1.

Examples of Physical and Chemical Changes:

 Physical Changes: These are changes that affect the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Examples include melting
ice, boiling water, dissolving sugar in water, and cutting paper.
 Chemical Changes: These are changes that result in the formation of new substances with different chemical properties. Examples include
rusting of iron, burning of wood, baking a cake, and digestion of food.
2. Examples of Exothermic and Endothermic Changes:
 Exothermic Changes: These are changes that release heat energy to the surroundings. Examples include combustion reactions (burning of
fuel), neutralization reactions (mixing acids and bases), and some types of chemical reactions.
 Endothermic Changes: These are changes that absorb heat energy from the surroundings. Examples include dissolution of ammonium nitrate
in water, evaporation of liquid, and some types of chemical reactions.
3. Prediction of Equilibrium Shift according to Factors affecting Equilibrium:
 Concentration: Increasing the concentration of reactants or products shifts the equilibrium towards the side with fewer moles of substances.
 Temperature: Changes in temperature can either favor the endothermic or exothermic reaction depending on the reaction's enthalpy change
(∆H).
 Pressure: For reactions involving gases, increasing pressure shifts the equilibrium towards the side with fewer moles of gas (according to Le
Chatelier's Principle).
 Catalyst: Adding a catalyst does not shift the position of equilibrium but increases the rate at which equilibrium is reached.
4. Separation Techniques:
 Filtration: Separating solids from liquids or gases using a porous barrier.
 Chromatography: Separating mixtures based on how they interact with a mobile phase and a stationary phase. Paper chromatography uses
paper as the stationary phase, while gas chromatography uses a solid or liquid stationary phase.
 Evaporation: Turning a liquid into vapor by heating it, separating volatile components from less volatile ones.
 Crystallization: Forming crystals from a solution by evaporating the solvent, separating dissolved solids.
 Extraction: Separating compounds by their solubility in different solvents, usually involving dissolving in one solvent and recovering from
another.
5. Properties of Acids and Bases and Neutralization:
 Acids: Sour taste, turn blue litmus paper red, react with metals to produce hydrogen gas, and conduct electricity in aqueous solution.
 Bases: Bitter taste, turn red litmus paper blue, feel slippery, and conduct electricity in aqueous solution.
 Neutralization: Reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water.
6. Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction Graphs:
 Exothermic reactions have a negative ∆H and release energy, while endothermic reactions have a positive ∆H and absorb energy. The energy
profile diagrams for exothermic reactions show a downward slope, while endothermic reactions show an upward slope.
7. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction:
 Temperature: Higher temperatures increase reaction rates.
 Concentration: Higher concentrations of reactants increase reaction rates.
 Pressure (for gases): Higher pressure increases reaction rates.
 Catalyst: Catalysts increase reaction rates by providing an alternative reaction pathway.
 Surface area: Finely divided solids have higher reaction rates due to increased surface area.
8. Bond Enthalpy:
 Bond enthalpy is the energy required to break one mole of a particular type of bond in a gaseous substance. It is typically expressed in
kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
9. Potential Energy Reaction Coordinate Graphs:
 These graphs show changes in potential energy as a reaction progresses from reactants to products. They include enthalpy (∆H), activation
energy, energy of reactants, products, and activated complex.
Bond Enthalpies:
 ∆H = Σ(bond enthalpies of bonds broken) - Σ(bond enthalpies of bonds formed)
 Using the equation: ∆H = q / n, where q is the heat released or absorbed (measured in joules or calories) and n is the number of moles of the substance
involved in the reaction.
Exothermic Reactions (Negative ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions that release heat to the surroundings.
 Example: Combustion of methane
 Structure: A + B → C + D | ΔH<0
Endothermic Reactions (Positive ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions that absorb heat from the surroundings.
 Example: Dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water
 Structure: A → B | ΔH>0
Combustion Reactions (Negative ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions in which a substance reacts with oxygen, usually producing heat and light.
 Example: Combustion of propane
 Structure: A + B → C + D | ΔH<0
Formation Reactions (Negative ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions in which a compound is formed from its elements in their standard states.
 Example: Formation of water
 Structure: A + B → C | ΔH<0
Neutralization Reactions (Negative ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions between an acid and a base, resulting in the formation of water and a salt.
 Example: Neutralization of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide
 Structure: A + B → C + D | ΔH<0
Dissolution Reactions (Positive ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions in which a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
 Example: Dissolution of ammonium chloride in water
 Structure: A → B | ΔH>0
Precipitation Reactions (Negative ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions in which two soluble compounds react to form an insoluble product (precipitate).
 Example: Precipitation of silver chloride from silver nitrate and sodium chloride
 Structure: A + B → C + D | ΔH<0
Redox Reactions (Oxidation-Reduction) (Variable ΔH):
 Definition: Reactions involving the transfer of electrons between reactants.
 Example: Reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide
 Structure: A + B → C + D | ΔH can vary
Enthalpy is the total heat content of a system at constant pressure, while enthalpy changes ( ΔH ) represent the heat exchanged during a reaction or a process. They indicate
whether heat is absorbed (positive ΔH ) or released (negative ΔH ) during the change.

The Haber process is a method to produce ammonia (NH3) from nitrogen gas (N2) and hydrogen gas (H2) under high pressure and temperature, using an iron catalyst.
Adsorption is the process where atoms or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid adhere to a surface.
 Simple Distillation: Simple distillation separates components of a mixture by heating it and collecting the vapor of the component with the
lowest boiling point.
 Fractional Distillation: Fractional distillation separates components of a mixture with closer boiling points by using a fractionating column to
facilitate multiple rounds of vaporization and condensation.
 Separation Tunnel Method: The separation tunnel method separates mixtures based on their relative solubilities in different solvents as they pass
through a separation medium, such as a chromatography column or a separation funnel.
 Filtration: Filtration separates solids from liquids or gases by passing the mixture through a porous barrier, where the solid particles are retained
while the liquid or gas passes through.