receptors.
• Smell lets an animal sense the presence of food or other
animals—whether potential mates, predators, or prey—or
other chemicals in the environment that can impact their
survival.
• Similarly, the sense of taste allows animals to discriminate
between types of foods.
 Human Eye
• All sense organs have common functional characteristics
–All are able to detect a particular stimulus
–A stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse
–A nerve impulse is perceived as a sensation
in the central nervous system.
• The eye transmits visual stimuli to the brain for
interpretation and functions as sensory organ of vision.
• Eyes are highly developed photosensitive organs for
analyzing the form, intensity, and color of light reflected
from objects and providing the sense of sight.
• Eyes enable us to see in clear focus, in three dimensions
and in colour.
• Not many other animals can manage all three.
The Structure, function and defects of Human Eye
Cont…
 Cont…
• Eyelids that close over eyes to protect them from the entry of
material like dust, sand and insects, which might injure or
irritate them.
• The eyelids also sweep tear solution regularly over the
surface of eye, which contains enzymes that destroy bacteria
that might infect eye.
• Eyes are set in eye sockets/orbit in the skull that protect
them.
• In the orbit, the eye is surrounded by a cushion of fat.
• The bony orbit and fat cushion protect the eyeball.
• Each eyeball consists externally of a tough, fibrous globe that
maintains its overall shape.
• Internally the eye contains:
– transparent tissues that refract light to focus the image,
– a layer of photosensitive cells, and
– a system of neurons that collect, process, and transmit visual information to the
brain.
 External structure of eyes
– The eyebrows
– The eyelids (upper
and lower)
– The conjunctiva
– Eyelashes
– The lacrimal apparatus
– The extraocular muscles
 Cont’d
• The eyebrows protect the eyes:
• By preventing perspiration (sweat), water, other debris from falling down into
the eyes, causing irritation.
• They help shade the eyes from direct sunlight.
• The eyelids (upper and lower):
– associated with lashes and are two movable structures composed of
skin and two types of muscle: striated and smooth.
– The eyelids join at two points: the lateral (outer) canthus and medial
(inner corner) canthus.
• Canthus- is either corner of the eye where the upper and lower eyelids meet.
– The medial canthus contains the puncta and caruncle.
• Lacrimal Puncta- are the tiny openings in the upper and lower eyelids that
drain tear from eyes.= act as drainage ports for tears.
• Lacrimal Caruncle- a small, fleshy mass that contains sebaceous glands.
– The palpebral fissure:
– is the elliptic space between the medial and lateral canthi of the two open eyelid.
– The white space between open eyelids.
– When closed, the eyelids should touch.
– When open, the upper lid position should be between the upper margin of the iris and
the upper margin of the pupil.
 Cont’d
• The lacrimal apparatus:
– consists of lacrimal glands and
ducts that serve to lubricate the
eye.
– The lacrimal gland is located in the
upper outer corner of the orbital
cavity just above the eye, produces
tears.
• The extra-ocular muscles:
– They act to control the movements
of the eyeball and the superior
eyelid.
– are the six muscles attached to the
outer surface of each eyeball.
– These muscles control six different
directions of eye movement.
– Four rectus muscles are responsible
for straight movement, and two
oblique muscles are responsible for
diagonal movement.
 Cont’d
• Eyelashes:
– are projections of stiff hair curving outward along the margins of
the eyelids.
– Protect the eye from dust, debris, and sweat that harm or irritate
it.
– filter dust and dirt from air entering the eye.
• The conjunctiva:
– is a thin, transparent membrane that covers the inside eyelid and
the anterior part of the white/sclera/of eye.
– It act as raincoat and plastic wrap.it blocks irritants from getting
into eye and keeps moisture and lubrication sealed in.
– Contains goblet cells for tear production.
– Protects and lubricates eyes.
– Conjunctiva made up of :
• Palpebra conjunctiva- lines the inside of the eyelids.
• Bulbar conjucntiva- covering over eyeball that protects the white of eye,
merging with the cornea at the limbus.
 Internal structure of eye
• The eyeball is composed of three separate coats or
concentric tunics or layers.
• A tough external fibrous layer consisting of the
– sclera
– transparent cornea
• Sclera(a white visible portion):
– It is a dense, protective, white covering that physically
supports the internal structures of the eye.
– It is continuous interiorly with the transparent cornea (the
“window of the eye”).
– It is very tough, opaque tissue and strong so the eyeball is
not easy to damage.
– The rest of the sclera has many blood vessels, which supply
the retina with food and oxygen, and a dark layer
underneath – the choroid.
– Insertion sight for various nerves and muscles of eye
 Cont’d
• Cornea:
• It is the transparent surface covering the iris and pupil in
front of eyeball.
• Protects anterior surface of the eye
• Function: refracts (bends) incoming light into the eye to
make sure it enters the eye and is focused on the retina.
• permits the entrance of light, which passes through the
lens to the retina.
• It is well supplied with nerve endings, making it
responsive to pain and touch.
• Limbus(corneal border):
– It is a transitional area where the transparent cornea merges
with the opaque sclera.
– The limbal ring is a visible dark ring around the iris of the eye
composed of darkened areas of the cornea limbus.
 Cont’d
• A middle vascular layer that includes the
– choroid
– ciliary body and
– iris
– Pupil
 Cont..
• Choroid:
– This layer is dark because
it contains pigmented cells
that absorb light and stop
it being reflected around
the inside of the eye.
– the middle layer filled with blood
vessels that nourish the retina.
– prevent light from entering
the eye except through the
pupil.
– prevents light from reflecting
internally.
– It contains many blood vessels
and two involuntary muscles- Iris
and Ciliary body (muscle).
– Once the light has travelled
through the cornea it has to
pass through the pupil in
the centre of the iris.
 Cont…
• The iris –is the pigmented, colored portion of the eye, visible externally.
– It is made up of muscles that contract(constrict) or
relax (dilate) to control the:
• Size/diameter of the pupil and
• control the amount of light reaching the retina.
– The circular muscles run around the iris, while the
radial muscles run across it like the spokes of a bicycle
wheel.
– Sympathetic nervous system controls dilation of pupil,
parasympathetic system controls constriction.
• When the light is relatively dim:
– the radial muscles contract
– the circular muscles relax and the
– pupil is pulled open wide (it dilates).
– lots of light can get into the eye and so you can see
even in relatively low light levels.
 Cont…
• In bright light:
–the circular muscles of the iris contract and the
radial muscles relax, which makes the pupil very
small (it constricts).
–This reduces the amount of light that goes into
the eye, so that the delicate light-sensitive cells
are not damaged by too much bright light.
• The change in the size of the pupil in response to light is a
reflex action.
 Cont…

Figure 3.20 The eyes have been described as the windows of

the soul. They are certainly the windows of the body, letting
the right amount of light in to fall on
the sensitive cells of the retina.
 Cont…
• pupil - a hole/the opening in the centre of the iris that changes size in
response to changes in lighting.
– It changes size as the amount of light changes (the more light,
the smaller the hole) and it allows light to reach the retina.
– Healthy animals will dilate pupils in darker light and constrict
pupils in high light.
– Once light has entered the inner eye through the pupil it passes
through the lens.
– It allows light to enter and focus on the retina.
• The lens- a clear disc made up largely of proteins.
– is a biconvex, transparent, avascular, encapsulated structure
located immediately posterior to the iris.
– It is a flexible disc that helps focus light on the retina.
– Transparent body behind pupil or iris.
– The lens functions to refract (bend) light rays onto the retina.
– Crystalline lens is the only structure continuously grow
throughout life.
– The lens is held in place by suspensory ligaments and the
ciliary muscles.
 Cont…
• Suspensory ligaments:
• elastic-like structures that suspend the lens and pull it into
shape for focusing distant objects onto the retina
• Ciliary muscles eye:
• muscles that automatically contract or relax the shape of the
lens of the eye to help focus light on the retina.
• Changes shape of lens for focusing.
• It is a circular band of muscle that is connected and sits
immediately behind the iris.
• The refractive ability of the lens can be changed by a change in
the shape of the lens (which is controlled by the ciliary body).
• The lens bulges to focus on close objects and flattens to focus
on far objects.
• produces aqueous humor.
 Cont….
• Aqueous Humor - fluid behind the cornea .
– It is the clear fluid that fills that anterior chamber of
the eye.
– Produced in ciliary body.
– It helps to maintain the shape of the cornea.
– Provides nutrition to eye and removes waste from eye
– helps to cleanse and nourish the cornea and lens as
well as maintain intraocular pressure.
– Continually formed by the capillaries in the ciliary
body, flow through the pupil and is reabsorbed in the
canal of Schlemm through a filtering site called the
trabecular meshwork.
– If drainage is blocked, the internal pressure in the eye
increases and may damage the eye and lead to
blindness = glaucoma
 Cont…
• Vitreous humor:
–a thick, transparent liquid that fills the center of
the eye.
– It is more viscous than the aqueous humor.
– Lies between lens and retina.
– It is the largest of the chambers and is filled with a clear
and gelatinous vitreous humour.
– It is mostly water and gives the eye its form and shape.
– provides spherical shape and maintains attachment of
retina.
 Cont’d
• An inner sensory layer,
– the retina , which communicates with the cerebrum
through the posterior optic nerve.
– Retinal photoreceptors
– Retinal neurons
• Retina :
• All of the light-sensitive cells are arranged together in a special light-
sensitive layer at the back of the eye called retina.
• extends only to the ciliary body anteriorly.
• It receives visual stimuli and sends it to the brain.
• It contains millions of nerve cells or photoreceptors
(rods for black & white and cones for color ) that convert
light rays into electrical impulses that are relayed to the
brain via the optic nerve
• Absorbs and converts light to nervous impulse.
 Cont’d
• When an image is produced on the retina, the light-
sensitive cells are stimulated.
• They send impulses to the brain along affector
(sensory) neurons in the optic nerve.
• When the brain receives these messages it interprets
the information and enable the person to see.
• Optic nerve:
• is a cream-colored, circular area located on the retina toward
the medial or nasal side of the eye.
• Receives impulses from retina
• Transmits impulse from the retina to brain
• Brain receives impulse as image
 Cont..
• Rod cells: night vision
• Specialized photoreceptor cells in retina
• Concentrated to outer layer of retina
• Absorb light
• Allow for peripheral and night vision
• The human retina has on average 92 million rod cells.
• They are extremely sensitive to light, responding to a single photon.
• Rods respond to relatively low light levels.
• They do not give a very clear image.
• They do not respond to different colours. This explains why,
when light levels fall in the evening, the colour drains away and
everything looks black and grey.
• Rods are spread across the retina except over the fovea.
• Rod cells are thin, elongated cells.
• They contain the visual pigment rhodopsin.
• They use rhodopsin for light absorption.
• The pigment in the rods that responds to light is based on
vitamin A. This is why a lack of vitamin A in diet causes night
blindness.
 Cont…
• Cone Cells:
– Are photoreceptors in retina
– Respond to various wavelengths and responsible for color vision
– Work best in high light areas
– Less numerous and less light-sensitive than rods, the average 4.6
million cone cells in the human retina produce color vision in
adequately bright light.
– Cones only work properly in bright light – but they
respond to colours and give very clear, defined images.
– They are very few around the edges of the retina. This
is why the edges of visual field are blurred – but very
sensitive to movement.
– The closer you get to the fovea the more cones there
are, and the fovea itself has only cone cells.
 Cont..
–There are three morphologically similar classes of
cones, each containing one type of the visual
pigment iodopsin (or photopsins).
–cones use photopsin for color absorption.
– Each cone responds to red, green or blue light.
–By mixing neural input produced by these visual
pigments, cones produce a color image.
–The colours you see depend on which combination
of cones is stimulated – if all three are stimulated
equally, you see white.
• Some people cannot see all the colours because they are
missing one or more type of cone. This is known as colour
blindness.
– Like rods, cone cells are elongated.
Cont…
 Cont…
• Macula-area of the retina responsible for central vision.
– Pigmented spot in eye between lens and retina
– Helps to focus light for high resolution pictures
• Fovea (L. fovea, a small pit): point of central focus.
• Located in center of macula.
• Found near the optic disc, within the portion of retina
directly opposite the pupil
• It is the area where visual acuity or sharpness is maximal
and the location of most color perception.
• Help to see high resolution pictures.
• It is the center of the retina where most of the cones are.
• It is a shallow depression with only cone cells at its center.
• Cone cells in the fovea are long, narrow, and closely
packed.
• Blood vessels do not cross the fovea and light falls directly
on its cones.
 How Retina work
• The light energy that falls on the retina is changed
into electrical energy by the light-sensitive cells
known as the rods and cones that make up the retina.
• Rods and cones contain chemicals that change when
light falls on them.
• This change triggers an impulse in the affector
neurons that make up the optic nerve.
• The impulses travel along the optic nerve to the visual
areas of the brain .
• The rods and cones then use energy to restore the
chemicals to their original form.
• The rods and the cones in the retina of the eye are
efficient energy transducers.
 Cont..
• The blind spot /optic disc:
–lacks photoreceptors and all conducting neurons.
–It occurs in the posterior area of the retina where
axons in the nerve fiber layer (NFL) converge to
produce the optic nerve which leaves the retina.
–At the point where the optic nerve leaves the
retina= blind spot.
–There are no missing bits(cut) in the field of
vision.
–Brain does filling in the missing bits from the
blind spots with information from the other eye.
–The central artery and vein of the retina enter at
the optic disc.
 Focus The Light
• In eye, the light coming in is bent (refracted) twice :
–once as it passes from the air through the cornea
and
– then again as it passes through the lens.
• As a result of this refraction the image is focused onto the
retina – and it is also upside down.
• The optical areas of the brain interpret this inverted image
so that you are aware of the world the right way up.
 Cont…

Figure 3.22 When an inverted image falls on the light-

sensitive cells of the retina and a message is sent through
the optic nerve to the brain, you can see.
 Accommodation
• Ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different
distances is known as accommodation.
• It is the relaxation and contraction of the ciliary muscles
that change the shape of the lens and allow distant and
close objects to be focused equally clearly on the retina.
• The cornea bends all of the light entering the eyes towards
the retina, but it is the lens that makes sure that we can see
both close and distant objects equally well.
• a) Focusing on a distant object:
• The light will be travelling in almost parallel rays.
• Light from distant objects needs little further bending once it has
passed through the cornea, so
» the lens is stretched long, thin and relatively flat and
has little effect.
 Cont…
• b) Focusing on a nearby object:
• light from close objects still needs some considerable bending
to bring it into focus on the retina.
• The light will be spreading out or diverging very strongly.
• The lens becomes shorter, fatter (much thicker )and much
more convex (rounded) so that it bends the light much more.
• These changes in the shape of the lens are brought about by
the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles that
surround them, which in turn pull – or don’t pull – on the
suspensory ligaments that hold the lens in place.
• Terminology:
» diverging- spreading apart distant far away.
» convex -curving or bulging outwards.
» Converging- two or more things coming together.
» concave - curving or bulging inwards.
 Cont…

Figure 3.23 Accommodation in the eye.

 Class work
• What are sense organs?
• What is the role of the iris, the ciliary muscles and the
retina in your eye?
 Common Eye Defects
• The common eye defects include:
• Short sight
• Long sight
• Astigmatism
• As corrective measurement, they all involve the use of
extra lenses to bend the light .
• A lens is a piece of transparent material (usually glass or
plastic) that has one or more curved surfaces.
• An outward curve makes a convex lens and this will bend
the light rays towards each other (a converging lens).
• An inward curve makes a concave lens and this will
spread the light rays out (a diverging lens).
 Short sight
• A short-sighted person can focus clearly on things that are close to
them but has much more difficulty with objects in the distance,
which appear blurred.
• It is caused by:
– A lens are ‘too strong’ or too curved.
– Long eye ball
• A lens are ‘too strong’ or too curved even when the ciliary muscles
are fully relaxed:
– the light from distant objects is focused in front of the
retina, making the image that actually lands on the retina
spread out again and blurry.
• When the lens is normal but the eyeball is particularly long:
– light is focused in front of the retina.
 Cont…
• This problem can be corrected using concave (diverging)
lenses that:
• spread the light out more before it gets into eye.
• This means that the thicker lens can bring the rays of
light into perfect focus on the retina – or there is
room in the long eyeball for the light rays to be
focused on the correct point.
 Long sight
• A long-sighted person can focus clearly on things that are at
a distance but has much more difficulty with objects close
to them, which appear blurred.
• This is caused by:
• a lens is effectively ‘too weak’ or too flat even when
the ciliary muscles are fully contracted and so the
light from close objects is focused behind the retina,
so the image that actually lands on the retina is
spread out and blurred.
• When the lens is normal but the eyeball is short this
means light is focused behind the retina.
 Cont..
• This problem can be corrected using convex (converging) lens that:
• bring the light rays together more before they reach eye.
• Now the thinner lens can bring the rays of light into perfect
focus on the retina – or
• the short eyeball becomes the right length for the light rays to
be focused on the correct point.
 Astigmatism
• The shape of the eye is irregular – more egg-shaped/ oval
than round – so
• the cornea is curved asymmetrically and this affects
the way light is focused on retina.
• In some people it is the lens rather than the eyeball
itself that is an unusual shape, but the end result is
the same.
• Astigmatism can also be corrected by:
– the use of lenses, but the situation is more
complex than for long and short sight.
 3-D vision
• Seeing in depth depends on using both eyes.
• Each eye sees a slightly different view of the same object.
• Brain combines the two images and uses all the information to
give a 3-D view of the object.
• 3-D vision is vital for giving us :
• the judgment of distances
• spatial awareness comes from the overlapping
of the visual field from two eyes.
• If you look at the world through one eye it appears flat.
• Hold out both hands, with one finger pointing on each.
• Bring your fingers together with the tips meeting in one
smooth movement.
• Now close one eye and repeat the manoeuvre – it isn’t
so easy!
Cont…
 Class work
• How are lenses used to correct sight defects?
• Why is 3-D vision so useful to us?
 The ear as a sense organ
• The is the organ of hearing and equilibrium
(balance).
• Each ear consists of three major parts :
–Outer ear
–Middle ear
–Inner ear
 External ear(outer ear)
• The external ear or outer ear- consists of
– Pinna or auricle – outside part of the ear
– an irregular, funnel shaped plate of elastic cartilage.
– funnel-like curves that collect sound waves and transmits them to the
middle ear
– lobule consists of adipose and fibrous tissues supplied with blood
capillaries..
– External auditory ear canal or tube/ acoustic meatus
• extends from the auricle to the tympanic membrane/eardrum.
• Protection of ear drum.
• The meatus or the canal is lined with stratified epithelium
and wax glands.
• At the entrance of the ear canal(near its opening ) contains:
– Hairs - filter out dust particles from the air entering the ear canal.
– Ceruminous glands: specialized sebaceous glands that secrete cerumen
( earwax).
• Cerumen has protective, antimicrobial properties.
• It traps dust and germs, and lubricates the eardrum.
• It has insect-repellent qualities that prevent most insects from
entering the ear.
 Cont’d
– Tympanic membrane or eardrum-
–Separate the outer ear from the middle ear.
–Creates a barrier that protects the middle and
inner areas from foreign objects
–Sound waves cause vibrations of the tympanic
membrane, which transmit energy to the middle
ear.
–Ear drum vibrates to amplify sound.
 Middle ear
• The middle ear consists of
– the air-filled tympanic cavity within the temporal bone
• separated from the external ear by tympanic membrane and from
inner ear by the bony wall.
– Auditory ossicles /sound amplifier/- three small bones that are
connected and transmit the sound waves from air fluids of to the
inner ear.
• The three tiny bones/ossicles in sequence are
• the malleus (hammer shaped)
• the incus (anvil shaped)
• the stapes (stirrup)- the smallest bone of the body.
• The auditory ossicles are attached to each other via synovial joints.
• The malleus attached to the eardrum and the stapes to the oval window.
– Auditory Tube ( eustachian tube):
– connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx (upper portion of the throat) Or
– It connects the tympanic cavity with the nasopharynx.
– It operates like a valve, which opens during swallowing and yawning(wide open).
 Cont’d
• Three primary functions of Eustachian tube are
• Drain excess fluids and secretions from middle ear
• Ventilate middle ear and equalize air pressure on either side of ear
dram or equalize air pressure between the atmosphere and the
middle ear.
• Protect middle ear from pathogens
– When pressure is equal, the eardrum vibrates in response to
sound waves so we can hear, when pressure is not equal, you
can experience pain, hearing impairment, ringing in the ears
(tinnitus), and/or vertigo.
– The pressure in the middle ear increases – when you are
flying.
– the tube opens until the air pressure in the middle ear is equal to the
atmosphere.
– Pathogens, such as bacteria, can also travel from the throat
to the middle ear.
 Cont…
• The middle ear is separated from the internal ear by two
thin membrane-covered openings:
– the round window(round in shape) and
– oval window(oval in shape).
• The tympanic membrane /eardrum is connected to the oval
window by a series of three small bones, the auditory
ossicles.
• the auditory ossicles- transmit the mechanical vibrations of
the tympanic membrane to the internal ear.
• Middle ear- carries sound vibrations to the oval window.
 Inner ear
• Internal Ear (inner ear)- the labyrinth - consists of
– Cochlea/auditory organ/ – contains nerves for hearing
• a coiled tube continuous with the saccule
• has receptors for sound & sends signals to brain via Auditory
Nerve.
• Contains two fluid filled chambers lined with tiny hair.
• When sound enters, the fluid inside cochlea causes the tiny
hair to vibrate, sending electrical signal to brain.
• fluid movements are transduced to nerve impulses that pass
via the acoustic nerve to the CNS.
• A cross section of the cochlea reveals that it is made up of
three tubes in one.
 Cont’d
• vestibular organ
– Otoliths organ
– utricle- contain receptors for equilibrium
– Saccule- contain receptors for equilibrium
– Vestibular nerve
– Semi-circular canal/fluid filled space/
• contains receptors for balance /equilibrium.
• The sacculus, utriculus, semicircular canals and the
cochlea are filled with a liquid.
Cont…
 The mechanism of hearing
• How the ear works?
• The pinna collects sound waves and directs them to the
eardrum through the ear canal.
• When sound waves hit the eardrum (tympanic
membrane), it vibrates.
• The eardrum vibration transmits to the malleus,
causing it to vibrate. In turn, the vibrating malleus
causes the incus to vibrate, and so on with the stapes.
– The ear ossicles also amplify the vibrations (make them bigger).

• The stapes vibration causes the oval window to vibrate.

• The vibrations of the oval window are transmitted to
the fluid and then spread to the cochlea.
 Cont..
• Vibrations of the fluid cause the hair-like sensory
cells to move.
• Tiny hair cells that translate the vibrations into an
electrical impulse that are transmitted to the brain
by sensory nerves for interpretation.
• The human ear is sensitive to vibrations ranging
from those of a very low note of about 20 vibrations
per second, to a very high note of about 30 000
vibrations per second.
• High notes are detected in the first part of the
cochlea and low notes are recorded in the last part
of the cochlea.
 Cont..

Figure 3.28 This cross section through a cochlea shows how

the movement of the fluid in the inner ear affects the sensory
hair cells – and the impulses they send to your brain are
interpreted as sounds.
 Cont..
• Summary of the path of sound to hear/processes of
hearing:
• Pinna →ear canal →eardrum → ossicles →oval
window → cochlea.
 The senses of balance and movement
• The Eustachian tube and the vestibular complex
are the important parts of the ear responsible for
the balance.
• The Eustachian tube equalizes the air
pressure in the middle ear and
maintains the balance.
• The vestibular complex contains receptors
that maintain body balance.
• The semicircular canals are concerned with the
detection of motion or rotational acceleration of
the head.
• The swellings on each of the semicircular canals
(the ampullae) contain sensory cells attached to
sensory nerve endings.
• The sensory cells have hairs which are enclosed in
a core of jelly substance called a cupula.
• Whenever the body or the head moves, the
semicircular canals move with the head.
• The fluid in the semicircular canals also starts to
move in the opposite direction.
• The moving fluid causes the cupula to tilt(canopy),
thus pressing the hairs of the sensory cells.
• The pressing of the sensory hairs creates nerve
impulses in the sensory nerve endings.
• The nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain.
• The brain then interprets the direction and speed
of motion of the body or head.
 Cont..
• The semicircular canals are all at right angles to each other,
so each one is sensitive to movement in a different plane.
• If you spin round and round fast and then stop, you will feel
dizzy. This is because:
– the fluid in semicircular canals keeps on moving
after you have stopped.
–Your ears are telling your brain that you are
moving round, but your eyes and other senses are
saying you are standing still – and these mixed
messages result in the dizzy sensation.
 Cont…
• The otoliths organs(utriculus and sacculus )- sense of gravity
and linear accelerations.
• The Utricle- is sensitive to a change in horizontal movement.
• Most of utricular signals elicit eye movement
• The saccule- gives information about vertical acceleration.
• The majority of the saccular signals projects to muscle that control
our posture.
• The inner surfaces of these structures contain sensory cells with protruding
hairs
embedded in a jelly-like substance containing tiny particles of
chalk called otoliths.
• When head is tilted on one side, the otoliths move in the
opposite direction, pulling or pressing the sensory hairs.
• This initiates nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain.
• The brain then detects the angle of tilt and sets of reflexes are
initiated, which tend to return the body to its normal posture
 Cont…
• Ear is not the only part of the body involved in a sense of
balance.
• The sense of balance is also affected by :
• Eye/ vision
• stretch receptors in the muscles
• Joints , skin

• Someone trying to stand on their toes with

their eyes closed will invariably begin to fall
forward. This is much less likely to happen if
the same exercise is performed with the eyes
open!
 Common disorders of the ear
• Deafness, or the inability to hear:
• is one of the most common disorders of the ear.
• It may be temporary or permanent.
• It can be caused in many ways.
– damage to eardrum is by a blow or by a very loud noise
results in temporary or permanent deaf.
– Damage to the tiny bones of the middle ear or fused by
infection, or crumble away with age or disease, results in
permanently deaf.
– Damage to the auditory nerve, and once the nerve is
damaged it cannot be restored.
– It can be the result of infection, when the middle ear
becomes full of thick infected mucus. This type of hearing
loss can be reversed if the infection is cleared with
antibiotics. However, if the infection lasts too long,
permanent hearing loss may result.
 The endocrine system
• The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that secrete
hormones within specific organs.
• Hormones act as “chemical messengers," and are carried by the
bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages
and act on them.
• Many processes in the body are co-ordinated by chemical substances
known as hormones.
• The ability to maintain homeostasis and respond to stimuli is largely due to
hormones secreted within the body.
• A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by a cell that effects specific
change in the cellular activity of other cells (target cells).
• Without hormones, you could not grow, maintain a constant temperature,
produce offspring, or perform the basic actions and functions that are
essential for life.
• The endocrine system provides an electrochemical connection from the
hypothalamus of the brain to all the organs that control the body
metabolism, growth and development, and reproduction.
• The endocrine and nervous systems often work toward the same goal.
 Types of Glands
• Glands are structures which produce hormones and
other useful substances.
• Hormones are produced (secreted) by special
endocrine glands found around the body.
• Glands can be grouped in two categories:
–Endocrine gland(ductless)
–Exocrine gland(with duct)
 Exocrine Glands
• Many glands in the body are exocrine glands i.e.; they are
more numerous than endocrine gland.
• They have a special tube or duct that carries the secretion
from the gland where it is made to the place where it is
needed.
• They secrete substances not hormones through ducts on
body surface.
• They are not considered a part of the endocrine system.
• Examples of exocrine glands includes:
• Sweat gland (skin)
• Sebaceous gland (skin)
• Salivary gland- mouth
• Lacrimal gland- eye
• Mammary gland – breast
• Ceruminous gland- ear
• pyloric gland, cardiac gland- Stomach gland
• Brunner gland( duodenum)- produce mucus that
protect duodenum from acid released from the
stomach.
• pancreatic glands, liver and gonads
 Cont’d
• Pancreas, liver and gonads has both an endocrine and an exocrine
function.
• The exocrine pancreas assists in food digestion by releasing a
secretion rich in bicarbonate, which helps to neutralize the acidic
environment created in the stomach.
• Secretion also includes digestive enzymes.
• Function of exocrine glands: Secretion assists in:
• Food digestion
• Mucosal protection
• Thermoregulation
• Lubrication and nutrition
 Endocrine gland/ductless
• The endocrine system is made up of endocrine glands and the hormones they secrete.
• Endocrine system is a diverse collection of cells, tissues, and organs .
• Have no duct/ductless glands /that produce and release their secretions (hormones)
directly into the intercellular fluid or into the blood.
• Hormones are- chemical messengers that regulate many physiological activities.
• Unlike exocrine glands (which produce substances such as saliva, milk, stomach acid and
digestive enzymes), endocrine glands do not secrete substances into ducts (tubes).
• Instead, endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the surrounding extra cellular
space. The hormones then diffuse into nearby capillaries and are transported throughout
the body in the blood.
• The chemicals /hormones/are carried from the glands all around the body in the
bloodstream.
• Hormones are chemical messengers, transferring information and instructions from one set
of cells to another.
• Most hormones only affect certain tissues or organs – their target organ.
• The hormone is picked up from the blood by receptors in the cell membranes.
• They can act very rapidly, but often their effects are slower and longer lasting than the
results of nervous control.
• Although the endocrine glands are the primary hormone producers, the brain, heart, lungs,
liver, skin, thymus, gastrointestinal mucosa, and placenta also produce and release
hormones
 Cont…
• The main endocrine glands are :
– the pituitary (anterior and
posterior lobes),
– thyroid,
– parathyroid,
– Adrenal (cortex and medulla),
– Pineal gland
– pancreas and
– gonads(ovaries in the female
and testes in the male)
• Endocrine component of gland
with both endocrine and
exocrine function includes
• Kidney

• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Hormones regulate
– growth, development
– mood, tissue function
– metabolism, and sugar
level in our blood
– sexual function
 Cont…
• The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus of
the lower forebrain.
• The thyroid gland consists of two lateral masses,
connected by a cross bridge, that are attached to the
trachea. They are slightly inferior to the larynx.
• The parathyroid glands are four masses of tissue, two
embedded posterior in each lateral mass of the thyroid
gland.
• One adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney.
– The cortex is the outer layer of the adrenal gland.
– The medulla is the inner core.
• The pancreas is along the lower curvature of the
stomach, close to where it meets the first region of the
small intestine, the duodenum.
• The gonads are found in the pelvic cavity.
 Pituitary gland
• It is attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk
called the infundibulum.
• The endocrine system and nervous system work together to help
maintain homeostasis.
• It is found in the inferior part of the brain.
• It is small about the size of a pea.
• The controller of the endocrine orchestra.
• The hormones made in this tiny gland control the secretion of
many other hormones.
• Because of its position in the brain, it is also involved in co-
ordination between the nervous and hormonal systems of control.
• It can be referred to as the master gland because it is the main
place for everything that happens within the endocrine system.
• It is divided into two sections: the anterior lobe
(adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).
 Posterior pituitary gland
• Hormones secreted by hypothalamus and
stored in the posterior pituitary gland until
needed.
• hormones released by direct nervous
stimulation of posterior pituitary
A. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH, =vasopressin)
– stimulates the reabsorption of water by the
renal tubules.
– ADH is released whenever receptors
indicated dehydration i.e.; decreases urine
output to conserves water.
– Hypo-secretion of this hormone can result in
diabetes insipidus.
B. Oxytocin (=swift childbirth)
– stimulates contraction of uterine muscles
during labor, delivery, and parturition.
– It also stimulates the mammary glands to
release milk into ducts.
– triggered by neural stimulus: suckling.
• Pitocin:
– A synthetic version of this hormone, used to
induce labor.
 Cont’d
Hormone Functions Regulation of secretion
Antidiuretic Increases water reabsorption Decreased water content
hormone by the kidney tubules (water
in the body (alcohol
(ADH or
returns to the blood)
vasopressin) inhibits secretion)
• Decreases sweating

• Causes vasoconstriction

(in large amounts)

Oxytocin Promotes contraction of Nerve impulses from

myometrium of uterus
(labor)
• Promotes release of milk
from mammary glands
hypothalamus, the result of
stretching of cervix or
stimulation of nipple
Secretion from placenta at end
of gestation—stimulus unknown
 Anterior Pituitary Gland
• secretes tropic (or trophic) hormones:
A. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)-(thyrotropin)
– controls the secretion rate of thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland, and these
hormones control the rates of most intracellular chemical reactions in the body.
B. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)-(corticotropin)
– normal growth and development of adrenal cortex
– controls the secretion of some of the adrenocortical hormones, which affect metabolism of glucose,
proteins, and fats.
C. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
– in women: stimulates follicles to begin growing to ovulation
– in men: stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and sperm cells.
D. Leutinizing Hormone (LH)
– in women: final maturation of follicle
– stimulates formation of corpus luteum (a temporary endocrine gland of pregnancy)
– promotes secretion of progesterone
– in men: stimulates interstitial cells to secrete hormone = testosterone
• if pituitary gland is removed by radiation or surgery, need
hormone treatment rest of life or some other glands will shut
down.
 Cont’d
E. Growth Hormone (GH)
• promotes growth and development of bones, muscles and soft tissue.
• It also enhances protein synthesis, decreases the use of glucose, and
promotes fat destruction.
• Promote cell multiplication, and cell differentiation.
• The quantity is greatest during childhood and adolescence.
• It results in gigantism (If too much GH is secreted) and dwarfism( if too
little is secreted).
• Individuals with gigantism often have additional health problems, primarily
because GH has a secondary effect on the blood sugar level, promoting an
illness called diabetes mellitus.
• Acromegaly occurs in adults when the pituitary gland produces too much
growth hormone over a long period of time.
• Adults with acromegaly may shows the following symptoms:
• Enlarged hands or feet
• Change face shape((particularly the chin, lips, nose, tongue and eyebrow
ridges) become overly large.
• Excessive sweating and deepening voice
• Long bone growth is no longer possible in adults
 Cont’d
F. Prolactin (PRL; = Lactogenic Hormone)
• affects female:
– induces breast development during pregnancy
– initiates milk secretion after childbirth
• no significant functions in males
Anterior pituitary gland
 Group discussion
• Describe the difference between tropic hormone
and non-tropic hormones?
• Tropic hormones- act on another endocrine gland
to stimulate release of other hormones.
• Non-tropic hormones- directly stimulate target cells
to induce effects.
 Thyroid Gland
• is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located
inferior to the larynx (voice box) and attached to
the trachea.
• surrounds trachea just below larynx
• It is divided into two lateral lobes.
• The thyroid gland uses iodine from the diet to
produce the hormone thyroxin.
• Thyroid follicles utilize iodine and synthesize
thyroglobulin (TGB) to be stored in the colloids.
• Upon stimulation of thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), TGB is converted into two
hormones: Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine
(T4) to promote normal metabolism.
• Thyroxin is one of the hormones involved in the
long-term chemical control of the body.
• a. Thyroid Hormones (T3, T4)
• activated by TSH from Anterior
pituitary gland.
• 98% of body’s Iodine is in the
thyroid gland
 Cont…
• thyroid hormones help to regulate the metabolic rate of the
body by controlling the rate of oxidation in cells and brain
development in a growing child.
• Thyroxin:
– increases metabolic rate & ATP production
– increase oxygen consumption and blood O2 levels
– promotes maturation and development of the nervous system
– increases protein synthesis
– help maintain normal reproductive function
– many environmental stimuli can inhibit secretions of this gland: cold temp, physical
stressors, noxious stimuli.
• HYPERSECRETION of Thyroid Hormones
(hyperthyroidism) !
• result in Graves’ disease.
– increase the Metabolic Rate
– Increase appetite
– weight loss
– nervous irritability
– sweating a lot
 Malfunction of thyroid gland
• Malfunction of the thyroid gland leads to specific disorders.
• HYPOSECRETION of Thyroid Hormones/hypothyroidism/ Low levels of thyroxin
can cause:
• During growing children :
• Cretinism marked by physically stunted and mentally retarded
• low metabolic rate
• Pregnant:
• miscarriages and still births
• As adult :
• Myxedema - loss of mental and physical vigor
– weight gain
– tired and lack energy.
– feels like sleeping all the time
– mentally slow or confused
• The most common reason for not making enough thyroxine is a lack of iodine
in the diet.
• Without iodine, the thyroid gland :
– cannot make enough thyroxine
– It will grow and enlarge in an attempt to make the right
amount of thyroxine. This results in goitre.
• The enlarged gland can be felt in the neck
• Iodine deficiency disorders such as goitres are very common in Ethiopia.
• Several scientific studies have shown that between 30 and 40% of our
population are affected by iodine deficiency to some extent.
 Cont…
• Women and children tend to be more affected than men. This
may be because :
– women have big demands on their bodies with pregnancy and
breastfeeding, while children are growing.
• The problem is worse in rural areas, particularly in the
mountainous regions where any iodine tends to be washed
away out of the soil.
• In some areas up to 90% of school children show some level
of iodine deficiency.
• All the problems that goitre and IDD (iodine deficiency disease) can
be overcome by:
– include more iodine in our diet.
• In areas where the iodine levels are very low, special
iodised capsules can be used to help people
overcome the deficiency.
• In the year 2000 about 28% of all households in
Ethiopia used iodized salt.
 Cont…
B. Calcitonin
Thyroid gland also secretes Calcitonin to
lower blood calcium and phosphate
levels and regulate digestive
hormones.
• maintains a homeostasis of
calcium in the blood plasma.
• decreases blood Ca++ /
promote bone deposition by:
• inhibiting osteoclasts
• stimulating
osteoblasts(bone forming
cell)
• its effects are significant only
in children, negligible effect in
adults.
• HYPOSECRETION of Calcitonin can
cause :
• rickets in children (but
usually due to Ca++ or
Vitamin D deficiency).
 Parathyroid gland
• small round bodies attached to the
posterior(back) surfaces of the thyroid
gland.
• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):
– The two pairs of parathyroid glands are
located on the dorsal or back side of
the thyroid gland
– They secrete parathyroid (PTH) hormone ,
which plays a role in regulating blood level of
calcium and phosphorus.
– the bones, kidneys and small intestine,
respond to PTH .
– helps maintain homeostasis of blood
calcium.
– antagonist to calcitonin
• raises blood Ca++ levels:
– promotes Ca++ absorption by kidney
tubules and intestine
– stimulates osteoclasts to dissolve bone
– since bone contains both calcium and
phosphorus this releases both into blood.
 Cont’d
• Hypo secretion PTH causes tetany.
– Tetany is symptom characterized by the involuntary
contraction of muscle that lead to muscle cramps.
• Hyper secretion PTH causes :
– osteitis fibrosa cystica( bone disease)- fracture
– kidney stones
• Calcium homeostasis is important in:
• neuromuscular function
• blood clotting
• synapses
• to activate certain enzymes
• affects cell membrane permeability
• surgical removal of thyroid gland requires PTH
hormone replacement therapy if all parathyroids are
removed at the time
The function of PTH in the regulation of blood calcium levels in mammals
 Adrenal gland/ suprarenal glands/
• The triangular-shaped glands are located
on the top of each kidneys.
• Adrenal glands are composed of two parts.
– The inside is called the medulla and
– the outside layer is called the cortex.
• Adrenal cortex:
• outer layer of adrenal gland that attached to the
superior surface of the kidney.
• comprises 80 –90% of adrenal gland.
• regulated mainly by ACTH from Ant. Pituitary.
• It is divided into 3 regions, from
outside to inside: Zona glomerulosa,
Zona fasciculate and Zona
reticularis.
• Adrenal cortex secretes over 30 steroid-based
substances and several steroid hormones.
• all hormones secreted by adrenal
cortex are steroids.
• all are made from cholesterol
• The adrenal cortex secretes at least two families of
hormones, the glucocorticoids and mineral
corticoids.
 Cont’d
• The Mineralocorticoids :
• regulate the salt and water balance, leading to the increase of
blood volume and blood pressure.
• cause sodium and water retention and active excretion
of potassium and protons.
• Glucocorticoids also
– reduce the body's inflammatory response.
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid.
• essential in regulating electrolyte and water balance by promoting
sodium and chloride retention and potassium excretion.
• stimulates the cells of the distal convoluted tubules of the kidneys to
decrease re-absorption of potassium and increase re-absorption of
sodium, chloride and water.
 Cont…
• If sodium levels are low in the blood, the kidney secretes more
renin, which is an enzyme that stimulates the formation of
angiotensin from a molecule (angiotensinogen)made from the
liver.
• Angiotensin stimulates aldosterone secretion. As a result, more
sodium is reabsorbed as it enters the blood.
• Aldosterone's effect on sodium increase causes in body to retain water in
blood, which increases blood volume.
• These hormones, together with insulin and glucagon, are important
regulators of the ionic environment of the internal fluid.
• The adrenal sex hormones:
• consist mainly of male sex hormones (androgens) and lesser
amounts of female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
• Normally, the sex hormones released from the adrenal cortex
are insignificant due to the low concentration of secretion.
 Cont…
• The Glucocorticoids :
• are regulating carbohydrates, proteins,
and fat metabolism.
• This causes an increase in blood
glucose.
• Cortisol is one of the most active
glucocorticoids.
– It usually reduces the effects of
inflammation or swelling throughout the
body.
– It also stimulates the production of glucose
from fats and proteins, which is a process
referred to as gluconeogenesis.
– It raise blood glucose levels.
• Hypersecretion results in Cushing’s disease
syndrome, characterized by:
• muscle atrophy or degeneration of muscle
• hypertension
• Obesity
• Hyposecretion results in Addison's disease,
characterized by :
• low blood pressure and stress.
• Extreme weakness, loss of weight
• Gastrointestinal disturbance
• Brownish pigmentation of the skin
 Cont…
• adrenal medulla :
• It is made of modified nerve tissue that is under
direct regulation of sympathetic nerves of the
autonomic nervous system.
• The hypothalamus starts nerve impulses
that travel the path from the
bloodstream, spinal cord, and
sympathetic nerve fibers to the Adrenal
Medulla, which then releases hormones.
• secretes the hormones epinephrine (adrenalin)
and norepinephrine (noradrenalin).
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released
when the body is under stress
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine produce
the "fight or flight" response, similar to
the effect from the sympathetic nervous
system.
 Cont’d
• Therefore, they increase heart rate, breathing rate,
blood flow(cardiac output) to most skeletal muscles,
and speeds up the release of glucose from the liver.
• They decrease blood flow to the digestive organs
and diminish most digestive process
• If you are stressed, angry, excited or frightened adrenal glands will
secrete lots of adrenalin. Carried rapidly round in blood, adrenalin
affects many different organs from the pupils of eyes (it dilates them)
to the beating of heart (it speeds it up).
• Adrenalin basically prepares the body for action= ‘fight or flight’.
 Table 5.3 Hormones of adrenal glands

Hormone Functions Regulation of

secretions

Norepinephrine Causes vasoconstriction in skin, viscera, and

skeletal muscles

Epinephrine/ • Increases heart rate and force of contraction Sympathetic

impulses from the
Adrenalin • Dilates bronchioles
hypothalamus in
• Decreases peristalsis
stress situations
• Increases conversion of glycogen to glucose
in the liver

• Causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles

• Causes vasoconstriction in skin and viscera

• Increases use of fats for energy

• Increases the rate of cell respiration

Aldosterone Increases reabsorption of Na ions by the Low blood Na+

kidneys to the blood level

• Increases excretion of K ions by the kidneys Low blood volume

in urine or blood pressure

High blood K level

Glucocorticoid The glucocorticoid hormones have several ACTH (anterior

hormones ( effects: pituitary) during
cortisol • they influence the metabolism of most body physiological stress
(hydrocortisone
cells;
), cortisone and
• they promote glycogen storage in the liver;
corticosterone) • during fasting they stimulate the generation
of glucose;
• they increase blood glucose levels;
• they are involved in providing resistance to
stressors;
Glucocorticoid The glucocorticoid hormones have several effects:
hormones ( cortisol • they influence the metabolism of most body cells;
(hydrocortisone), • they promote glycogen storage in the liver;
cortisone and • during fasting they stimulate the generation of glucose;
corticosterone) • they increase blood glucose levels;
• they are involved in providing resistance to stressors;

• they decrease the permeability of vascular endothelium;

• they promote the repair of damaged tissues by promoting the
breakdown of stored protein to create amino acids;
• they suppress the immune system;
• they suppress inflammatory processes.
 Pancreas
• The pancreas is a small pink organ
found below the stomach.
• It constantly monitors and
controls blood glucose
concentration using two hormones
known as insulin and glucagon.
• It is both an exocrine and
endocrine gland
• exocrine (99% of mass of
pancreas composed of acini
cells : secretes digestive
enzymes and fluids.
• endocrine (1% of mass of
pancreas): contains Islets
of Langerhans.
• The islets of Langerhans are small
clusters of cells located in the
pancreas.
 Cont’d
• Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon- to regulate
blood sugar levels .
• The level of sugar in the blood depends on the opposing action of
these two hormones.
• alpha cells (α cells) -secrete glucagons to raise blood glucose level.
• beta cells (β cells) -secrete insulin to lower blood glucose level.
• Delta cells (δ cells) -secrete somatostation or growth hormone
inhibiting hormone (GHIH) which helps regulate carbohydrate
metabolism by inhibiting the secretion of glucagons
• Pancreas keeps the blood glucose concentration fairly constant at
about 90 mg glucose per 100 ml of blood (4–6 millimoles per litre).
• Both hormones maintain constant blood glucose levels.
• How insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose level?
 Cont…
• When the blood glucose concentration rises above the ideal range after a meal,
• beta cells secret insulin, which is essential for the maintenance of
normal blood sugar levels.
• Insulin lowers the blood glucose level by:
– stimulating the liver and most other body cells to absorb glucose.
– stimulating liver and muscle cells convert glucose to glycogen, for short term
storage.
– stimulating adipose cells to convert glucose to fat.
– It increases the rate of oxidation of glucose in the tissues.
– It also regulates the rate at which amino acids are catabolized into water and
CO2.
– Insulin is a hormone that acts directly or indirectly on most tissues of the body,
with the exception of the brain.
– Inadequate levels result in diabetes mellitus.
 The causes and treatment of diabetes
• diabetes is a general name for a group of diseases
• two major varieties:
–diabetes insipidus
–diabetes mellitus (Types I & II)
• Diabetes insipidus
–a disease associated with Posterior Pituitary
–deficiency in ADH causes low reabsorption of
water.
–large volumes of dilute urine are produced:(up to
10 gallons/day vs normal 1 qt/day).
–leads to electrolyte imbalances.
 Cont…
• Diabetes mellitus type I - Juvenile Onset Diabetes .
– most common of all endocrine disorders.
– diabetes is a group of disorders characterized by high blood glucose
concentrations.
– It is inherited and cannot avoid it.
– It is a result of an autoimmune reaction .
• caused by:
– inadequate insulin secretion by beta cells in Islets =Type I
– in sufficient amount of insulin results in all body cells (target cells):
– decreased glucose utilization
– levels of glucose build up in blood
– the blood sugar levels get higher and higher after meal.
• Eventually the kidneys produce glucose in the urine.
– produce lots of urine and feel thirsty all the time.
– glucose cannot get into the cells of the body, so tired and lack energy.
– break down fat and protein to use as fuel instead, so lose weight.
 Cont…
• since glucose can’t be used alternate fuels are
mobilized:
– increased fat mobilization:
• fats in blood rise to up to 5 times normal as cells
shift to fat catabolism
• produce ketone bodies
• lower blood pH = acidosis
• increased risk of atherosclerosis
• Without insulin to stimulate protein synthesis they are
instead broken down and converted to glucose in cells
– tissue wasting
• High levels of glucose in blood lead to large quantities
of glucose spilling into urine.
• diagnostic test for disease (used to test it, now have chemical
indicators)
• this draws large amount of water into urine
 Cont…
• Type 2 diabetes (Maturity Onset Diabetes ).
• lack of response by target cells to insulin =insulin hypo
responsiveness.
• The pancreas does produce enough insulin, but the target cells
do not respond to it.
• Target tissues become less responsive to insulin = insulin
resistance.
• This may result due to obesity, or possibly very underweight as well, over-
eating and lack of exercise.
• appears later in life .
• Non insulin Dépendent Diabètes Mellites.
• can be corrected by reducing caloric intake(dietary
control without any other therapy).
 Cont…
• Immediate (Acute) Complications of both forms
– Hyperglycemia
– ketoacidosis
– Electrolyte imbalances
• Chronic Secondary Complications
• narrowing of large blood vessels in brain, heart and lower
extremities
– can result in stroke, heart attack or limb loss.
• lesions in microvasculature are common leads to
development of scar tissue especially affect kidneys and
eyes
• impaired nerve function especially autonomic fibers and
peripheral sensory fibers leads to altered GI , bladder
function and loss of sensation especially in lower limbs.
• When the blood glucose concentration falls below the ideal range, the brain and
neurons can only use glucose as a fuel.
• Alpha cells secrete glucagon to raise blood glucose level.
– It acts mainly on liver to facilitate the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose. This elevates the blood sugar.
– glucagon raises the blood glucose level antagonist to insulin.
• Glucagon stimulates the liver to release glucose from the
breakdown of glycogen.
• activates hepatic gluconeogenesis (the creation of glucose
from substrates such as amino acids).
• It also stimulates the production of ketone bodies from
amino acids and fatty acids.
• Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source to glucose
for some tissues.
• has a minor effect enhancing triglyceride breakdown in
adipose tissue – providing fatty acid fuel for most cells, and
thus conserving glucose for the brain and neurons.
• Glucagon levels in the blood rise in response to:
– Reduction in blood glucose concentrations.
– elevated blood levels of amino acids (after a protein‐rich meal)
– exercise(but it is unclear ).
 Treatment of diabetes
• It involves :
– Avoiding carbohydrate-rich foods
– Getting regular exercise
– regular blood sugar tests and insulin injections.
• Insulin injections before meals treat diabetes successfully but they do not cure it.
• Insulin is a protein which would be digested in stomach, so it is usually given as an injection
to get it into blood.
• Until a cure is developed, someone with diabetes has to inject insulin several times every
day throughout their life.
• In the early 1920s Frederick Banting and Charles Best realized that extracts of animal
pancreas could be used to keep people with diabetes alive.
• For many years insulin from pigs and cows was used to treat affected people.
• In recent years bacteria have been developed using genetic engineering which produce pure
human insulin.
• In 2005 doctors in Japan performed a successful living transplant of pancreas tissue.
• Cells from a mother were given to her daughter who had severe diabetes.
• Within three weeks the daughter no longer needed insulin injections – her new
cells were controlling her blood sugar.
• In 2005 research scientists produced insulin-secreting cells from human stem cells which
cured diabetes in mice.
• More research is needed but the scientists hope that before long diabetes will be a disease
which can be cured instead of treated.
 Sex Organs (gonads)
• Reproductive system is the only system that does not function until puberty.
• They become active at the time of puberty.
• The Sex organs (Gonads) are the testes in the male, and the ovaries in the female.
• Both of these organs produce and secrete sex hormones that are balanced by the
hypothalamus and pituitary glands.
• Anterior pituitary gland secrete gonadotropin hormones(FSH and LH) to stimulate gonads.
• Luteinizing Hormone(LH):
• Stimulates testosterone production by stimulating testes.
• induces the proliferations and maturation of interstitial Leyding cells which will
secrete Testosterone.
• Follicle stimulating Hormones(FSH):
• stimulates testicular growth and production of sperm/spermatogenesis.
• acts on the Sertoli cells(SC) of the seminiferous tubule by stimulating the
production signaling molecules and metabolites necessary for spermatogenesis.
• In conjunction with testosterone and FSH the Sertoli cells indirectly stimulate the
proliferation and maturation of germ cells in the seminiferous tubules.
• The main hormones from the reproductive organs are:
– Testosterone
– Estrogen
– progesterone
•
MALE REPRODUCTIVE
The scrotum contains two testes (testicles) where
SYSTEM
sperm are manufactured within tubes called
seminiferous tubules, and the two epididymis's
where sperm are stored.
• Testes are oval-shaped glands responsible for the
manufacture of sperm and the sex hormone
testosterone.
• Testosterone is responsible for :
– the development of sperm,
– male physical characteristics, and sex drive.
• Testosterone is also produced in small quantities by
the ovaries in women.
• From each testis, sperm pass into a coiled tube –the
epididymis –for the final stages of maturation.
• Unlike female egg maturation, which occurs in cycles
and ceases at menopause, sperm production is
continuous, reducing gradually with age.
• A man will produce roughly 525 billion sperm during
his whole lifetime and close to 1 billion per month.
• There are around 200 to 500 million sperm in an
average in a single human ejaculation !!
Label the male reproductive system
Summary of the functions of male genital ducts.
 The role of the testes
• Puberty in boys usually begins between the ages of 9 and 15
years old.
• It may happen very rapidly, over the space of a year or so, or it
may take place much more slowly over a number of years.
• The time and speed of puberty varies greatly from one person
to another.
• No two people experience puberty in exactly the same way.
• The chemical changes which trigger puberty are unseen.
• Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones(testosterone)
• A general sequence of events:
• The pituitary gland in the brain starts to produce
increasing amounts of LH.
• LH stimulates testosterone production from the
interstitial cells of the testes(leyding cells).
• Testosterone belongs to the family of androgens,
which are steroid hormones producing masculine
effects.
– It stimulates the development and functioning of
the primary sex organs.
– It also stimulates the development and
maintenance of secondary sexual male characteristics.
– is responsible for the erection of the penis.
 The secondary sexual characteristics of male
• The brain
changes occur.
– Adolescents
become more
independent.
– They can also
feel young
and insecure,
confused or
angry for no
real reason.
 The female reproductive organ
• The female reproductive system includes
external and internal genitalia.
• The vulva and its structures form the
external genitalia.
• The internal genitalia include a three-part
system of ducts: the uterine tubes, the
uterus, and the vagina.
• The ovaries produce egg cells and release
them for fertilization.
• The ripe egg travels along the fallopian
tube to the uterus, the muscular sac in
which it develops into an embryo and
then fetus.
• The uterine tubes (also called Fallopian
tubes or oviducts) connect the ovaries to
the uterus.
• Egg fertilization usually occurs in the
ampulla. The eggs then travel through the
isthmus into the uterus.
• Fertilized eggs develop inside the uterus.
• No eggs are manufactured after birth –a
female is born with a full set.
• Unlike the male, the female reproductive
organs are located entirely inside the
body.
 The role of the ovaries
• The female gonads are the ovaries,
two walnut-sized organs found below
in the abdomen.
• They are closely associated with the
uterus and the Fallopian tubes, but
are not actually attached to them.
• Girls often go into puberty slightly
earlier than boys.
• Between the ages of 8–14 most girls
begin the changes =sexual maturity.
• As with boys, the time and speed of
puberty varies greatly from one
person to another but the basic
changes which take place are the
same.
• Just as in boys, puberty is controlled
by hormones from the pituitary gland
in the brain and from the
gonads(ovaries).
 Cont’d
• The hormones produced by the ovaries are the
steroids estrogen and progesterone.
• FSH from the brain stimulates the ovaries to
become active and start producing the female sex
hormone estrogen.
• Estrogen is secreted by the follicle cells of the ovary.
• Estrogen increases at the time of puberty and :
• promotes the maturation of the ovum in the ovarian follicle.
• stimulates the growth of blood vessels in the endometrium
(lining) of the uterus to support pregnancy.
• the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females
 The secondary sexual characteristics of female
• Secondary sex characteristics are :
– whole body undergoes the adolescent
growth spurt/sudden.
– Pubic hair and body hair (underarms)
begin to grow.
– breasts develop and widening hip
– The external genitalia become larger
and the colour of the skin darkens.
– The female pattern of fat deposits on
the hips, buttocks and thighs develops.
– ovaries begin production of eggs,
menstruation begins.
– The uterus grows and begins to produce
a thickened lining each month in
response to hormones from the ovary.
– The brain changes occur and as girls
become adolescents :
• they become more independent.
• They can also feel young and
insecure, confused or angry for no
real reason.
 Cont’d
– Estrogen also affects the pituitary gland.
• As the estrogen levels rise, the production of FSH by the
pituitary gradually falls – which in turn means the estrogen
levels fall.
• The rise in estrogen levels has the opposite effect on the
levels of the other pituitary hormone, LH.
– As estrogen rises, the production of LH goes up.
– When LH reaches its peak in the middle of the menstrual
cycle it stimulates the release of a ripe egg from the ovary.
 Cont’d
• LH (luteinising hormone) stimulates/causes :
– the follicle to rupture and release the ripe egg from the
ovary in the middle of the menstrual cycle.
– Ovulation- The release of a mature egg from its developing follicle in
the outer layer of the ovary.
– After ovulation the remains of the follicle forms the
corpus luteum.
– The a corpus luteum to produces progesterone to keep
the uterus lining in place.
– Progesterone:
– maintains the thickened lining of the uterus
– Promote the storage of glycogen and the further growth of blood
vessels in the endometrium, which thus becomes a potential placenta.
– prepares the lining of the uterus (endometrium) for implantation of a
fertilized egg and to maintain pregnancy.
 Class work
• What are the similarities and differences
between the changes which take place at
puberty in boys and girls? Make a table to
help you with your summary.
 Cont…
• About ten days after ovulation (when no pregnancy has occurred) the
ovary reduces the levels of both oestrogen and progesterone.
• The lining detaches from the wall of the uterus and is lost through
the vagina as the monthly period or bleeding.
• An average girl loses around 50 cm3 of blood in each menstrual
period, and will have approximately 450 periods during her fertile
lifetime, although this will depend on how many times she is
pregnant. This means she will lose around 22.5 litters (39 and a half
pints) of blood before she goes through the menopause!
• Unlike men, who continue to produce sperm throughout their lives, a
woman is born with all the egg-containing follicles in her ovaries that
she will ever have.
 Cont’d
• At birth there are about one million follicles.
• By puberty that number will have dropped to about 300,000. Of the
follicles remaining at puberty, only about 300 will be ovulated during the
reproductive years.
• However, if the ovum has been fertilised it will reach the uterus and sink
into the thick, spongy lining, attach itself (implant) and start to develop.
• A woman’s best reproductive years are in her 20s. Fertility gradually
declines in the 30s, particularly after age 35.
• Each month that she tries, a healthy, fertile 30-year-old woman has a 20% chance
of getting pregnant.
• By age 40, a woman’s chance is less than 5% per cycle.
• Because the ovaries only contain a limited number of ova, women do not
have periods throughout their lives.
• Eventually the ova in the ovaries run out.
• The hormone levels drop, the ovaries and uterus shrink and the woman
stops having periods. She is no longer fertile. This change, which takes
place around the age of fifty, is known as the menopause.
Figure 3.44 How changes in hormone level influence the events of the menstrual
cycle
Summary of events of the menstrual cycle.
 Pineal gland
• Pineal gland is pine cone
shaped located deep in the
cerebrum.
• It secrets melatonin during
night to regulate circadian
rhythms.
• To keep sleep/wake rhythm,
menstrual and ovarian cycles.
• Circadian rhythms are driven
by an internal (endogenous)
circadian clock, although they
can be modulated by external
factors.
•
Cont’d
Circadian rhythm(Daily rhythms) clocks have
two main features:
– They will persist with a period of about 24
hours in the absence of environmental cues.
– They can synchronise to a 24-hour cue,
such as the light–dark cycle; this is called
entrainment.
– Melatonin levels naturally decrease with
age, leading to changes in sleeping
patterns in the elderly.
– Melatonin secretion is suppressed by
bright light (principally blue wavelengths).
– Over a prolonged period, melatonin
secretion becomes entrained to anticipate
the onset of darkness and the approach of
day .
– Melatonin functions to promote activity in
nocturnal animals and conversely
promotes sleep in diurnal animals (like
humans).
– During sleep, necessary physiological
changes occur in body temperature, brain
wave activity and hormonal production.
 Thymus gland
• A thymus gland is a diminishing
gland (over time) located between
the lungs.
• It is active during childhood.
• After puberty thymus gland slowly
stats to decrease in size and
replaced by fat.
• It is responsible for producing ,
training and maturing lymphocytes.
• It secretes a group of hormones,
such as
• Thymosin and thymulin- helps to
stimulates T-cells production and
maturation of T-lymphocytes in body
defenses.
• Thymopoietin-fuels the production
of T-cells and tells The pituitary
gland to release hormone.
• Thymic humoral factor- keeps
immune system working properly.
 Homeostasis in human body
• The word homeostasis comes from the Greek words homoio, which
means ‘like’ or ‘the same’, and stasis, which means state’.
• Homeostasis – is the process of keep inthe internal environment in
the same state all the time.
• Homeostasis allows the body’s cells to work at their optimum.
• The body maintain homeostasis by controlling a host of variables
ranging from body temperature, blood pH, blood glucose levels to
fluid balance, sodium, calcium, potassium ion concentration.
• Feedback mechanisms involving both the nervous system and
hormonal systems play a very important role in maintaining
homeostasis.
• Most of these control systems in the body are examples of negative
feedback.
– This means that when levels of a substance in the body
rise, changes are made which lower the levels again.
– Similarly, when levels of a substance fall, changes are made
so that it rises again to the original levels.
 The main threats to a stable state inside the body
• Eating to much or little or no food is available from the gut.
• Respiration produce a poisonous waste product –carbon dioxide .
– If levels build up in the body they change the pH of tissues.
– This in turn could denature enzymes and so stop cell chemistry completely
• Digestion produce poisonous wastes like urea.
– Liver produce urea from amino acids
– Accumulation of urea results in death
• Exercise produce heat from muscles. This can increase the
core body temperature, as can spending too much time in the
sun or having a fever
– high temperature denature enzymes and stop the cell chemistry.
• Very cold external condition leads to lose of a lot of body
heat. This results in the cellular reactions slow down.
• Change osmotic balance.
– The amounts of water and salt take in vary greatly throughout the day
and from day to day.
– so does the amount of the amount of water and salt lose through sweat and
urine
 1. Thermoregulation
• The human body temperature is maintained at the temperature
(around 37 °C) at which our enzymes work best.
• Maintain stable internal or core body temperature.
• Not all animals need to control their core body temperatures.
– Protista and small animals living in big bodies of water like the
sea have no means of temperature regulation .
• Larger animals living in many different habitats must be able to regulate
their body temperatures so they can avoid cell damage from overheating.
• The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus of the brain
acts as the body thermostat.
• As a result of all these sensitive control mechanisms, the core
temperature of the body is usually kept the same with only about 1
°C variation.
• The feedback control of the body temperature involves the
thermoregulatory centre in the brain and the skin.
• The thermoregulatory centre receptors are so sensitive they can
detect a difference of as little as 0.5 °C.
 Cont..
• Extremely hot and humid weather results in hyperthermia.
• Extremely cold weather results in hypothermia.
• In Ethiopia hypothermia can be seen sometimes in new-
born infants.
• The normal homeostatic mechanisms may not cope these
conditions .
• What types of mechanism do humans do have to regulate
their body temperature?
 Homeotherms/endotherms
• Is a living organism that maintains a stable internal body
temperature regardless of external influence.
• organisms with a relatively constant internal body temperature
which is usually higher than the external temperature.
• Their body temperature is independent of the environmental
temperature.
– for example, birds and mammals.
– Humans are a well-known example of homeotherms.
– Warm blooded animals
• Endothermic animals control their body
temperature through internal means/physiological
mechanism. .
• Because of their ability to survive in extreme
environment, homeotherms exploit diverse and
much more ecological niches than poikilotherms.
 Temperature control in homeotherms
• Homeothermic organism control their body
temperature by:
• Physiological methods
– Sweating
– Vasodilation
– Panting and licking
– Vasoconstriction
– Piloerection (pulling the hairs upright)
– Shivering and metabolic responses
– Fat layer under the skin (subcutaneous fat)
• Behavioral methods
– Clothing
– Seeking shade or shelter
– Taking high-calorie food in cold conditions
– Hibernation
– Aestivation
– Wallowing or bathing
– Burning fires, central heating, air conditioning
• Morphological methods
 Physiological methods of temperature
regulation in homeotherms
• Sweating:
– During hot condition, sweat oozes out of the sweat
glands and spreads over the surface of the skin.
– Sweat is made up mainly of water and salt but also
contains a small amount of nitrogenous waste
– As the water evaporates it cools the skin, taking heat
from the body.
– Sweat itself is not cool, and it can only cool you down if
it evaporates.
– In hot, humid conditions you may sweat a lot – but it
won’t cool down because the water can’t evaporate!
– water and salt are lost in the sweat affects the water and
ion balance of the body.
 Cont…
• Vasodilation/wider/large, expand or relax/
• Dilation of blood vessel as temperature rises.
• More blood flows through the capillaries.
• skin flushes and more heat is lost through radiation from the surface.
• it is particularly obvious in pale-skinned people.
• Vasoconstriction:
– Blood vessels constrict as body temperature falls.
– This reduce the flow of blood through the capillaries.
– It reduces the heat lost through the surface of the skin, and makes you look paler.
– it works to keep you as warm as possible.
– More blood flows through the deeper blood vessels of your skin as a result
• Panting and licking:
– Many mammals have thick, furry coats and so cannot evaporate sweat easily from the skin
surface even when they are getting hot.
– Some animals, such as dogs and cats, only have sweat glands in small areas of
the skin such as the feet.
– To increase the amount of heat lost through evaporation, these animals may
lick themselves, coating parts of their bodies with saliva which evaporates and
cools them down.
– They also pant, which allows water to evaporate from the moist surfaces of the
mouth and this also cools them down.
 Cont…
• Piloerection (pulling the hairs upright):
• The hair erector muscles contract.
• In furry animals this pulls the hairs upright, trapping
an insulating layer of air which is very effective at
conserving heat.
• As the core temperature starts to climb, the hair
erector muscles which move the body hair all relax and hair
lies very flat against skin. It reduces the layer of insulating
air trapped in the fur and so makes it easier to lose heat by
convection.
 Cont…
• Shivering and metabolic responses:
• As core body temperature drops :
– the metabolic rate speeds up, producing more heat energy so the body
temperature starts to go up.
–liver in particular is involved in this because it is a
very large organ which carries out many different
metabolic reactions.
– Shivering lead the muscles contract rapidly, which involves lots
of cellular respiration. This releases some energy as heat which
is used to raise the body temperature.
• As temperature rises (warm up):
• shivering stops.
• the metabolic rate drops so less heat is
produced.
 Cont…
• Fat layer under the skin (subcutaneous fat):
– under the surface of the skin is an insulating layer of fat.
– This prevents unwanted heat loss.
– The very thick layer of fat under their skin is known as
blubber.
– It is particularly noticeable in animals which live in very
cold conditions, for example, seals and whales.
 Behavioural methods of temperature
regulation
• Clothing- reduce heat loss
• Seeking shade or shelter
• shelter from cold, wet or windy conditions to help prevent excess
heat loss and keep themselves warm.
• shade to keep them cool when it is hot and sunny.
• for example, native male rats live underground in burrows all the
time in arid deserts.
• Taking high-calorie food in cold conditions
– Use more metabolic energy to keep warm.
• Hibernation
• deep sleeping in the cold winter.
• Their metabolic rate falls and so does their body temperature.
• They do not wake up until the warmer weather of spring arrives with
more food for them to eat,
• For example, dormice and hedgehogs in the UK
 Cont…
• Aestivation
• in hot countries, some animals cannot keep their bodies cool enough
in the hottest weather.
• These animals usually hide themselves underground or under a layer
of mud and go into a deep sleep until conditions cool down.
• for example, East African land snails can aestivate for up to
three years in times of extreme drought.
• Wallowing or bathing
• By wallowing in mud or bathing in water, the animals cover
themselves in water and the water evaporates from the surface
of their skin, cooling them down.
• for example, elephants and pigs.
• Burning fires, central heating, air conditioning, etc
– Air conditioning is used in some buildings and vehicles to cool the air
down.
 Cont..
• surface-area-to-volume ratio:
• As size increase, surface-area-to-volume ratio will
decrease.
• Smaller organisms have a much bigger surface area
to volume ratio than larger organisms.
• Small organisms lose heat relatively faster than
larger one . As a result they are more at risk of
becoming too cold than larger one .
• Big organisms have a greater risk of overheating as
their relatively small surface area to volume ratio
means they cannot lose large amounts of heat
effectively.
 Homeostasis and excretory organs
• Excretion – getting rid of the waste products.
• There are two main metabolic waste products which would cause
major problems in the body
– high accumulation of carbon dioxide and
– urea
• The organs which are involved in getting rid of these metabolic
wastes are known as excretory organs.
• The main excretory organs in human body are:
– lungs
– kidneys and
– skin
• The carbon dioxide produced during cellular respiration.
• Lung- is a site of a gas exchange and remove carbon dioxide waste
very effectively from the body.
 Cont…
• If the levels of carbon dioxide increase as you exercise:
• the level is picked up by sensory receptors in the arteries and
brain, which send electrical impulses to stimulate the
breathing centers in the brain.
• In turn, these send impulses to make you breathe faster and
deeper. As a result, the carbon dioxide levels fall.
• This is picked up by the same receptors and so the stimulation
of the breathing centers is reduced, and in turn the breathing
rate falls. This is an example of a feedback mechanism.
 Cont…
• Urea is produced in liver when excess amino acids are broken down.
• It causes serious problems.
• Excess amount of carbohydrate or fat, can store (as glycogen or fat) until
you need it.
• However, the body cannot store excess protein or amino acids, so any
excess is always broken down.
• The amino acids are converted into carbohydrate (which can be stored or
used) and ammonia.
• The ammonia is then combined with carbon dioxide (getting rid of another
metabolic waste) to make urea.
• The urea which is produced is a form of nitrogenous waste and it leaves
the liver via the blood.
• The urea is then filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and removed in the
urine.
• kidneys are main excretory organs, and homeostasis organs.
• They play a vital role in :
• the removal of urea from the body.
• in regulating the water and salt balance of the body.
 The structure and function of kidney
• The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the
waist.
• kidneys are vitally important in two aspects of homeostasis,
both in excretion and in osmoregulation.
• Osmoregulation - control of the water and electrolyte balance
in the body.
• It is used to maintain the water balance.
– remove any excess water and it leaves the body as
urine.
• important in keeping an ion balance/concentration/.
• Excess mineral ions are removed by the kidneys
and lost in the urine.
• If kidney is fail:
– use a special ‘artificial kidney’ known as a dialysis
machine.
– a kidney transplant.
 The kidneys

• How do the kidneys remove urea and control the levels of

water and ions in the body?
 Functions of the kidneys
• Functions of the kidneys include the following:
• Absorbing minerals, and filtering blood and producing urine.
• Regulation of blood ionic composition
• Regulation of blood pH.
• The kidneys excrete a variable amount of hydrogen ions (H)
into the urine and conserve bicarbonate ions (HCO3 ), which
are an important buffer of H in the blood.
• Both of these activities help regulate blood pH.
• Regulation of blood volume.
• The kidneys adjust blood volume by conserving or eliminating
water in the urine.
• An increase in blood volume increases blood pressure;
• A decrease in blood volume decreases blood pressure
 Cont..
• Regulation of blood pressure.
– by secreting the enzyme renin, which activates the
renin–angiotensin–aldosterone pathway .
– Increased renin causes an increase in blood pressure.
• Production of hormones.
– The kidneys produce two hormones.
–Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, helps
regulate calcium homeostasis
–erythropoietin stimulates the production of red
blood cells
 Cont…
• Regulation of blood glucose level.
• Like the liver, the kidneys can use the amino acid
glutamine in gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of new
glucose molecules. They can then release glucose into
the blood to help maintain a normal blood glucose
level.
• Excretion of metabolic wastes and foreign substances.
• Kidney produces urine → Ureter → bladder →out
of the body.
 The structure of kidney
• Internally, the kidney has three
regions:
– an outer cortex,
– a medulla in the middle, and
– the renal pelvis, which is the
expanded end of the ureter.
• The renal cortex contains the
nephrons, which is the functional
unit of the kidney.
• The renal pelvis collects the urine
and leads to the ureter on the
outside of the kidney.
• The ureters are urine-bearing
tubes that exit the kidney and
empty into the urinary bladder.
• The ureters transport urine from
the kidneys to the urinary
bladder.
• The urinary bladder stores urine.
• The urethra discharges urine from
the body.
 Parts of a Nephron
• Each kidney has a very rich blood supply
and is made up of millions of tiny
microscopic tubules (nephrons).
• Each nephron is 12–14 mm long, but only
about 10 microns wide, and there are
around 1.5 million of them in each kidney!
• Nephron filters, reabsorbs, secretes and
excretes
• Nephrons are the functional units of the
kidneys.
• Each nephron consists of two parts:
• a renal corpuscle- where blood
plasma is filtered.
• a renal tubule into which the filtered
fluid passes.
• The two components of a renal corpuscle
are:
– the glomerulus (capillary
network) and
– the glomerular (Bowman’s)
capsule, a double-walled
epithelial cup that surrounds
the glomerular capillaries
 Cont…
• Blood plasma is filtered in the glomerular capsule, and then
the filtered fluid passes into the renal tubule, which has
three main sections. In the order that fluid passes through
them, the renal tubule consists of :
• (1) proximal convoluted tubule/the first convoluted tubule/
• (2) loop of Henle (nephron loop), and
• (3) distal convoluted tubule/the second convoluted tubule/
• Blood flows into the kidney along the renal artery.
• The blood is filtered, so fluid containing water, salt, urea,
glucose and many other substances is forced out into the
kidney tubules.
• Reabsorption takes place.
 Cont’d
• The roles of the different areas of a single kidney tubule in
the production of urine are:
• To produce urine, nephrons and collecting ducts perform
three basic processes:
–glomerular filtration,
–tubular reabsorption, and
–tubular secretion
• Bowman’s capsule:
• the site of the ultrafiltration of the blood– filtration on a very small scale.
• ultrafiltration : the removal of excess water and other
substances from the blood.
 Cont..
• The blood vessel feeding into the capsule is wider
than the vessel leaving the capsule, which means the
blood in the capillaries is under a lot of pressure.
• The wall of the blood capillaries and the wall of the
capsule act as a filter .
• The blood cells and the large blood proteins cannot
leave.
• However, water, salt, glucose, urea and many other
substances are forced out into the start of the tubule.
• In fact the concentration of substances in the liquid
in the capsule is the same as that in the blood itself.
This process is known as ultrafiltration – filtration on
a very small scale.
 Cont…
• Glomerulus: Glomerular filtration occurs.
– is the knot of blood vessels in the Bowman’s capsule where the pressure
builds up so that ultrafiltration occurs.
– water and most solutes in blood plasma move across the wall of
glomerular capillaries into the glomerular capsule and then into the renal
tubule.
– The volume of blood leaving the glomerulus is about 15% less than the
blood coming in.
• First coiled (proximal convoluted) tubule:
– Connects the renal corpuscle to the loop of Henle.
– Found in the cortex of kidney.
– glomerular filtrate fluid enter it.
– The first tubule is where much of the reabsorption takes place.
– Majority of water and salt reabsorption take place.
– All of the glucose is actively taken back into the blood along with
around 67% of the sodium ions and around 80% of the water.
– It has many microvilli to increase the surface area for
absorption.
 Cont..
• Loop of Henlé: U-shaped tubule
– It connects the proximal convoluted tubule to distal convoluted tubule.
– Found in the kidney medulla.
– where the urine is concentrated and more water is conserved.
– Reabsorption of water and salt take place.
• Ascending loop of Henle: Impermeable to water but highly permeable to ions, which
causes a large drops in osmolarity of fluid passing through the loop.
• Descending loop of Henle: highly permeable to water but completely impermeable to
ions, causing a large amount of water to be reabsorbed.
• Second coiled (distal convoluted) tubule:
– Final site of reabsorption in the nephron.
– where the main water balancing is done.
– Normally, it is impermeable to water and permeable to ions.
– ADH action the DCT to increase the permeability of the tubule to
water.
– If the body is short of water, more is reabsorbed into the blood in this
tubule under the influence of the anti-diuretic hormone or ADH.
– (Diuresis means passing urine, so anti-diuresis means preventing or
reducing urine flow.)
– By the end of this second coiled tubule all of the salt which is needed
by the body has been reabsorbed, leaving the excess in the filtrate
along with most of the urea.
 Cont…
• Collecting duct:
• where the liquid (essentially urine) is collected.
• It contains about 1% of the original water, with no glucose at
all.
• The level of salt in the urine will depend on the amount of salt
in the diet and the water content of the urine.
• There is also a much higher concentration of urea in the urine
than in the blood – about 60 times more, in fact.
• But if body badly needs more water, more may be reabsorbed
along the collecting duct – again under the influence of ADH –
until the urine passes into the pyramid of the kidney and on
into bladder.
 Cont…
• The bladder is a muscular sac which can hold
between 600 and 800 cm3 urine.
• we usually empty it when it contains only
150–300 cm3.
• Its sphincter is voluntary.
• The amount of water lost from the kidney
in the urine is controlled by a sensitive
feedback mechanism involving the
hormone ADH.
 2. Osmoregulation and kidney
• The kidneys are vitally important in two aspects of homeostasis, both in
excretion and in osmoregulation.
• Osmoregulation is the process by which an organism regulates the water
and electrolyte balance in its body to maintain homeostasis.
• osmoreceptors - a specialised nerve cells responsible for monitoring the
osmotic pressure of the blood and extracellular fluid.
• The kidney is most important organ to keep an ion and the water balance.
• The amount of water lost from the kidney in the urine is controlled by a
sensitive feedback mechanism involving the hormone ADH.
• If the water content of the blood is too low (so the salt concentration of
blood increases): Osmoreceptors in the brain detect this.
– They stimulate the pituitary gland in the brain to release ADH
into the blood.
– This hormone making second coiled tubules of the kidneys more
permeable so more water is reabsorbed back into the blood.
– a more concentrated urine is formed.
– the amount of water in the blood increases.
 Cont…
• If the water content of the blood is too high:
– the pituitary gland releases much less ADH into the blood.
– The kidney then reabsorbs less water back into the blood
– producing a large volume of dilute urine.
– Water is effectively lost from the blood and concentration of
salts returns to normal.
• As the water concentration of the blood falls, the level of
ADH produced rises.
• As the water concentration of the blood rises again, the
level of ADH released falls.
 Cont…
• On an average day the kidneys will produce around
180 l (that’s about 50 gallons) of liquid filtered out
of the blood in the glomerulus (glomerular filtrate)
– But only about 1.5 l (just over 2.5 pints) of urine.
• So more than 99% of the liquid filtered out of the
blood is eventually returned to it.
• Blood passes through kidneys at the rate of 1200
cm3 per minute.
• All the blood in the body passes through the
kidneys and is filtered and balanced approximately
once every five minutes.
 3. The liver and chemo-regulation
• The liver is one of he most
active organs in the body – it
carries out over 500 different
functions.
• It is the second largest
individual organ in the body –
in fact it makes up around 5%
of the body mass.
• The liver receives a blood
supply from two sources.
• The first is the hepatic artery
which delivers oxygenated
blood from the general
circulation.
• The second is the hepatic portal
vein delivering deoxygenated
blood from the small intestine
containing nutrients or brings
the products of digestion to the
liver .
 Cont…
• The homeostasis function of liver or example for chemical
regulation in the body are:
– Controlling glucose level
• Control blood glucose level through stored glycogen.
– Controlling and balancing the fats and the cholesterol levels in the blood.
– Protein metabolism through deamination:
– deamination –is the process of removing the amino group from
excess amino acids.
– body cannot store the excess amino acids or simply convert
protein to fat. Instead liver breaks down excess amino acids and
forms urea.
– The amino part of the amino acid molecule is removed and
converted into ammonia and then urea in the liver.
– The rest of the amino acid can be used in cellular respiration or
converted to fat for storage.
– The breakdown of worn-out red blood cells – in particular the red
pigment haemoglobin.
•
Cont…
The formation of bile and stored in gall bladder
• to emulsify fats and help in digestion.
• Supporting blood clots- bile is essential for Vitamin K absorption .
• Vitamin K is necessary to create coagulants.
• Control of toxins/detoxification.
– The liver breaks down most of the poisons including alcohol.
• Vitamin and mineral storage –
• liver stores fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K and B12 and store iron and copper.
• Filter the blood
– All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes through the liver, which removes toxins, byproducts, and other harmful substances.
• Production of albumin
• keeps fluids in the bloodstream from leaking into surrounding tissue.
• It transport s fatty acids and steroid hormones to help support the correct pressure .
• It also carries hormones, vitamins, and enzymes through the body.
• Production of angiotensinogen :this hormone raises blood pressure by narrowing blood
vessels when altered by production of an enzyme renin enzyme in kidney.
• Temperature control:
– Around 500 different reactions take place in the liver at any time and generates
a lot of heat which is then spread around the body by the bloodstream.
– in fact the liver produces very little excess heat.
• To keep the health of liver:
– avoid drinking too much alcohol, which can cause cirrhosis of the liver and
liver cancer.
 Respiratory system as chemoregulatory
• The regulation of tissue oxygenation is
another typical example for chemical
regulation in the body.
• The respiratory system maintain
constant levels of O2, CO2 and H+ in
the arterial blood which then ensures
relatively constant levels of these
substances in the interstitial fluid.
– O2, needed to meet cellular metabolic
requirements
– CO2 and H+, needed to maintain
the acid–base status of the body's
cells.
• The respiratory chemoreceptors work
by sensing the PH of their environment
through the concentration of H+ ions.
Because most carbon dioxide is
converted to carbonic acid in the
bloodstream, chemoreceptors are able
to use the blood PH as a way of to
measure the carbon dioxide level of the
bloodstream.
 Cont’d
• Chemoreceptors negative feedback response have three
components the sensory to blood PH(chemoreceptors), the
integrating sensor(medulla and pons), and the
effector(respiratory muscle).
• The main chemoreceptors involved in respiratory feedback
are:
• 1. Central chemoreceptors:
– are located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and
detect changes in the pH of spinal fluid.
– They can be desensitized over time from chronic hypoxia (oxygen
deficiency) and increased carbon dioxide.
• 2. Peripheral chemoreceptors: these includes
– the aortic body, which detects changes in blood oxygen and
carbon dioxide, but not in the pH, and
– the carotid body which detects all three.
– They do not desensitize, but they have less impact on the
respiratory rate compared to the central chemoreceptors.
THE END