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Worked bone and antler from Halmyris: An insight on everyday life of a

frontier post of Scythia

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DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.10.040

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 Quaternary International 472 (2018) 142e148

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

Worked bone and antler from Halmyris: An insight on everyday life of

a frontier post of Scythia

-Stan a, *, George Nuţu b
Simina Rafaila
a
Faculty of Biology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Carol I Blvd. 20A, Iasi, Romania
b
The Eco-Museum Research Institute, Progresului 32, Tulcea, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Halmyris is one of the most important Roman settlements from the Danube Delta, in the easternmost
Received 31 January 2017 part of Scythia province during the late Antiquity. Its remains are located 2.5 km east from the present-
Received in revised form day Murighiol village and 2 km south from the Saint George distributary of the Danube (in Antiquity
6 August 2017
named Peuce). The fort (2nd e 4th century AD) and early Byzantine city (5th-early 7th century AD)
Accepted 30 October 2017
Available online 13 November 2017
experienced a long existence benefiting of strategic position. Archaeological research on-going from 1981
led to the discovery of the three gates, the thermae, the praetorium, the Basilica with crypt, the barracks
on the western side and of the military complex near the north Gate. Additionally, a large number of
Keywords:
Late antiquity
epigraphic fragments documents the existence of a unique (throughout the Roman Empire) ‘sailor's
Danube delta village’ - vicus classicorum and we may suppose that workshops for processing bone and antler were
Ancient city based there. In autumn 2014, research in the extramural area of the fort started due to necessity of
Halmyris building a new site-museum and tourist's information point. In this paper bone and antler finds found as
Bone and antler processing a result of the excavation are presented.
Workshop © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Halmyris (Murighiol, Tulcea district, SE Romania) is one of the
most important Roman and Late Roman settlements located in the
inferior part of the Danube delta. It lies 2.5 km east from the
present-day Murighiol village and 2 km south from the Saint
George distributary of the Danube (in Antiquity named Peuce). The
city has a long-life span, from Early Roman period to Early Byzan-
tine (roughly late 1st-early 7th century AD). Previously, the site was
inhabited by the Getae and, based on some pottery shards, devel-
oped trade relations with the Greek colonies from the Black Sea
coast. During the Roman period, the fort had a strategic position on
the last segment of the frontier on the Danube between Aegyssus
(Tulcea) and the mouth of the Saint George distributary. Together
with the fort Salsovia (Mahmudia) and the fortlets from Nufa
ru and

ţ Peninsula it guarded this segment of the frontier and
the Dunava
was a military base for the Roman fleet of the Danube (Fig. 1).
Archaeological research on-going from 1981 uncovered a large
number of finds but only pottery assemblages were published up to
* Corresponding author.

-Stan).
E-mail address: simina.stanc@uaic.ro (S. Rafaila
date to some extent (Topoleanu, 2000). The site yielded probably
the most important and varied pottery assemblage from northern
Scythia, but the existence of local workshops is proved only in the
case of lamps (Topoleanu, 1996). The remains of this workshop
were found in the proximity of the Western Gate where a single
kiln was discovered unfortunately badly damaged. Over the years
no other report of local production was made by the excavation
team.
2. Regional setting
Carved bone and antler objects occupy a minor position among
the small finds discovered on the site. Yet, a certain variety might be
seen among the finds, including combs, hairpins, buckles and other
implements of everyday use. Noticeable is the fact that the site
produced mostly evidence for local bone and antler workshop
during its 3rd phase of occupation, the Late Roman fort and early
Byzantine town, from the last quarter of the 3rd century to the early
7th century AD.
An analysis of the workshops from the Lower Danube shows
that most of them were discovered along the limes in military
milieus (Nuţu et al., 2014). If we take into consideration the situa-
tion from Moesia Inferior, one can notice that at least two

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.10.040
1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

-Stan, G. Nuţu / Quaternary International 472 (2018) 142e148
S. Rafaila 143

Fig. 1. Geographic placement of Halmyris and topography of the fort.

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S. Rafaila
workshops functioned in the legionary base from Novae in the area
of the scamnum tribunorum and on the valetudinarium. In late
Roman period, the evidences for local bone workshops come from
Nicopolis ad Istrum and Abritus. Southward, the workshop from
Radomir in Pernik district (Thracia) had a flourishing production in
Early Roman period supplying the region with a variety of objects
(Vladkova, 2006). Same situation is met in the case of Dacia, where
workshops functioned in forts and supply the demands of the
troops (Timoc, 2007; Vass, 2010 with the most comprehensive
study on military and civilian workshops from Dacia).
There has been suggested that bone working was usually asso-
ciated with other crafts. Obmann (1997) and Lang (2011) noticed
this aspect, but at Halmyris there is no evidence to support this
assertion. Instead, it seems that bone processing was a separate
craft closely linked to demand of the troops garrisoned in the fort.
As we shall see, there are two types of evidence to support this.
3. Materials and methods
Settlements from Northern Dobruja delivered over 200 bones
and antler finds (Nuţu et al., 2014). They were recovered during
archaeological excavations in military and civilian context without
a prevalence of a specific type of settlement. Just over 100 hair
accessories were discovered followed by other daily-use objects. A
variety of dress accessories were also discovered, but the overall
number is modest. Dress accessories consist in buckles, cloak fas-
teners, purse dumb-bell fasteners (‘Taschenbeschla €ge’), and deco-
rative belt-plates. A small rectangular-shaped buckle from Halmyris
was discovered inside the city and is the only example of harness
gear. The objects of daily-use are typical for Roman and early
Byzantine settlements in this area: spoons, sewing needles, handles
used for knives and knot looseners. Among the leisure objects, two
skates made of horse metacarpals were also discovered on this site
located on the Danube and associated with children’ games during
harsh winters on the local ponds. The finds were discovered during
archaeological campaigns from 1981 onward but the range of
products is limited in terms of function to objects related with the
hair-styles (two combs and one hairpin), dress accessories (one
bracelet and one buckle), equipment (one dumb-bell purse fastener
and one harness gear), textiles (one bodkin), writing instruments
(one stylus) and leisure (two skates) (Nuţu et al., 2014). The absence
of objects related to the military equipment in this fort on the
Danube is probably related with the character of research on the
site, where archaeological diggings concentrated in the intramural
area. Another consequence of this approach is that until recently
there was no trace of a local workshop.
In autumn 2014, research in the extramural area of the fort
started due to necessity of building a new site-museum and tour-
ist's information point. An extramural civilian building having two
habitation phases (late 3rd/early 4th to 5th century AD, 6th century
AD respectively) was discovered and partially excavated (Fig. 1).
Westward from this building on a level corresponding to the first
phase (4th-5th centuries AD) a number of unfinished and discarded
bone and antler pieces have been found. The analysis of the
archaeological context suggests that this building and the western
extramural area of Halmyris were inhabited only from late 3rd-
early 4th century onward. Previously, this area was probably left,
for military reasons, by any constructions. In this paper bone and
antler finds found as a result of the excavation are presented.
In total, seven finished carved bone and antler objects were
found, together with 16 unfinished and cut-offs antler tines and
tips, most of them in the western corner of the building, outside of
Room 1, on a clay floor covered with a layer filled with debris
(pottery, fragments of roof tiles, bricks and adobe). This clay floor
was interpreted as a working area clearly connected with the
extramural building investigated during 2014 field season. How-
ever, due to financial reasons the excavation was not extended
westward. The objects discovered fall into typical everyday life
bone and antler artefacts recovered from different sites from the
provinces of the Roman Empire, a prove of a standardized mass
production. Two double-sided combs are related with hair-styles,
the two distaffs indicate house crafts, while the rest of the
finished objects point to everyday life usage. All finds have parallels
and are recovered in large quantities in the Lower Danube prov-
inces, but in other regions as well. A beautiful carving is the frag-
mentary top of a distaff in the shape of naked Venus holding two
strands of hair with her hands (Fig. 2A), but this example has been
found in another context.
Archaeozoological analyses indicate that the raw material came
from domestic mammals (large or medium size mammals) raised
in the settlement or wild mammals hunted for food. There are two
faunal assemblages analysed from Halmyris. First assemblage was
collected during the 2003e2007 excavations; 3553 faunal remains
were collected, of which 3457 from mammals (El Susi, 2008). The
second assemblage was constituted during the 2014 archaeological
excavation; till now there have been analysed 995 remains, of
which 890 come from mammals (Rafail
a-Stanc, unpublished data).
For both assemblages the identified domestic mammals are: Bos
taurus, Ovis aries, Capra hircus, Sus domesticus, Equus caballus, Canis
familiaris, Equus asinus, Felis domesticus; most of the remains come
from Bos taurus, Ovis/Capra and Sus domesticus. The identified wild
mammals are: Sus scrofa, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, Vulpes
vulpes, Lepus europaeus, Lutra lutra, Martes martes, Meles meles,
Castor fiber, Bos primigenius, Canis lupus; in this group the pre-
dominant species, as number of identified specimens, are red deer
and wild boar.
According to the archaeozoological studies, the acquisition of
red deer antlers was made by two ways. The work antlers came
from the animals hunted in the local forest; first the animals were
hunted for food and the use of antlers came after (based on the
identification in the assemblages of non-shed antlers). On the other
hand, we identified shed antlers that came from mature males; this
suggests that the antlers were collected as a raw material, with
intention of manufacturing certain objects.
4. Discussions
4.1. Archaeological materials
First type of finds includes a series of objects connected with
daily-life of the inhabitants of the fort. Combs and weaving im-
plements, as well as objects related to dress accessories were
discovered (Fig. 2AeD). One raw antler piece (Fig. 2C) might be
linked to an unfinished comb's side piece meant to keep the teeth
together. A distaff top depicting a feminine goddess at its end has
, 1994;
analogies in a group who display on the top Isis lactans (Biro
pls. 86/851/-852). In the case of the Halmyris find one can notice
close similarities with Venus, as well the fine craftsmanship
(Fig. 2A). Simpler examples of distaffs have no intricate decoration
(Fig. 2B). Although the so-called ‘bone-tags’ raised a series of dis-
putes (tannery implements, writing utensils, belt fastening parts),
the example found at Halmyris shows raw features that led to the
idea of an unfinished object. Broken in the inferior part, it was
probably discarded during working process (Fig. 2C). Dumb-bell
purse fasteners are frequent discoveries in late Roman settle-
ments from the Lower Danube, but they clustering in Moesia
Secunda and Scythia. Their time span over a large period, but most
of the find comes from 5th to 6th centuries AD. Well-dated

-Stan, G. Nuţu / Quaternary International 472 (2018) 142e148
S. Rafaila 145

Fig. 2. Bone objects found during excavations from 2014: A. Head of a distaff. B. Distaff. C. Bone tag. D. Dumb-bell purse fastener.

examples from Nicopolis ad Istrum were dated to this period
(Roberts, 2007). Knot looseners (Fig. 4A) were used to lope the rope
when loading pack animals. Although their functionality is still
disputed, the example from Halmyris presents similarities with the
ones previously attested in Scythia and in Pannonia (Biro , 1994,
47e48, pls. 57e58/488-493; Nuţu et al., 2014, 102, pl. 22). Waste
and unfinished objects have been discovered together with sawn-
off antlers with cut marks (Fig. 3EeF/Fig. 4BeG). Some of them
were intended as handles (Fig. 4E) while a long bone with a large
pierced hole (Fig. 3D) suggests an unfinished flute. Raw antler cores
(Fig. 4.F-G) with saw and knives marks on side surfaces were
discovered inside habitation contexts of 4th-5th centuries AD.
4.2. Epigraphy
Aside the archaeological materials, an epigraphic document
discovered in 1991 (first two fragments) and in 1994 (the third
fragment) attest the local bone artistry. The document (a
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S. Rafaila

Fig. 3. Bone objects found during excavations from 2014: A-B. Double-sided combs. C. Raw antler comb side piece. D. Unfinished Flute? E. Swan-off antler tine with cut mark. F.
Sawn-off antler tip with sawn marks.

fragmentary tile) is in fact an epistula commendaticia written in the
raw fabric and sends on behalf of Valerius Valerinus Constans of
Legio I Iovia, to his comrade Hermes recommending him a certain
Secundus. On the obverse, probably the same personage, urges
Valeria of Diocletianus ‘the one who process the bone objects to
give something to the one who is perforating the bones’. The find
was dated at the end of 3rd century or the beginning of the 4th
century AD (Suceveanu and Zahariade, 2003; no. 21; Zahariade and
Alexandrescu, 2011; no. 36; Zahariade, 2012/2013, nos. 20, 44, 51,
56).
Recently, Zahariade (2012/2013) resumed the discussion on this
find, briefly mentioning this brick with a Greek hand-written text.
He gives further analysis of the names and showed that:
1. Valeria was the owner or simply a worker (1) in a bone
workshop; ‘it was urged by Valerius Valerinus Constans from Legio
I Iovia to give (something) to that who pierces’. As noticed by the
editor: ‘the wording is vague, the reading ambiguous, and so the
1
Probably just a simple worker, as she was only prepare the raw material.

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S. Rafaila 147

Fig. 4. Bone objects found during excavations from 2014: A. Knot loosener. B. Sawn-off antler tine with cut marks. C-D. Raw antler with cut marks. E. Long block with cutting marks.
F. Irregular block with cutting marks. G. Antler with saw and knife marks on side surfaces.

meaning is rather confusing’ (Zahariade, 2012/2013, no. 51).
2. Valerius Valerinus Constans, the third person mentioned on
this brick, brother (-in-arms) with an unknown high ranking? of-
ficer to whom he recommends a second soldier, Secundus, the son
of Hermes (Zahariade, 2012/2013, no. 56).
In our opinion, Valeria probably made the first phases of the so-
called chaîne ope ratoire, the operational sequence of the bone
processing, meaning the primarily cutting, boiling, etc. As far as we
know, there is no similar information with the one from littera
commendaticia found at Halmyris. However, in the Roman Empire
women were in certain cases associated with crafts and played an
important role in Roman economy, although the scale of the ac-
tivity is hard to estimate (Berdowski, 2007). Evidences from the
provinces indicate that crafts traditionally regarded as typically
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S. Rafaila
masculine like the stone working or metalworking were practiced
also by women. One such case is the one of Auelia Vernilla from
Salona which works as plumbaria together with her family
(Guidicelli, 2009, 40). In this case we may assume that the pro-
duction was oriented to the civilian population, while the clientele
of Valeria from Halmyris seems to be the military troops garrisoned
at this fort, although the range of bone products discovered so far
on the site does not indicate this.
Next personage, unfortunately unnamed, is the piercer, a highly
skilled artisan, probably the craftsman who made the final prod-
ucts. Piercing here seems to imply all others phases in bone pro-
cessing, beside the basic operations mentioned above.
What is necessary to understand, is that in this case we have a
clear military connection. If Valeria was a simple worker who did
the basic operations, but possible connected with the military
milieu by her father or in other ways, Valerius Valerinus Constans
was clearly a soldier of the Legio I Iovia, probably a high-ranking
officer in the local garrison (Zahariade, 2012/2013, no. 56).
5. Conclusions
Where exactly was located the workshop is still an enigma.
Excavations from 2014 might suggest that was located in the
extramural area of the fort. They also suggested that during this
period the settlement flourish and troops from the legion I Iovia
Scythica billeted at Noviodunum (Zahariade and Alexandrescu,
2011, 60). The city gradually transformed into an urban settle-
ment (civitas) as mentioned in the ancient sources at the end of the
4th century. Up until now, there were eight excavated areas, the
three gates [on north, northeast and west], the thermae, the
praetorium, the Basilica with crypt, the Barracks on the western
side and the military complex near the North Gate. A bishopric
Basilica has been found having three construction phases. Addi-
tionally, a large number of epigraphic fragments documents the
existence of a ‘sailor's village’ - vicus classicorum and we may
suppose that workshops for processing bone and antler were based
there. All these data point to a military milieu (terrestrial and also
connected with the Roman fleet of the Danube (Classis Flavia
Moesica) where certain workshops (civilian?) were supplying the
troops, but also the civilians, with various utensils of everyday use
made of bone and antler.
Among the objects of bone and antler required a military unit
entered a wide range of products: weapon handles, knives and
other utensils, harness pieces, dress accessories, not to mention
combs (related with hair-styles but also with hygiene) or other
decorative items. Based on the combined evidences, of artefacts
and the epigraphic document, we may assume a local workshop at
Halmyris and one of the rare evidences of the so-called ”cha ^ne
operatoire” in a military milieu, so hard to find in this part of the
Late Roman Empire.
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant of Romanian Ministry of
Research and Innovation, CNCS e UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-
P4-ID-PCE-2016-0852, within PNCDI III and by a Grant of Romanian
Ministry of Research and Innovation, CNCS e UEFISCDI, project
number PN-II-RU-TE-2014-4-2563, within PNCDI II.
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