1

Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Biochemistry and clinical pathology ( Imp. ques. and ans.) (Important
questions and answers )

Q. 1 . Write the types of amino acids , enlist the essential amino acids , Give
their biological roles .
Ans .
Amino Acids
these are building blocks of proteins , made up of carbon , hydrogen, amino
group( NH2 ) and Carboxyl group ( COOH ), and R ( variable group ) .
Classification of amino acids on the basis of chemical nature
1 ) neutral amino acids : the amino acids have equal amount of amino and
carboxylic group are called neutral amino acids , examples : Glycine , alanine .
2) acidic amino acids : the amino acids have negative R group or chain are called
acidic amino acids , examples : aspartic acid , glutamic acids .
3) basic amino acids : the amino acids have positive R group or chain are called
basic amino acids , examples : arginine , lysine
4) Sulphur containing amino acids : methionine , cystine .
5) Aromatic amino acids : the amino acids have aromatic ring are called
aromatic amino acids . example phenylalanine .
Classification of amino acids on the basis of Nutritional requirement
1) Essential Amino Acids : the amino acids are not synthesised in the body and
are obtained from dietary sources are called Essential Amino Acids .(
VIPHALLMTT)
2) Non Essential Amino acids : the amino acids are synthesised in the body and
are Non Essential Amino acids .
Essential Amino Non Essential Amino Acids
Acids
Valine Glycine
Isoleucine Tyrosine
Phenylalanine Proline
Histidine Cysteine

SR Pharmacy
 2
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Arginine Aspartic acid
Leucine Alanine
Lysine Serine
Methionine Hydoxyproline
Tryptophan Cystine
Threonine Glutamic acid

Biological Role of Amino Acids

1) they are building blocks of Proteins .
2) They are source of energy , during long term starvation , after consumption of
stored carbohydrates and fats .
3) Some of them are used as neurotransmitter.
Q.N. 2 . Define Protein , classify them , and write the qualitative test of protein
and biological roles ( functions ) of Protein .
Ans.

Definition
Proteins are organic compounds with high molecular weight , made up of long
polypeptide chain of different amino acids . or
proteins are hetropolymer compounds .
Biological Role of Amino Acids
1) they are building blocks of Proteins .
2) They are source of energy , during long term starvation , after consumption of
stored carbohydrates and fats .
3) Some of them are used as neurotransmitter.
Classification Of Proteins on the basis of Composition and Solubility
Protein

SR Pharmacy
 3
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Simple Conjugated Derived

globular Fibrous Nucleoprotein primary

secondary
albumin collagens glycoprotein Proteins
proteoses
Globulin elastins Mucoprotein
peptons
Glutelins keratins Lipoprotein Proteans
peptides
prolamines Phosphoprotein metaprotein
histones Chromoproteins
Globins metalloproteins
protamine

Simple Proteins :
* Simple proteins are made up of only amino acids , and they are classified as
globular and fibrous on the basis of axial ratio .
* Globular are soluble and fibrous are insoluble .

Conjugated Proteins :
* these proteins are made up of amino acids and non proteins substance (
prosthetic or conjugated group ) .

Derived proteins :
* These proteins are derived ( changed form ) from simple or conjugated
proteins by denaturation ( by heat, acid ,alkali, X-ray ) and Hydrolysis . It is in
two types
1) Primary derived : In primary derived bonds are broken by denaturation
except peptide bonds .
2) Secondary derived : in secondary derived peptide bonds also broken by
hydrolysis .
SR Pharmacy
 4
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Qualitative test of protein
1) Ninhydrin test : amino acids and proteins a give Blue to violet colour with
Ninhydrains solution.
2) Biuret test: When biuret is treated with dilute copper sulphate in alkaline
medium a purple colour is obtained
3) Millon's test : when proteins are treated with Millon's reagent a white
precipitate is formed .
Biological role of Proteins
1)Protein as enzyme: proteins act as enzymes and play an important role in the
regulation of all the biological process in the body there are about 2000
different types of enzymes .
2)Protein as hormones: there are some proteins that function as hormone like
growth hormone , insulin.
3) Protein are associated with heredity characters: they help in transformation
of genetic information from one cell to another and from one generation to
another
4) Protein as immune system: Immunoglobulins are made of proteins that make
antibodies.
5) Transport : They transport specific types of molecule through the blood
6) Contraction : proteins like actin and myosin are responsible for the
contraction of muscles in living tissues .
7) Protein as receptor: proteins are present on the surface of cells and act as
receptors
8) Protein as structural material: hairs, nails , wool are made up of keratin
sulphate .
9) In bone : collagen proteins are found in cartilage .
10) in cell membrane : proteins are important part of membranes like plasma
membrane , nuclear membrane.

SR Pharmacy
 5
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Diseases Related to Malnutrition( deficiency) of proteins
1) kwashiorkor : this disease occurs due to severe deficiency of dietary proteins
.The affected person have abnormally thin or week body parts , but have
swollen ankles , feet and belly due to fluid retention in them .
2) Marasmus : This disease occurs due to severe deficiency of all macronurients
( proteins , carbohydrates , fats ) . Children are mostly suffer from this disease .

Q. 3. what are carbohydrates ? Discus types , biological roles and qualitative

tests .
Ans.
Definition
Carbohydrates are organic substances which have C ,H , O atoms .and H and O
are in the ratio 2:1 as found in H2 O , with general formula Cn ( H2 O)n .
Monosaccharides ( simple sugar )
Monosaccharides are basic unit of carbohydrates and can not be broken down
by hydrolysis into other simple sugar . example Glucose fructose and
galactose .
Monosaccharide is derived from Greek word "mono " which means single and
"saccharide" which means sugar .
They have a sweet flavour . They are water soluble . they have a crystalline
appearance .
Olygosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are a type of carbohydrates , these are made up of 2-10 units
of monosaccharides . it can be further classified In disaccharides ,
trisaccharides etc.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are a type of carbohydrate and made of tow monosaccharides ,
and on hydrolysis it gives on molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose .
Example 1) Maltose 2) lactose 3) sucrose .

SR Pharmacy
 6
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide is a type of carbohydrate and it is made up of more than 10
monosaccharide units . example Starch , glycogen .
they do not have a sweet flavour .
They are water insoluble
They are carbohydrate with high molecular weight
Qualitative Test
The qualitative tests are performed for identification of carbohydrates are
following :

1) Fehling's Test :
In this test , 1-2 ml each of the Fehling's solution A and B are added to few drops
of the test solution and boiled for a few minutes . A Yellowish red colour
appears that confirms the presence of reducing sugar ( carbohydrate )

2) Tollen's test :
In this test , 2-3ml of Tollen's reagent is added to 2-3 ml of aqueous solution of
carbohydrate , and boiled in a water bath for 10 minutes . A shining silver mirror
indicates the presence of reducing carbohydrates .
Biological Roles Of carbohydrates
1) They are source of energy for living organism .
2) They are used as dietary fibers like cellulose .
3) they are used as flavouring and sweating agent .
4) They are stored in our body in the form of glycogen in liver and muscles and
converted into glucose to provide energy according to need .
5) They are important component of brain cells .
6) They are important component of DNA & RNA ( Deoxyribose and Ribose sugar
)
7) They act as an anticoagulant in the form of Heparin .
8) They are major component of cartilage , tendon and bones.
9) They are used in clearance test in the form of Inulin .
10 ) They are used in the treatment of heart diseases in the form of Glycosides .

SR Pharmacy
 7
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Q. 4. Define enzyme , and factors affecting enzyme action .
Ans .
Definition : The specific type of proteins that catalyse ( increase the
rate of ) chemical reactions in living cells are called enzymes . or
Enzymes are catalysts(a thing that causes changes) that catalyse the
chemical reaction .
Factors Affecting Enzymes Activity
1) Concentration of Substrate .
2) Concentration of Enzymes .
3) Effect of temperature 4) Effect of pH .
5) Effect of UV rays . 6) Effect Of Inhibitors
7) effect of Activators .
1) Concentration of Substrate .
If the concentration of substrate is increased by keeping the
concentration of enzyme constant , initially rate of reaction increases
, but when all enzymes are occupied by substrate , further increase in
concentration of substrate does not increases the rate of reaction .
2) Concentration of Enzymes :
If the concentration of enzymes is increased by keeping the
concentration of substrate constant , initially rate of reaction
increases , but when all substrates are occupied by Enzy mes ,
further increase in concentration of enzymes does not increases the
rate of reaction .
3) Effect of temperature .
The rate of enzyme reaction increases initially as temperature
increase . But this increase is obtained till optimum Temperature ( 35
- 38 ° C ) . further increase in temperature may denature the Enzymes
and rate of action will decrease .
4) Effect of pH .
There is a range of optimum pH in which enzymes maximum Activity
, this range is generally from pH 6.4 - pH 7.5 . Exceptionally there
are some enzymes for them optimum pH is Highly acidic or slightly
acidic or alkaline .They are given Below .

SR Pharmacy
 8
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Q. 5. Discuss the protein deficiency disorders .
Ans .
1) kwashiorkor : this disease occurs due to severe deficiency of dietary proteins
.The affected person have abnormally thin or week body parts , but have
swollen ankles , feet and belly due to fluid retention in them .
Symptoms
1) loss of weight .
2) growth and weigh gain stop .
3) Ankles , feet and belly swell .
4) Immune system is damage , and get infection easily .
5) The natural colour of skin and hair changes to a rust color .
Treatment
Kwashiorkor can be treated by increasing the proteins in diet .
2) Marasmus : This disease occurs due to severe deficiency of all macronurients
( proteins , carbohydrates , fats ) . Children are mostly suffer from this disease .
Symptoms
1) loss of weight .
2) growth and weigh gain stop .
3) The natural colour of skin and hair changes to a rust color .
4) chronic diarrhoea
5) respiratory infection
Treatment
Marasmus can be treated by increasing the proteins , carbohydrates , fats and
other essential nutrients in diet .
Q.6. Define and classify the Lipids , and give two qualitative tests of lipids .
Ans.
Definition : Liquids are Greasy , waxy or oily organic compounds with general
formula Cn H2n O2 , which are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvent
like ester , chloroform etc .

SR Pharmacy
 9
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Classification Of Lipids
1) Simple lipids: these are esters of fatty acids which containing glycerol or
alcohol and carry no other substance .
2) Compound Lipids: these are Easter of fatty acids which containing an alcohol
and other groups also .
3) Derived Lipids : These are changed form of simple or compound lipids by
hydrolysis.
Qualitative Test of Lipids
1) Grease spot Test : In this test one drop of oil and a drop of water are put on
a paper . at first , both areas look wet but after some time water is evaporates
and the spot dries whereas lipid spot remains visible .
2) Solubility test : In this test we add some drops of sample of lipid to organic
substance and water and observe . it will miscible with organic substances like
chloroform , ether and immiscible with water .
Function Of lipids
1) Source of energy : it is a best source of energy it provide energy more that
carbohydrates and proteins .
2) Cell membrane : they are important component of the cell membrane
(phosphoric) 3)Membrane permeability: they regulate membrane permeability .
4) Vitamins: they store fat soluble vitamins (KEDA)
5) Enzyme: they are components of various types of enzymes.
6) Thermal insulation: fat deposited in the subcutaneous layer provide
insulation and protection from cold .
7) Transport : lipoproteins proteins transport cholesterol and triglyceride from
their origin to site of use .
8) Electrical insulation : they act as electrical insulator to the nerve fibres in the
form of myelin sheath .
9) Storage : they Store meaning of compounds .
10) Signalling : they act as signaling molecule .

SR Pharmacy
 10
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Q .7. Discuss diseases related to abnormal metabolism of carbohydrate and
protein .
A.
Diseases Related to Abnormal Metabolism of Carbohydrates

1) Diabetes Mellitus
 Diabetes Mellitus is a inherited or acquired disease occurs
due to defect in insulin secretion or insulin action or both ,
in which blood sugar level is high for long time .
 It is also called Hyperglycemia .
Symptoms
1) Presence of sugar in urine
2) Increase thirst
3) Increase frequency of urination
4) extreme hunger
5) fatigue
6) blurred vision
7) Headache
8) frequent infection
9) delay in healing of cuts and wounds
10) Itchy skin

2) Galactosaemia
 It is genetic disorder in which body unable to metabolise galactose
sugar , and blood galactose level increased . The absence or non-
Functionality of Galactose -1- Phosphate Uridylyltransferase Enzyme is
responsible for this disorder .
Symptoms
 1) Appetite loss
 2) Jaundice
 3) enlargement of Liver
 4) Liver damage
 5) Abdominal swelling due to fluid accumulation
 6 ) loss of weight .

SR Pharmacy
 11
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
 3) Glycogen Storage Disease (GSD ) :
 The breakdown of glycogen to glucose is facilitated by some enzymes ,
if they gets blocked , the glycogen accumulate in the liver and muscles
and Glycogen Storage Disease developed .

4 ) Glucose -6- Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Disease

 It is a genetic disorder in which the quantity of Glucose -6- Phosphate
Dehydrogenase decreased and causes breakdown of Premature RBCs .
This destruction of RBCs is called Haemolysis , and causes Haemolytic
anaemia .

Q. 8. Describe cell and its biochemical organisation .

Ans .
Cell
Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of living organism , About 100
trillion cells are found in a normal human being .

Biochemical organisation of Cell

As the tissues are made up of cells , in the same way cells are made up of
molecules ( biomolecules ) . In other words we can say as cells are building
blocks of tissues , biomolecules are building blocks of cells .
Biomolecules
Biomolecules are those elements( like C,H, O , N) which make different type of
chemical compounds and structures .
More than 10,000 or 100,000 biomolecules are present in human body but
some them recognised .
when different small organic compounds like amino acids , monosaccharide ,
nucleotides get together and form chemical compounds or structures called
complex Biomolecules , major complexx biomolecules are following
1) Carbohydrate 2) Protein 3) lipids 4) Nucleic Acid

SR Pharmacy
 12
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Biomolecules Building Blocks Major Functions
Protein Amino acids Form basic frame work of
cell
DNA Deoxyribonucleotides Carry the genetic material
RNA Ribonucleotides Carry information for protein
synthesis
Carbohydrates Monosaccharide It stored in the form of
glycogen and
fulfill short term energy
requirement
Lipids Fatty acids glycerol It is second major source of
energy and fulfill long term
requirement .

Micromolecules : small molecule of low molecular weight , we can say

monomers are micromolecules .
Macromolecules : Large molecules with high molecular weight are
Macromolecules , or we can say polymers are macromolecules .
Q.9. Introduction and scope of biochemistry .
Ans .
Introduction To Biochemistry
The Word Biochemistry is formed by Bio means living , and chemistry means
chemical reaction or chemical molecule .
so we can say:
Biochemistry is a branch of science in which we study about chemical reaction
or biomolecule inside the living organism .
Biomolecules
The cell of living organism is composed of a few elements like C , H, O ,and N
etc. are called biomolecules .
More than 10,000 or 100,000 biomolecules are present in human body but
some them recognised . example
1) amino acids 2) monosaccharide 3) nucleotide
SR Pharmacy
 13
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Scope Of Biochemistry In Pharmacy
1) Drug Formulation : The biochemistry helps in drug formulation .
2) Drug Improvement : The biochemistry helps in the improvement of drug .
3) half Life : The biochemistry helps to know the half life of a drug , and
biochemical test is performed to check how long a drug is stable on a given
temperature .
4) Drug Storage : The storage condition required for a drug is estimated by
biochemical test .
5) Expiry : The biochemistry helps to know the expiry of a drug .
Q.10 . Classify fatty acids On the basis of chemical nature .
ans.

Classification Of Fatty Acids On the basis of chemical nature

1) Saturated Fatty Acids : The fatty acids contain straight chain with single C--C
band and have no C C Double bonds are called saturated fatty acids .
Examples Stearic acid , Palmitic Acid , Arachidic Acid .

2) Unsaturated Fatty Acids : The fatty acids have one or more C C bonds in
carbon chain are called unsaturated fatty acids . examples Linoleic Acid ,
Linolenic Acid , Arachidonic acid
Types of unsaturated fatty acids
a) monounsaturated fatty acids ( MUFA) : The fatty acid have one double bond
in carbon chain.
b) Polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFA ) : The fatty acid has two or more double
bond in carbon chain. example O = Oleic Acid ( one double
bond )
L = Linoleic Acid ( 2 double bond )
L = Linolenic Acid ( 3 double bond )
A = Arachidonic Acid ( 4 double bond )

SR Pharmacy
 14
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Difference between Saturated and Unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids

1 Fats Oils
2 Found in animal Found in Plants
3 Increase cholesterol level in blood Decrease cholesterol level in blood
4 Increase the risk of cardiovascular Lower the risk of cardiovascular
disease disease
5 Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
6 Rancidity is high Rancidity is low
7 Butter, cream , meat etc. Almond oil , olive oil , coconut oil etc.

Q. 11 . Define Nucleic Acid , and nucleotide and nucleoside .

Ans .
Definition Of Nucleic Acids :
Nucleic Acids are intracellular organic substances , made up of polymerization
of Nucleotide . They store genetic information and enable protein synthesis
or production .

SR Pharmacy
 15
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
composition of Nucleotide

Phosphate group pentose sugar nitrogenous base

( deoxyribose , ribose )

Nitrogenous Bases
Purines : they contains two, carbo - nitrogen rings one of them is six
membered and other is 5 membered . example Adenine , Guanine .
Pyrimidine : It is a 6 membered carbo-nitrogen ring , at the 1st and 3rd
position it contains N . example Cytosine , thymine , Uracil .

Component Of Nucleoside and Nucleotide

Nucleoside : it is made up with the combination of pentose sugar and
nitrogenous base by glycosidic bond .

Nucleotide : nucleotides are organic substances made of nucleoside and

phosphate .
or nucleotides are organic substances made of pentose sugar , nitrogenous
base and
phosphate group.

SR Pharmacy
 16
Subscribe S R Pharmacy

( Phosphoester bond) ( glycosidic bond )

Q. 12 . Explain the distribution and function of water and define electrolytes and
electrolytes balance .
Ans . Introduction
Water is the most important component of the human bo dy .It is
necessary for normal function of the body. Chemically water is an
inorganic compound , its molecular formula is H 2 O . It forms
approximately 55-660% mass of an average adult's Body .
The total water content decrease in older people due to reduc ed
muscles mass .

Distribution of Water in the Body

Total Body Weight

Total Body water 42 L ( 60%) of TBW Other things ( 40%)

Intracellular Fluid ( ICF) 28 L 65% of T.B.water Extracellular Fluid (ECF) 14 L ( 35 % )

Intestinal Fluid 10 .5 L ( 25% tbw.) Plasma Fluid 3.5 L ( 8 %)

Distribution Of water in different body organs

1) Brain and heart are composed of 73 % of water

SR Pharmacy
 17
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
2) Lungs are composed of 83 % of water
3) Skin are composed of 64 % of water
4) Muscles and kidneys are composed of 79 % of water
Function of Water in the body
There are a lots of function of water in the body some them are
following :
 It maintains body temperature .
 It provides lubrication in joints and protects the bones .
 It makes the blood plasma thin and helps in proper flowing to
tissues .
 It helps in excretion of wastes from body .
 It helps in intracellular transportation .
 it prevents dryness of skin .
 it helps in occurrence of many enzymatic reaction .
 it helps in formation of saliva .
 it prevents constipation .
 It helps in maintenance of blood pressure .
 It helps kidney to perform properly .
 It helps in the maintenance of pH of the body .
Electrolytics
 Electrolytes are minerals which dissolved in water and release
ions .
 They are found in body fluids also like sodium , Chloride ,
potassium , and maintain osmotic pressure .
 They maintain amount of water in the body , particularly Sodium
maintains water balance through Osmosis .
Electrolyte Balance
If electrolytes are present in proper amount as body needs it is called
electrolyte balance .

Q.13. Define vitamins , classify them with examples . their role in life
process .
Ans .
Definition
Vitamins are those Organic Substances that maintain the normal
structure and function of cells .

SR Pharmacy
 18
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Vitamins are not synthesised by human body , that is why they are
taken in food from external source ( plants , animals ) .
Classification
1) Fat soluble Vitamins : Vitamin A, D,E , K ( KEDA) are fat soluble
vitamins . They are hydrophobic in nature and are stored in liver .
These are not excreted out from body , so excessive intake can cause
toxic effect which is called Hypervitaminosis .
2) Water soluble Vitamins : Vitamin B Complex and Vitamin C are
water soluble Vitamins .
These are not stored in the body , therefore they are required daily in
small quantity .
Vitamin A ( retinol )
Functions
1) It is necessary for normal Vision .
2) It is important for body growth .
3) It helps in growth of bones and Neurological System .
4) It keeps the skin , Kidneys , and other organs perfect .
Deficiency Diseases
1) Night Blindness 2) xErophthelmia ( dryness of eye )
3) Keratomalacia ( ulcernation of cornea ) 4) Dryness of skin .
Daily Dietary requirement
600 mcg /d
Sources :
Green Vegetables , fruits , cereals , liver , milk , Butter , and egg
yolk .

Vitamin D ( Calceferol )
Functions
1) It increases the absorption of Calcium and Phosphorus from
Intestine
2) It promotes the normal growth and development of bones .

SR Pharmacy
 19
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
3) It keeps bones healthy .
4) It promotes the normal growth of the body .
Deficiency Diseases
1) Rickets in children 2) Osteomalacia
Daily Dietary requirement
100 units / day ( 2.5 mcg) . and lactating mother 400 units /d
Sources :
Cod liver oil , fish liver Oil , egg yolk , animal liver .
Vitamin K ( phylloquinone )
Functions
1) it increases the activity of blood clotting factors .
2) it helps the liver to manufacture the enzyme that catalyses the
formation of prothrombin .
Deficiency diseases
1) Delay in blood clotting 2) improper functioning of liver .
Daily Dietary requirement
140-200mg/d
Sources
green leafy vegetables( Spinach , Cabbage etc.) , Soya beans , wheat
germ .
Vitamin 12 ( Cobalamine )
Functions
1) it is required for formation of genetic materials .
2) For formation and maturation of RBCs
3) it is needed for maintenance of nervous system .
Deficiency diseases
1) neurological disorder 2) Infertility 3) Demyelination
4) Megaloblastic anaemia .
Daily Dietary requirement
5mcg /D
Sources
liver, milk, moulds ,eggs .

SR Pharmacy
 20
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Q.14. define mineral , give the function and deficiency disease of followings :
Ans .
Minerals are the elements which are necessary for different types of
Physiological functions and many of biochemical process .
Types
1) Macro-Minerals or Essential or Major Minerals : The minerals are required
more than 100mg per day as a daily requirement are called Macro-minerals
such as : Sodium , Potassium , Calcium , chloride , Magnesium , Phosphorus .
2) Micro-Minerals or Trace Minerals : The minerals are required less than
100mg per day as a daily requirement are called Macro-minerals such as :
Iodine , Fluorine , Copper , Cobalt , Manganese , iron , zinc, Selerium , Sulphate ,
Arsenic , Vanadium .
Calcium: Calcium is a main component of bone and teeth , calcium is taken in
diet in the form of Calcium Phosphate and calciumcarbonate . It is the most
abundant mineral in human body ( 1200 g approximately).

Functions
 For formation and development of bone and teeth .
 Calcium is necessary for bone calcification ( it is a process in which calcium
builds up in the bones and teeth and make them harden .
 It is helps in the blood coagulation , helps in conversion of prothrombin
into thrombin .
 It helps the body in muscles contraction .
 It activates enzymes .
 It acts as an intracellular Messenger of different Hormones .
 It increase the permeability of Plasma membrane .
 It plays an important role in action Potential .
Deficiency Diseases
1) Hypocalcemia ( Low blood calcium level )
2) Osteoporosis ( weak and fragile )
3) Tetany ( Involuntary muscles contraction due to lack of calcium in blood )
4)Rekets ( in children )

SR Pharmacy
 21
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
5) osteomlacia ( In adult )
Recommended Dietary Requirement
500m g /day for a healthy adult , 1.5 - 1.0 g /d for Pregnant women .
Magnesium
Functions
 It helps in activation of enzymes .
 it is required for DNA replication , transcription , and translations .
Deficiency diseases
Fatigue , Weakness , appetite loss , nausea and vomiting .
Daily requirement
350 mg/d for a adult man .
Iron : It very important for formation of haemoglobin , around 3-5 g oiron is
found in a healthy adult .
Functions
 It required For formation of Hb /RBCs
 It required For formation myoglobin .( it store oxygen in muscle cells )
 it required for synthesis of DNA .
 It transport O2 Co2 .
Deficiency diseases
Iron deficiency anemia
Recommended Dietary Requirement
15-20 mg /d for a healthy adult
Zinc
functions
It requires for enzyme formation
it requires for sperm formation .
it helps in production of DNA and proteins .
Recommended Dietary Requirement
8 - 11 mg for adults
Deficiency diseases
Diarrhoea , Skin disorders , obesity , diabetes mellitus.

SR Pharmacy
 22
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Q. 15. write a note on biotechnology .
Ans .
Biotechnology is a branch of science in which using biology (living cell or
bacteria or any part of them) and technology or scientific process , a new
product is developed to improve human health and environment .
Biotechnology is also called "biotech ".
there are many subfields of biotechnology ,the main subfields are these :
1) Medical ( red ) biotechnology
2) Agriculture ( green) biotechnology
3) Industrial (white) biotechnology
4) Marine (blue) biotechnology
1) Medical biotechnology : It is used for medicinal purpose for example gene
therapy is used to treat genetic or acquired disease like cancer this therapy
utilizes normal genes for replacing the defective gene .
2) Agriculture biotechnology : this is related to agriculture product and
processes for example one or two genes are combined together and developed
a new variety of crop for increasing the yield
3) Industrial biotechnology: this is related to industrial process for example
replacing genes of a microorganism a new organism id developed to produce a
useful chemical .
4) Marine biotechnology : this field involve in Marine resources to develop a
novel pharmaceutical , drugs , chemicals products , enzymes or other industrial
product .

Q. 16. Answer any two of the followings :

a) Function of kidney and kidney function tests .
b) Function of liver and liver function tests .
c) lipid profile test .

SR Pharmacy
 23
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Ans .
Function of kidney
1) Regulation of blood volume : they regulate blood volume by conserving the
water or by excreting water in urine
2) Regulation of blood pressure: They regulate BP by regulating Blood volume .
3) Regulation of renin enzyme : renin is an enzyme which is produced by kidney
and helps in the formation of angiotensin , which causes vasoconstriction and
increased blood pressure .
4) Regulation of blood pH : they regulate the pH of blood by excreting h+
ions into the urine and conserve HCO3-- ions , (it is an important buffer ions in
the blood)
5) Regulation of blood ionic composition : the regulate the concentration of
some ions like Na+ , K+ , Ca++ , Cl-- etc.
6) Production of hormone : they produce Calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D
)which regulate the calcium homeostatasis ( the maintenance of constant
concentration of calcium ion in the extracellular fluid )
7) Stimulation of RBC production : They produce erythropoietin Hormone
which stimulate RBC production .
8) Regulation of blood glucose level : they take part in maintenance of blood
glucose level as they increase blood glucose level by gluconeogenesis process
9) Excretion of Wastes from body : they excrete out waste materials from body
like ammonia , urea , bilirubin , creatinine , uric acid , drug and toxins.
Renal Function Tests (KFT Test)
Kidney or renal function tests are performed using urine ( and some
test are performed using blood like urea clearance test) , and the
presence of different substances in abnormal amount in urine or in
blood indicates the kidney problems .

some blood sample test are performed to Evaluate kidney function .

1) Blood Urea nitrogen test ( BUN ) : Urea is obtained as a by-Product
of protein metabolism . It is formed in live r and excreted out in urine
through filtration of blood by kidneys.

SR Pharmacy
 24
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Normal range 10-12mg /dl
significancec : increased level of Blood urea nitrogen indicates kidney
problems .
2)Creatinine Test : Creatinine is a waste product of body metabolism
which present in blood excreted out by Kidneys .
Normal Range Creatinine in blood
1-2mg/dl or 0.6-1.2 mg/dl

Significance
Increased level in blood and low level in urine indicates kidneys
dysfunction .
Urine Creatinine normal Range
for adult man : 0.74 - 1.35 mg/dl
For adult woman : 0.59 - 1.04 mg/dl

3) Creatinine Clearance Test

This test shows the ability of kidneys to clear( Excrete out) creatinine
from blood through urine. In this test 24 hours collected urine
sample is taken.
along this test blood creatinine level also examined .
Normal Range of Creatinine clearance /min in urine
in adult men : 90-139 ml/min
In adult women : 80- 125 ml / min

Significance :
Lower than normal creatinine excretion indicates the kidney
problems .

4) Urea Clearance test

This test is also performed to check the kidneys functions . In this
test using blood , the amount of urea in blood Checked , and along
with two urine sample are collected with a gap of one hour to
determine the amount of urea filtered by th e kidneys into urine .

Normal Range of urea clearance

12-20 gm/24 hours

SR Pharmacy
 25
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Significance
Low level of urea than normal range indicates kidney problems , Protein
deficiency in diet .
High level than normal range indicates excessive protein metabolism , or too
much protein intake in diet .
Function of liver
1) Metabolism of carbohydrate : liver Plays an important role in the
metabolism of carbohydrates and release glucose into blood , in case
blood glucose level is high liver convert glucose into glycoge n and
store it .
2) Metabolism of protein and lipids : In case glycogen is not enough
to fulfill the body requirement of glucose , lever makes glucose from
protein and fat which is called gluconiogenesis .
3) Detoxification : Liver detoxifies the toxic substance like alcohol
drug and steroid hormone and prevents other tissue from damage .
4) Storage : liver stores glycogen , certain vitamins (fat soluble ) and
minerals (iron and copper)
5) Phagocytosis : the aged RBCs , WBC s and some bacteria under go
phagocytosis by kuffer cells of liver and destroyed .
6) Formation of urea : the ammonia is obtained during metabolism of
protein which is highly toxic is converted into urea which is less toxic.
7) Formation of RBC in foetal life .
8) Destruction of aged RBC and formation of bile pigment .
9) Formation of plasma protein : like albumin , globulin prothrombin
and fibrinogen .
10) Formation of heparin : it is a natural anticoagulant present in
the blood .

SR Pharmacy
 26
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Liver Function Tests (LFT Test)
1 ) Serum Bilirubin : It is the breakdown product of haemoglobin and
a major pigment in bile .
Normal Range
Indirect Bilirubin : 0.3-1.3 mg/dl
Direct Bilirubin : 0.1- 0.4 mg /dl
Significance :
high level indicates haemolysis , jaundice ( liver problem ) .
2) Serum (plasma ) protein : Albumins and globulins proteins are
major protein of plasma and produced by Liver .
Normal Range
Albumins : 3.5-5.1 gm/dl
globulins : 1.8-3.1 gm /dl

Significance
Increased level indicates dehydration Liver problems .
Deceased level Indicate Oedema, haemorrhage , Increased protein
break down .
3) Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) or Aspartate
transaminase (AST) : this enzyme is produced by liver and it helps in
energy production .
Normal range : 0.40 U/L

significance :
Increased level of SGOT indicates liver disease ( hepatitis , cirrhosis )

Lipid profile Test

this test is performed to check triglyceride and Cholesterol level in
blood .
Normal Range
a) Total cholesterol level is < 200 mg /dl
b) LDL cholesterol level < 100 mg/dl
c) HDL Cholesterol level is equal or more than 60 mg/dl
d) Triglycerides level is < 150 mg/dl

SR Pharmacy
 27
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Significance :
increased level of LDL and triglyceride indicates the risk of heart
diseases , blockage of arteries .

Q.17. Define IUB and MB classification of enzymes .

Ans .
IUB ( International Union of Biochemistry )and MB (molecular
Biology) Classification
1) Oxidoreductases: these type of enzymes involve in oxidation(
loss of electron) reduction( gain of electro n ) examples
dehydrogenases , oxidases .
2) Transferases : these type of enzymes involve in transferring of
chemical group such as alcohol, carboxyl , sulphate , phosphate,
aldehyde, ketone . example transaminases , kinases .
3) Hydrolyses : These type of enzymes involve in breaking of different
bonds .Examples Lipase , peptidase , glycosidase .
4) Lyases : These type of enzymes involve addition or removal of the
elements of water (hydrogen, oxygen), ammonia (nitrogen,
hydrogen), or carbon dioxide (carbon, oxygen) at double bonds. For
example, decarboxylases remove carbon dioxide from amino acids
and dehydrases remove water.

5) Isomerases : These type of enzymes are involve in isomerization

reaction ( Isomerization is a process in which one isom er is formed
from another. An isomer is any of the two or more forms of a
molecule with the same chemical formula but with a different
stereochemical arrangement of the atoms).

6) Ligases : these type of enzymes involve in biding or joining of two

molecules together.

e.g. Synthetases , carboxylases .

Q.18 Draw the structure of DNA( Waston and Crick Model ) , Glucose ,
Galactose and fructose(Open / straight/ Chain or Fisher Projection )

SR Pharmacy
 28
Subscribe S R Pharmacy
Ans .

Structure Of Glucos ,Galactose and fructose(Open / straight/ Chain or Fisher

Projection)

Closed / Ring Chain or Haworth Projection

SR Pharmacy
 29
Subscribe S R Pharmacy

DNA Structure

Best Of Luck
Thank U So Much

SR Pharmacy