OTHELLO

Table of Contents

Genre Dates of Composition and First Performance First Printing Sources Settings Tone Characters
What Was a Moor? Plot Summary Conflicts Climax and Conclusion Themes Concrete Imagery Irony
Other Figures of Speech Racism in Othello Character Contrasts Othello as a Hero Iago's Soliloquies Planted Evidence
Murder Methods Did Shakespeare Visit Italy? Complete Text How to Cite This Study Guide

Genre
William Shakespeare's stage play Othello, Moor of Venice (or simply Othello) is a tragedy in which a good man falls to ruin and
death after an evil man inflames him with jealousy.

Dates of Composition and First Performance

Shakespeare wrote Othello between 1602 and 1604. The first performance probably took place on November 1, 1604, before
King James I at the royal residence in London.

First Printing
Othello was first printed in 1622 in a quarto edition. The publisher was Thomas Walkley. A year later, it was printed in the First
Folio, the first authorized collection of Shakespeare's plays. The First Folio version omits oaths and curses that appeared in the
quarto edition in compliance with a law passed by Parliament that forbade blasphemous language in stage dramas.

Sources
The probable main source for Othello was an Italian short story, "The Moorish Captain" ("Un Capitano Moro"). This story
appeared in GliEcatommiti, (also called GliHecatommithi), published in Venice in 1565 or 1566 and written by Giovanni Battista
Giraldi (1504-1573), also known as Cinthio. The translation of GliEcatommiti is One Hundred Tales. Shakespeare's play is only
loosely based on Giraldi's prose story. No English translation of the Giraldi story was available in Shakespeare's time. Therefore,
Shakespeare either read it in the original Italian or had someone translate it for him.

Settings
Othello takes place in Venice (in northern Italy) and Cyprus (an island in the eastern Mediterranean about forty miles south of
present-day Turkey). The time is a period between 1489 and 1571. It is interesting to note that Venice is a setting in both major
Shakespeare plays dealing in part with racial prejudice, Othelloand The Merchant of Venice.

As one of the world’s leading sea powers, Venice was a center of commercialism and materialism and, therefore, of corruption
and conflict arising from avarice, social status, and fierce competition. Cyprus—a strategically located island which yielded rich
harvests of olives, grapes and various grains—was much prized throughout its history. Assyrians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans,
and Byzantines all fought over and occupied it. England’s King Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, conquered Cyprus in 1191 but later
ceded it to the French. Venice seized the island in 1489 and in 1571 the Ottoman Turks brought Cyprus under their control.

Tone
The tone of the play is vengeful and bitter. Iago, the antagonist, sets the tone when he plots revenge against Othello, the
protagonist, after the latter promotes another man to the position that Iago wanted. Othello's negative attitude maintains the
tone after he accepts as true the false story spread by Iago that his wife has been unfaithful to him. Bitter, vengeful, and madly
jealous, he vows to kill his wife.

Characters
Othello: Black Moor who is the greatest army general in Venice. He is intelligent, courageous, and honorable. His marriage to
beautiful Desdemona, the daughter of a prominent Venetian senator, provokes racial slurs against him. But he carries on with
nobility and dignity as he commands an army bound for Cyprus on a fleet of ships. After arriving, Othello becomes the governor
of Cyprus while continuing as the general of the Venetian forces. His dedication to duty is eclipsed only by his dedication to
Desdemona, who follows him to Cyprus. So passionately does he love her that he cannot endure the thought of another man
even looking at her. And therein lies his Achilles' heel, jealousy. Othello is the protagonist, or main character.
Iago: Military officer with the rank of ensign or—as the Venetian soldiers often refer to him—ancient. He schemes against
Othello because the Moor promoted a younger man, Michael Cassio, to the position of lieutenant, or second-in-command,
even though Iago has more combat experience than Cassio. Iago is evil through and through, taking great pleasure in executing
his secret campaign to bring down the great Othello and Cassio. Iago is the antagonist, or opponent of the main character.
Desdemona: Daughter of Brabantio, wife of Othello, and victim of Iago's machinations and Othello's jealousy. She is the noblest
and most unselfish character in the play.
Michael Cassio: Othello's lieutenant, or second-in-command. His promotion to that rank enrages Iago, who wanted the position
for himself. Cassio is a hinge on which the play turns. On the one hand, it is his promotion that arouses Iago's jealousy and
causes him to seek revenge against both Othello and Cassio. On the other, it is his alleged (but nonexistent) love affair with
Desdemona that arouses Othello's jealousy.
Duke of Venice: Ruler who finds in favor of Othello when Desdemona's father attacks Othello's character, saying the black
Moor is unworthy of his daughter.
Brabantio: Venetian senator and father of Desdemona. He is a bigot whose racism Iago exposes when the latter inflames him
with a prejudicial rant against Othello. Brabantio falsely accuses Othello of using charms and magic to win his daughter.
Brabantio dies in Venice while Othello and Desdemona are in Cyprus.
First Senator, Second Senator
Gratiano: Brabantio's brother.
Lodovico: Brabantio's kinsman, who carries a message from the duke to Othello while the latter is in Cyprus. The message
orders Othello to return to Venice.
Roderigo: Venetian gentleman and former suitor of Desdemona. Pledging to help him win Desdemona, Iago tricks Roderigo into
giving him his money and ensnares him in a plot that results in Roderigo's death.
Montano: Othello's predecessor as the governor of Cyprus.
Clown: Servant to Othello.
Emilia: Wife of Iago. She is blind to his evil until she discovers that it was he who plotted against Othello and Desdemona.
Bianca: A prostitute who has fallen in love with Cassio during his visits. He tells her he will marry her even though he has no
intention of doing so.
Minor Characters: Sailor, messenger, herald, officers, gentlemen, musicians, attendants.

What Was a Moor?

A Moor was a Muslim of mixed Arab and Berber descent. Berbers were North African natives who eventually accepted Arab
customs and Islam after Arabs invaded North Africa in the seventh century AD. The word Moors has been used to refer in
general to Muslims of North Africa and to Muslim conquerors of Spain. Moor derives from a Latin word, Mauri, used to name
the residents of the ancient Roman province of Mauritania in North Africa. To refer to Othello as a black Moor is not to commit
a redundancy, for there were white Moors as well as black Moors, the latter mostly of Sudanese origin.

Plot Summary
Othello, a black Moor, is a general in the service of Venice. Because he has conquered the Turks, the Venetians esteem him
highly as a military leader. Iago, Othello’s ensign, aspires to rise in the ranks. But when Othello promotes the Florentine Michael
Cassio to the position of personal lieutenant, or second-in-command, Iago smolders with deadly anger for being passed over.
Immediately he begins a campaign to poison Venice against Othello. On a Venetian street, Iago tells the gullible Roderigo, a
gentleman of the city, that Cassio is untested in battle and that his soldierly abilities consist of “mere prattle, without practise”
(1.1.28). In other words, Cassio is all talk, no action. Iago says that he himself, on the other hand, has proved his military
prowess in battles at Rhodes, Cyprus, and elsewhere against Christian and heathen alike. Apparently, he says, Othello promotes
his men on the merits of their political and personal connections, not on their military skills. The goal of Iago’s plot against the
highly respected Moor is not only to gain revenge; it is also to do what he most enjoys: evil.

After Othello elopes with Desdemona, daughter of Senator Brabantio, Iago realizes he has the perfect opening to get back at
Othello. He enlists Roderigo, a former suitor of Desdemona, to awaken Desdemona’s father late at night. Then Iago, using crude
racist metaphors, inflames Brabantio against Othello:

For shame, put on your gown;

Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul;
Even now, now, very now, an old black ram [Othello]
Is tupping [having sex with] your white ewe [Desdemona]. Arise, arise;
Awake the snorting citizens with the bell,
Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you:
Arise, I say. (1.1.92-98)

Outraged, Brabantio complains to the Duke of Venice, claiming Othello used spells and charms to win Desdemona's favor. How
else could a vile black man have won her favor?

When a news report reveals that the Turks are are preparing to invade Cyprus, the Venetian Senate decides to send Othello to
Cyprus to defend it and become the new governor. During the senate meeting, the duke listens to Brabantio's charges against
Othello. But after hearing Othello speak of his love for Desdemona, the duke finds in favor of Othello, and Brabantio
relinquishes his daughter to the Moor. She decides to follow him to Cypress. Unaware that Iago was behind Brabantio's earlier
protests against the elopement, Othello orders Iago to accompany his wife. Roderigo goes along at the urging of Iago, who tells
Roderigo that Desdemona will eventually tire of Othello. However, Iago also tells Roderigo they must first act to discredit Cassio
to prevent Desdemona from taking up with him.

Meanwhile, a raging storm devastates the Turkish fleet, upending its attack, although the ships from Venice arrive safely at
Cyprus. A celebration follows.

On the evening of the first night in Cyprus, Iago—implementing his plan to discredit Cassio—gets Cassio drunk, then has
Roderigo start an argument with him. Montano, the outgoing governor of Cyprus, intervenes, and Cassio wounds him.

After Othello arrives at the scene of the commotion, he asks: “Honest Iago, that look'st dead with grieving / Speak, who began
this?” (2.3.135-136). Playing the innocent, Iago replies: “I had rather have this tongue cut from my mouth / Than it should do
offense to Michael Cassio” (2.3.181-182). Having duly established himself as an unbiased onlooker, Iago then says, ''Yet, I
persuade myself, to speak the truth. . .” (3.1.183). After Iago recounts for Othello what happened during the fray, implicating
Cassio, Othello tells Cassio that he will never more serve as the Moor’s second-in-command. Lovely Desdemona appears and
inquires about the disturbance. Othello tells her all is well, and they go off to bed. Montano is led away for treatment of his
injury. Cassio, now alone with Iago, says he regrets his behavior. Iago tells him he can yet regain favor with Othello by having
Desdemona intercede on his behalf.

When Cassio presents his case to Desdemona, she agrees to speak with her husband on Cassio’s behalf. When she does so in an
innocent attempt to be helpful, she arouses Othello’s jealousy. After all, Cassio is far younger than Othello—and terribly
handsome. Is it not reasonable to believe that Desdemona has something going with Cassio?

By and by, Iago’s wife, Emilia, has found a handkerchief dropped by Desdemona. Othello had given it to his wife as a gift. When
Emilia shows it to Iago, he sees an opportunity to advance his scheme and snatches it away, saying he has use for it. Iago then
plants the handkerchief in Cassio’s room and tells Othello that Cassio has come into possession of it. When Othello asks his wife
for the handkerchief and she cannot produce it, he tells her that it was a valued heirloom given to his mother by an Egyptian
woman. He says his mother, in turn, gave the handkerchief to him as she lay dying, requesting that he give it to his future wife.

“To lose ’t or give ’t away were such perdition / As nothing else could match” (3.4.69-70), Othello says. When he further presses
Desdemona to produce the handkerchief and she cannot, he becomes convinced that she gave it to Cassio and has been having
an affair with him. Othello then tells Iago he plans to poison Desdemona, but Iago advises him to “strangle her in her bed, even
the bed she hath contaminated (4.1.182). As for Cassio, Iago says, “Let me be his undertaker” (4.1.184).

Letters from the Duke of Venice arrive with Lodovico, recalling Othello to Venice and naming Cassio the new governor of
Cyprus. Kind-hearted Desdemona praises Cassio. Jealous Othello strikes and berates her. To further his plan, Iago again uses the
hapless Roderigo, persuading him to kill Cassio for him. On a dark street Roderigo thrusts at Cassio but fails to kill him. Cassio in
turn wounds Roderigo. Iago, darting by unseen, wounds Cassio in the leg.

Othello arrives to observe from a distance. Believing Iago has been good to his word, that he has killed Cassio, the Moor goes
back to the castle for the awful task of executing his wife. As others are drawn to the scene of the fray between Roderigo and
Cassio, Iago steps forward with a lantern as if he is just discovering the melee. At an opportune moment he steals aside and
finishes off Roderigo with a dagger thrust. Cassio is taken away for treatment.

Othello, still in love with his wife, kisses her awake, asks her to prepare her soul for death, and—after an exchange of
accusations and denials—smothers her with a pillow or chokes her. As Desdemona lies dying, Emilia arrives to report the death
of Roderigo. Desdemona cries out, “A guiltless death I die” (5.2.149), then breathes her last. Othello reveals that he killed his
wife because she was having an affair with Cassio. Iago, he says, can verify her infidelity. Emilia, shocked, says Desdemona was
always “heavenly true” (5.2.165) to Othello. If Iago reported otherwise, she says, he is a liar.

Emilia calls for help. Montano, Iago, and others respond. Emilia immediately impugns Iago: “You told a lie, an odious damned
lie; / Upon my soul, a lie, a wicked lie” (5.2.215-216). Othello, still convinced of Desdemona’s guilt, brings up the matter of the
handkerchief, saying Desdemona gave it to Cassio, as Iago can attest. Emilia then discloses that she found the handkerchief and
that her husband snatched it from her. At long last, Iago’s whole sordid plot unravels.

Othello now knows everything. Enraged, Othello attacks Iago. But Iago manages to escape after stabbing his wife. Montano and
others pursue him. Emilia dies and Montano returns. With him are Lodovico, Cassio (carried on a chair), and Iago (held
prisoner). Othello strikes at Iago with a sword and wounds him. When Cassio declares that he never wronged Othello, the Moor
says he believes him and asks his pardon. Lodovico presents letters found in Roderigo’s pocket that disclose further details of
Iago’s nefarious plot.

Despondent with self-recrimination, Othello stabs himself, falls on the bed, and dies. Iago is held for punishment. “The time, the
place, the torture” (5.2.427), Lodovico says, are up to the new governor of Cyprus, Cassio.

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Conflicts
The conflicts in the play center mainly on (1) Iago vs Othello, (2) Othello vs racism and ageism, (3) Othello vs Desdemona after
Iago poisons him with suspicion that she has been unfaithful, (4) Iago vsCassio, and (5) Othello vs Othello—his emotions war
with him and overcome his common sense and better judgment.

Climax and Conclusion

The climax of a play or another literary work, such as a short story or a novel, can be defined as (1) the turning point at which
the conflict begins to resolve itself for better or worse, or as (2) the final and most exciting event in a series of events. The
climax of Othello, according to the first definition, occurs in the third scene of Act 3, when Othello becomes convinced that
Desdemona has been unfaithful and resolves to retaliate against her. According to the second definition, the climax occurs
when Othello kills Desdemona and discovers the horrible mistake he has made.

The events that follow the murder of Desdemona constitute the denouement, or conclusion.

Themes
Jealousy

Jealousy has the power to destroy. It destroys both Iago (jealous that Michael Cassio had received an appointment over him)
and Othello (jealous that his wife may have slept with Cassio).

Gullibility
Othello is an honest and noble leader and apparently an outstanding military tactician. Unfortunately, however, he is gullible—
at least in his dealings with Iago. Pretending to be a loyal officer, Iago undermines Othello's relationship with his wife. He
correctly recognizes Othello as an easy mark, observing,

The Moor is of a free and open nature,

That thinks men honest that but seem to be so,
And will as tenderly be led by the nose
As asses are. (Othello, 3.1.360-363)

So Iago drops hints and suggestions that Michael Cassio has been seeing Desdemona romantically and even plants evidence to
support his story. Othello, too willing to believe his nefarious underling, falls victim to his lies and ends up killing his innocent
wife.

Racial Prejudice

Racial prejudice is a crucial issue in the play. It isolates Othello, making him feel like a defective and an outcast. Consequently,
he wonders whether he is worthy of Desdemona—and whether she has turned her attentions toward a handsome white man,
Cassio, as Iago maintains. Brabantio and Iago are the most bigoted characters. Brabantio is horrified that his daughter has
eloped with a Moor who will give him dark-skinned children; Iago cannot brook the fact that he must take orders from a black.

Deceptive Appearances

All things are not what they seem. At the beginning, Othello appears strong and self-disciplined; the Venetians respect him for
his good judgment. Iago, meanwhile, describes himself to others—including Othello—as impeccably loyal and trustworthy.
Later, Othello's emotions—particularly his jealousy—overpower him and blind his reason. Iago, we learn early on, is anything
but loyal and trustworthy. Wearing the guise of an angel, he lies to and deceives everyone—Othello, Desdemona, Roderigo,
Cassio, even his own wife. Iago is among the most evil characters in Shakespeare.

Courageous Love

Desdemona marries Othello knowing well that his color, his cultural background, and his advanced age will arouse controversy.
But she never wavers in her love for him, even when her own father—a prominent Venetian—speaks out against the Moor; she
never allows the bigotry of others to affect her.

Bad Things Happen to Good People

Desdemona is pure and innocent, the ideal wife. Othello is noble, loving, and accomplished, the ideal husband. But he murders
Desdemona, then kills himself. In the real world, bad things happen to good people. Chance, character flaws, and the presence
of evil—in this case, Iago—often militate against happy endings.

Concrete Imagery
Othello is rich in memorable lines, some of which have become part of the English language. What makes many of the lines so
memorable is the concrete imagery. A concrete image is one that appeals to one or more of the five senses. Often, such an
image substitutes a material object for an idea. Here is an example of concrete imagery.

I will wear my heart upon my sleeve

Fordaws to peck at. (1.1.67-68)
(Iago comments on what he would do if he were like men who make no attempt to hide their feelings. Iago, of course, prides
himself on his ability to hide his feelings in order to give false impressions. In presenting this image, Iago uses his heart to
represent his feelings and daws [types of crows] to represent those who would mock or criticize his feelings.)

Among frequently quoted passages containing concrete imagery are the following:
I will a round unvarnish’d tale deliver. (1.3.104)
(Othello uses a concrete word, unvarnished, when introducing a short tale in which he defends himself against accusations that
he abducted Desdemona.)

To mourn a mischief that is past and gone

Is the next way to draw new mischief on. (1.3.226-227)
(Here, the Duke of Venice advises Brabantio not to fret over a lost cause. The duke's use of mourn—rather than a word such as
regret—enables the reader or playgoer to picture tearful eyes.)

The robb’d that smiles steals something from the thief. (1.3.230)
(After the Duke of Venice exonerates Othello before the council of Venice, he advises Brabantio in this paradox to accept the
verdict in good humor rather than to protest it with petty grumbling. The line presents the image of a robbery victim whose
smile nettles the thief.)

Virtue! a fig! (1.3.331)

(In this metaphor, Iago belittles virtue by comparing it to a fig.)

The food that to him now is as luscious as locusts, shall be to him shortly as bitter as coloquintida. (1.3.333)
(In a metaphor, Iago compares current events to food; in a simile, he compares the taste of the food to the delicious taste of
locusts. He predicts that the sweetness of Othello’s life will soon turn bitter. Coloquintida is an alternate name for colocynth, a
vine that bears a tart fruit resembling a lemon.)

How poor are they that have not patience!

What wound did ever heal but by degrees? (2.3.274-275)
(In a metaphor comparing emotional anguish to an injury to the body, Iago scolds Roderigo for complaining when his plans go
awry.)

O! beware, my lord, of jealousy;

It is the green-ey’d monster which doth mock
The meat it feeds on. (3.3.191-193)
(In this metaphor, Iago tells Othello that jealousy is a monster with green eyes that mocks the meat it consumes.)

Irony
Othello abounds in irony, in particular situational and dramatic. Here are the definitions of these figures of speech.
(1) Situational irony: Situation, result, or ending that is the opposite of what is expected. Example: The people of Millvale were
stunned to learn that the murderer was the detective investigating the case. (2) Dramatic irony: Moment or continuing situation
when an audience (or reader) knows what a character does not know. Example: In Acts 1-4 of Othello, audiences and readers
know that Iago is a truly evil person while Othello and other characters believe that Iago is an honest, upstanding man.

Situational Irony in Othello: Example 1

Centuries of analysis and criticism of this play have focused on Othello as the victim of prejudice. Ironically, though, it is Othello
who commits the most heinous act of prejudice in the play—forejudging his innocent wife as, in his own words, a “cunning
whore” (4.2.105) who must pay for her transgression with her life. His mulish refusal to consider confuting evidence and his
summary execution of his wife demonstrate that prejudice is an equal-opportunity affliction.

Situational Irony in Othello: Example 2

The robb’d that smiles steals something from the thief (1.3.230).

Situational and Dramatic Irony in Othello: Example 1

Othello, a good man, commits a heinous crime. Iago, an evil man, masquerades as an honorable man. In fact, in one of the
better known passages in the play, Iago extols honor, saying:

Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,

Is the immediate jewel of their souls:
Who steals my purse steals trash . . .
But he that filches from me my good name
Robs me of that which not enriches him
And makes me poor indeed. (3.3.180-185)
(The situational irony is that the villain lectures others about the importance of a good name. The dramatic irony is that the
audience is aware of Iago's hypocrisy but Othello is not.)

Situational and Dramatic Irony in Othello: Example 2

Iago, in a pretense to make himself seem a friend to Othello, speaks of the danger of jealousy:

O, beware, my lord, of jealousy;

It is the green-ey’d monster which doth mock
The meat it feeds on. . . . . (3.3.191-193)
(The situational irony is that Iago speaks against jealousy even though it is jealousy that motivates him. Othello's promotion of
Cassio instead of Iago made Iago extremely jealous of Cassio and caused him to seek revenge against Othello. The dramatic
irony is that the audience is aware of Iago's evil intentions but Othello is not.)

Dramatic Irony

Unaware of what the audience knows—that Iago is a villainous liar who hates Othello—the Moor tells Iago: "I know thou art full
of love and honesty" (3.3.138).

Other Figures of Speech

Among other figures of speech in the play are the following.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of a consonant sound, as the following examples demonstrate.

If after every tempest come such calms,

May the winds blow till they have waken’d death! (2.1.185-186)

So shall you have a shorter journey to your desires by the means I shall then have to prefer them. (2.1.225)

I have drunk but one cup to-night, and that was craftily qualified too. (2.3.28)
(Note that the first letter of qualified has the same consonant sound as cup and craftily.)

He drinks you with facility your Dane dead drunk. (2.3.57)

Anaphora

Anaphora is the repetition of a word, phrase, or clause in successive groups of words. Here are examples.

You’ll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse; you’ll have your nephews neigh to you; you’ll have coursers for
cousins and gennets for germans. (1.1.119)

I will a round unvarnish’d tale deliver

Of my whole course of love; what drugs, what charms,
What conjuration, and what mighty magic. (1.3.104-106)

I spake of most disastrous chances,

Of moving accidents by flood and field,
Of hair-breadth ’scapesi’ the imminent deadly breach,
Of being taken by the insolent foe. (1.3.152-155)

My story being done,

She gave me for my pains a world of sighs:
She swore, in faith, ’twas strange, ’twas passing strange;
’twas pitiful, ’twas wondrous pitiful. (1.3.176-179)

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a gross exaggeration, as in the following example.

I know a lady in Venice would have walked barefoot to Palestine for a touch of his nether lip. (4.3.42)

Metaphor

A metaphor is a comparison that does not use like, as, or than to make the comparison. For example, John is a bull is a
metaphor. However, John is as strong as a bull, John acts like a bull, and John is angrier than a charging bull are not metaphors.
They are similes. Following are examples of metaphors.

Even now, now, very now, an old black ram

Istupping your white ewe. Arise, arise! (1.1.94-95)
(Comparison of Othello to a black ram and Desdemona to a white ewe)

My services which I have done the signiory

Shall out-tongue his complaints. (1.2.22-23)
(Othello compares the services he has performed for the state to a voice speaking up for him.)

Methinks the wind hath spoke aloud at land;

A fuller blast ne’er shook our battlements;
If it hath ruffian’d so upon the sea,
What ribs of oak, when mountains melt on them,
Can hold the mortise? (2.1.7-11)
(Comparison of the wind to a human speaking aloud and to a ruffian; comparison of gigantic waves to mountains)

Pun

A pun is a play on words, as the following example demonstrates.

Put out the light, and then put out the light. (5.2.9)
(Othello is saying he will extinguish the room light, then murder Desdemona, who has been the light of his life.)

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is the use of a word that contradicts the word immediately following it. Cowardly lion, little giant, and deafening
silence are examples of oxymorons. Here are three examples from Othello.

I will withdraw
To furnish me with some swift means of death
For the fair devil. Now art thou my lieutenant. (3.3.536-538)

There’s many a beast then, in a populous city,

And many a civil monster. (4.1.70-71)

An honourable murderer (5.2.345)

Simile

A simile is a comparison that uses like, as, or than to make the comparison, as the following examples indicate.

Still as the grave. (5.2.115)

(Othello, having smothered Desdemona, compares her stillness to that of a grave.)

OTHELLO: She was false as water.

EMILIA: Thou art rash as fire to say
That she was false: O! she was heavenly true. (5.2.163-165)
(Othello, believing that Desdemona was unfaithful to him, compares her seeming falseness to water. Emilia compares Othello's
rashness to fire.)

Racism in Othello
Among the vilest characters in all of Shakespeare is Iago. Audiences attending Othello begin learning the extent of his villainy in
the opening scene of the play, when Iago uses racism as a spark to inflame Desdemona’s father, Senator Brabantio, against
Othello. Here is the scene:

After Iago and Roderigo raise a clamor outside Brabantio’s house late one evening, the senator awakens and comes to a
window. Iago then uses vulgar animal imagery to slur Othello, telling Brabantio that the black Moor has seized his greatest
treasure, his daughter, and at that very moment is defiling her.

’Zounds! sir, you’re robb’d; for shame, put on your gown;

Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul;
Even now, now, very now, an old black ram
Is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise!
Awake the snorting citizens with the bell,
Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you. (1.1.92-97)

When Brabantio reacts with incredulity, Iago replies with a metaphor that this time compares Othello to a horse:

’Zounds! sir, you are one of those that will not serve God if the devil bid you. Because we come to do you service and you think
we are ruffians, you’ll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse; you’ll have your nephews neigh to you; you’ll have
coursers for cousins and gennets for germans. (1.1.119)

Roderigo, whom Iago uses as a cat’s-paw, supports Iago’s story. Iago then says, “I am one, sir, that comes to tell you, your
daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs” (1.1.121). Roderigo adds that Desdemona is indeed in the
“gross clasps of a lascivious Moor” (1.1.131). Brabantio, now believing the story to be true, tells Roderigo to summon help.
Afterward, on a street in another location, Iago meets with Othello to inflame him against Brabantio. The latter had denounced
Othello, Iago says, with “scurvy and provoking terms” (1.2.10) after hearing of his and Desdemona’s elopement. Iago also says
that

He will divorce you,

Or put upon you what restraint and grievance
The law—with all his might to enforce it on—
Will give him cable. (1.2.17-20)
By and by, Brabantio and others appear. The senator, after denouncing Othello for taking Desdemona to his “sooty bosom”
(1.2.87), accuses the Moor of having used “foul charms” (1.2.90) and “drugs or minerals” to weaken Desdemona’s will.

The matter becomes an issue in the Venetian council chamber, where the Duke and other senators are preparing for war
against the Turks. After Othello speaks eloquently of his love for Desdemona and she speaks on his behalf, the Duke exonerates
Othello. But in doing so, the Duke obliquely denigrates Othello because of his race—apparently unintentionally, in a Freudian
slip—telling Brabantio, “Your son-in-law is more fair than black” (1.3.311), implying that fairness is superior to blackness.
Brabantio reluctantly accepts the ruling.

Having lost a battle, Iago continues to plot to win the war, still using racism as one of his weapons. Consider that in referring to
Othello, he sometimes inserts the word black to remind listeners that the Moor is different, a man apart, a man to be isolated.
For example, after referring to Othello in Act 1 as a black ram, he tells Michael Cassio in the second scene of Act 2, “Come,
lieutenant, I have a stoup of wine, and here without are a brace of Cyprus gallants that would fain have a measure to the health
of black Othello” (25).

Character Contrasts
English essayist and literary critic William Hazlitt (1778-1830) wrote of the stark character contrasts in Othello.

The picturesque contrasts of character in this play are almost as remarkable as the depth of the passion. The Moor Othello, the
gentle Desdemona, the villain Iago, the good-natured Cassio, the fool Roderigo, present a range and variety of character as
striking and palpable as that produced by the opposition of costume in a picture. Their distinguishing qualities stand out to the
mind's eye, so that even when we are not thinking of their actions or sentiments, the idea of their persons is still as present to
us as ever. These characters and the images they stamp upon the mind are the farthest asunder possible, the distance between
them is immense: yet the compass of knowledge and invention which the poet has strewn in embodying these extreme
creations of his genius is only greater than the truth and felicity with which he has identified each character with itself, or
blended their different qualities together in the same story. What a contrast the character of Othello forms to that of Iago: at
the same time, the force of conception with which these two figures are opposed to each other is rendered still more intense
by the complete consistency with which the traits of each character are brought out in a state of the highest finishing. The
making one black and the other white, the one unprincipled, the other unfortunate in the extreme, would have answered the
common purposes of effect, and satisfied the ambition of an ordinary painter of character. Shakespear has laboured the finer
shades of difference in both with as much care and skill as if he had had to depend on the execution alone for the success of his
design. On the other hand, Desdemona and Aemilia are not meant to be opposed with any thing like strong contrast to each
other. Both are, to outward appearance, characters of common life, not more distinguished than women usually are, by
difference of rank and situation. The difference of their thoughts and sentiments is however laid as open, their minds are
separated from each other by signs as plain and as little to be mistaken as the complexions of their husbands. (Characters of
Shakespeare's Plays. London: C. H. Reynell, 1817)

Othello as a Hero
Hellen Gardner observes,

Othello is like a hero of the ancient world in that he is not a man like us, but a man recognized as extraordinary. He seems born
to do great deeds and live in legend. He has the obvious heroic qualities of courage and strength, and no actor can attempt the
role who is not physically impressive. He has the heroic capacity for passion. But the thing which most sets him apart is his
solitariness. He is a stranger, a man of alien race, without ties of nature or natural duties. His value is not in what the world
thinks of him, although the world rates him highly, and does not derive in any way from his station. It is inherent. He is, in a
sense, a self-made man, the product of a certain kind of life which he has chosen to lead...." (Gardner, Hellen. Quoted in
Bender, David, publisher. Readings on the Tragedies of William Shakespeare. San Diego: Greenhaven, 1996 (page 140).

Iago's Soliloquies
Shakespeare uses the soliloquy, a passage spoken by a character when he or she is alone on the stage, to inform audiences and
readers about where the play is going. The character who recites the "what comes next" soliloquies is—for the most part—the
villain, Iago. In these soliloquies, he reveals what he is thinking and what he is planning, as in the following passage.

I will in Cassio’s lodging lose this napkin,

And let him find it; trifles light as air
Are to the jealous confirmations strong
As proofs of holy writ [biblical proofs]; this may do something.
The Moor already changes with my poison [poisonous talk]:
Dangerous conceits [imaginings; assumptions; suspicions] are in their natures poisons,
Which at the first are scarce found to distaste,
But with a little act upon the blood,
Burn like the mines of sulphur. (3.3.364-371)

Planted Evidence
Characters in literary works often use planted evidence to make innocent characters seem guilty. Knives, guns, caches of jewels,
umbrellas, and cigarette lighters have all been used to suggest that an innocent character is guilty. The nineteenth-century Irish
playwright Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) sometimes resorted to such ploys to complicate his plots. One of his plays, Lady
Windermere's Fan, relies heavily on seemingly incriminating evidence—a fan and a handwritten letter—to implicate an innocent
woman. In Othello, the planted evidence is Desdemona's handkerchief. Believing that Desdemona gave it to Michael Cassio as
a gift, Othello declares her guilty of infidelity and murders her.

Murder Methods
In this play, Othello apparently strangles Desdemona or smothers her with a pillow. (The stage directions say
he stifles Desdemona.) Murder by pillow or strangulation was only one of a remarkable variety of killing tools and methods
Shakespeare used to send his characters to the beyond. In Antony and Cleopatra, Cleopatra commits suicide via the bite of an
asp. In Richard III, the title character's henchmen drown Clarence in a barrel of wine. In Macbeth, hired assassins inflict twenty
trenched gashes upon Banquo's head. In Titus Andronicus, characters slit throats and impose starvation. In Hamlet, Claudius
murders his brother, old King Hamlet, by pouring poison into his ear. In King John, a monk poisons the monarch in the
conventional, oral way. The latter murder method has been a favorite of assassins—and writers—since ancient times.

Did Shakespeare Visit Italy?

Shakespeare's works suggest that he might have visited Italy. Consider that more than a dozen of his plays—including The
Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, All's Well That Ends Well, Othello, Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, The Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing, and The Winter's Tale all have some or all of their scenes set in
Italy. Consider, too, that plays not set in Italy are often populated with people having Italian or ancient Roman names. For
example, although The Comedy of Errors takes place in Ephesus, Turkey, the names of several characters end with the Italian -
o or -a:—Angelo, Dromio, Adriana, Luciana. Many characters in Timon of Athens bear names ending with -us, a commonplace in
ancient Rome. Timon's characters include Lucullus, Flavius, Flaminius, Lucius, Sempronius, Servillius, Titus, Hortensius. In
Hamlet's Denmark, we find characters named Marcellus, Bernardo, and Francisco. Of course, it is quite possible that
Shakespeare visited Italy only in his imagination.