aerospace
Article
Structural Efficiency Analysis of a Piston for Aviation Engines
Zhongjian Pan 1,2, * , Qinghua He 2 and Xiaobing Pang 1
Citation: Pan, Z.; He, Q.; Pang, X.
Structural Efficiency Analysis of a
Piston for Aviation Engines.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718. https://
doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9110718
Received: 16 October 2022
Accepted: 9 November 2022
Published: 15 November 2022
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Aerospace 2022, 9, 718. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9110718
1 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Changsha University, Changsha 410022, China
2 Research and Development Center, Sunward Intelligent Equipment Co., Ltd., Changsha 410100, China
* Correspondence: pzjian1005@163.com
Abstract: The high-performance piston has a great impact on the performance parameters of the
engine. The rapid design of a high-performance piston can shorten the research and development
cycle and lower the experimental cost. At present, the piston design is mostly considered from a
single factor, but it has not been comprehensively designed from multiple factors. Starting from the
concept of structural efficiency, this paper defines the restrictive factors affecting engine performance
parameters in piston design, puts forward an evaluation method of quantifying the benefit of piston
design on engine performance parameters, and deduces the calculation model. The piston is designed
and iterated many times to obtain the best two schemes. The two schemes are quantitatively compared
through the above calculation model and verified by experiments. The results show that the structural
efficiency of the piston in scheme 2 is 4.6% higher than that in scheme 1. The calculation method is
applicable to the design of key engine components, which can shorten the research and development
cycle, save the test costs, and greatly improve the R&D efficiency.
Keywords: structural efficiency; evaluation method; piston; quantitatively
1. Introduction
The piston is the core component of an internal combustion engine. For an aviation
piston engine pursuing a high power to weight ratio and high reliability, piston performance
is particularly important [1,2]. The ability of the piston to resist burst pressure and high
temperature directly affects the power and time between overhauls (TBO) of the engine,
the combustion chamber at the top of the piston affects the combustion efficiency and
emission, the weight of the piston affects the power to weight ratio of the engine, and
the high power to weight ratio and high reliability are the core evaluation indexes of an
aviation kerosene engine, so the research on the piston is particularly important [3,4]. The
aluminum alloy piston is favored by the aviation kerosene piston engine because of its light
weight and small reciprocating inertia force. The design of the piston has a lot of influence
on the engine performance, but at present, there is no method to effectively connect various
restrictive factors in the process of piston design with engine performance, especially how
to determine the influencing factors related to engine performance in the process of design.
At present, there is little information published on the aviation kerosene engine, only a
few articles on the performance simulation of the aviation kerosene piston engine [5–10]
published by Wilksch company in the UK. There is less content on its piston. Most of the
piston research is mainly aimed at vehicle diesel engines. Wang studied the effect of the
combustion chamber surface anodizing on piston heat transfer for a combined piston [11].
Khan studied the effects of the piston combustion chamber and injection angle on emission
performance [12]. Yang studied the thermal deformation behavior of a reinforced Al-12Si
engine combination piston and a control piston and revealed the dynamic recovery and
dynamic recrystallization of Al-12Si/Fe-based amorphous composites during thermal
compression [13]. Singh studied the relationship between the piston ring profile design
and braking thermal efficiency, the fuel consumption rate, and the thermal expansion
coefficient [14]. Wu conducted an in-depth analysis on the thermal engine coupling of a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 2 of 16

marine diesel engine and showed that the stress concentration of the piston crown was
mainly caused by thermal load. The destructive effect of thermal load was reduced by
strengthening cooling and improving the structural design [15]. Hong proposed a structural
efficiency evaluation method of quantitative analysis, obtained the structural efficiency
coefficient by synthesizing various parameters, quantitatively evaluated the structural
design level of the aeroengine, and realized the parametric method of evaluating the
quality of the structural design [16]. Jegley used the structural efficiency evaluation method
to analyze the pillar structure of the aircraft to obtain better optimization [17]. Some other
scholars conducted finite element analysis on the piston with a steel crown and aluminum
skirt, predicted the failure form of the piston, and confirmed the correctness of the finite
element analysis [18–25]. Qualitative analysis of the constraints in the process of component
structure design, and the correlation between these constraints and the performance of the
engine, were performed to design the components that meet the engine performance, which
has been complicating the development of aeroengine components. Structural efficiency is
an evaluation method to quantify the benefits of various structural improvement designs
on the overall performance of parts. However, according to different objects, the contents
(evaluation indicators) of structural efficiency are completely different. It is necessary to
conduct in-depth analysis, excavate the connotation of structural efficiency, and effectively
connect the multi-dimensional evaluation indicators affecting the performance of parts
with structural design, which has great significance in practical engineering. In 1989,
GE company put forward the concept of structural efficiency, weighed the influence of
various constraints on the whole machine, and applied this in the turbine engine [26], and
it was also widely used in the aviation industry and building structure [27,28]. Zhang
and his teams [29,30] put forward the connotation of structural efficiency for the whole
machine and components according to the structural characteristics of the research object,
the aero-rotor engine. The connotation involved was deeply analyzed, the quantitative
evaluation method of the whole machine and component structure was put forward, and
good research results were obtained. Due to different research objects and great differences
in structural efficiency, so far there is no introduction to the application of structural
efficiency in the piston. In many scholars’ studies, the research on the piston is relatively
simple. To improve the performance of the piston, the effects of single factors on the piston
performance are analyzed, mainly from the aspects of piston materials, thermal–mechanical
coupling, combustion chamber injection angle, etc. Few researchers began to study the
mechanical properties of aeroengine parts from multiple perspectives with structural
efficiency, but the application of structural efficiency is very complex, which needs to
be defined according to the unique use occasion and evaluation factors of each research
object. There is no authoritative report on the piston of aeroengines at present. Focusing on
the role of the piston in aviation engines, this paper scientifically analyzes several main
factors affecting piston performance, proposes the specific connotation and calculation
method of piston structure efficiency, establishes an evaluation method that can quantify the
relationship between piston structure design and various performance objectives, provides
a theoretical reference for piston improvement, and improves the overall performance.
The current calculation and analysis methods are compared to comprehensively consider
the problems encountered in the use of the piston from the original design, and quickly
evaluate the quality of the piston structure design. The traditional analysis method can
solve the problem from one factor but cannot comprehensively consider other problems.
The structural efficiency proposed in this paper can avoid this problem, shorten the piston
design iteration time, and reduce the experimental cost.

2. Connotation of Structural Efficiency

Analyzing the technical route of piston development, combined with the original
definition of structural efficiency, and according to the use characteristics and development
experience of the aviation kerosene piston engine, the piston should meet the fatigue
resistance under lightweight conditions, the piston pin bore will not deform during the
 2. Connotation of Structural Efficiency
Analyzing the technical route of piston development, combined with the original
definition of structural efficiency, and according to the use characteristics and develop-
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 ment experience of the aviation kerosene piston engine, the piston should meet the3 fatigue of 16
resistance under lightweight conditions, the piston pin bore will not deform during the
durability test, and the piston design should improve the engine combustion efficiency
and reducetest,
durability emissions.
and the According
piston design to should
the above design
improve therequirements,
engine combustionthe multi-dimen-
efficiency
sional objectives
and reduce of structural
emissions. According efficiency
to the aboveof the aviation
design kerosenetheengine
requirements, piston are put
multi-dimensional
forward,
objectivesthat is, the maximum
of structural efficiencyload
of theofaviation
the piston underengine
kerosene thermal–mechanical coupling,
piston are put forward, thatthe
is, the maximum
deformation load ofpin
of piston thebore,
pistonand
underthethermal–mechanical
emission performance coupling, thecaused
index deformation
by theofpis-
piston
ton’s pincombustion
top bore, and thechamber.
emission performance
The mathematicalindex caused by the piston’s
relationship between top combustion
each target and
chamber. The mathematical relationship between each target and piston
piston structure is studied, the mathematical model of the piston structural efficiency structure is is
studied, theand
established, mathematical
the benefitmodel
between of the piston structural
structural change and efficiency is established,target
a multi-dimensional and is
the benefit between structural change and a multi-dimensional target
quantitatively evaluated, as shown in Figure 1. According to the technical obstacles ofis quantitatively
evaluated, as shown in Figure 1. According to the technical obstacles of various objectives
various objectives in development, each item was given the appropriate proportion.
in development, each item was given the appropriate proportion.

Pistonstructural
Figure1.1.Piston
Figure structural efficiency
efficiencyanalysis.
analysis.
2.1. Maximum Load of Piston under Thermal–Mechanical Coupling
2.1. Maximum Load of Piston under Thermal–Mechanical Coupling
The maximum bearing capacity of the piston determines the maximum explosion pres-
sureThe
and maximum
combustionbearing capacity
temperature of the
that can pistonunder
be borne determines
thermaltheandmaximum
mechanicalexplosion
stress,
pressure and combustion
which directly temperature
affect the performance andthat can life
service be borne under and
of the engine thermal and mechanical
the power–weight
stress,
ratio. which directly
Under the affectthat
condition thethe
performance and
fatigue safety service
factor lifethe
meets of the engine
design and the power–
requirements, the
weight ratio.piston
lightweight Undershould
the condition
bear the that
loadthe fatigue
as much as safety factor
possible meets the power
to improve designof require-
the
ments,
engine.the lightweight
Under piston
the conditions of should bear the
the in-cylinder load
burst as much
pressure andas possible tomeeting
temperature improvethethe
powerof
power requirements,
the engine. the morethe
Under theconditions
fatigue safety factor
of the of key parts
in-cylinder of the
burst piston exceeds
pressure the
and tempera-
design value, the stronger the maximum bearing capacity of the piston. The
ture meeting the power requirements, the more the fatigue safety factor of key parts of the heat transfer
coefficient,
piston thermal
exceeds expansion
the design value, coefficient, mechanical
the stronger the maximumperformance
bearing parameters
capacity ofunder dif-
the piston.
ferent temperatures, and piston load boundary conditions were analyzed
The heat transfer coefficient, thermal expansion coefficient, mechanical performance pa- under different
working under
rameters conditions of thetemperatures,
different engine. The temperature
and piston load curveboundary
and cylinder pressurewere
conditions curveana-
were obtained under bad working conditions according to the engine simulation model.
lyzed under different working conditions of the engine. The temperature curve and cyl-
With the more rigorous Goodman mean stress correction method, the fatigue safety factors
inder pressure curve were obtained under bad working conditions according to the en-
of different piston structural design schemes under explosive pressure and temperature
gine simulation model. With the more rigorous Goodman mean stress correction method,
that meet the power demand were studied, and the effects between the distribution of
the
mechanicalsafety
fatigue stress factors of different
and thermal piston
stress and the structural design schemes
structural scheme under explosive
were comprehensively
pressure andThe
considered. temperature
design scheme that that
meet the power
exceeds the setdemand
value of were studied,
the fatigue and
safety the was
factor effects
selected, which showed that the piston has a high bearing capacity and service life under
thermal–mechanical coupling. In the subsequent engine performance improvement, within
the specified range of the fatigue safety factor threshold, the maximum load borne by the
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 4 of 16

piston was appropriately increased by adjusting the fuel injection and boost matching, to
improve the engine power–weight ratio.

2.2. Fatigue Deformation of Piston Pin Bore under Multiple Fields

Piston fatigue includes many forms, such as piston mechanical fatigue damage, piston
pin hole cracking, deformation, etc. These fatigue deformations directly affect the engine
time between overhauls (TBO). According to the development experience, pin bore de-
formation is the main form of fatigue of the aeroengine piston, which is mainly due to
the limitation of the aluminum alloy piston material and the high cylinder firing pressure.
According to the engine simulation model and some experimental parameters, the thermal
stress, gas explosion pressure, primary and secondary thrust, oscillation cooling, and other
boundary conditions of the piston under bad working conditions were obtained. Consid-
ering the lubrication friction coefficient between the pin bore and the pin, the mechanical
properties of the piston and the piston pin under a high-temperature environment were
provided. The deformation of the piston pin bore under thermal–mechanical coupling
and fluid–solid coupling of different structural schemes was calculated, and the elliptic
regression curves on both sides of the pin hole were analyzed. According to the design
value, the deformation of the pin hole under the specified impact was judged and analyzed,
and the relationship between the fatigue deformation value of the piston pin bore and the
structural design was discussed.

2.3. Emission Performance

Due to environmental protection, the emissions of aviation piston engines have been
considered by countries all over the world. Emission is closely related to combustion,
and the shape of the combustion chamber is an important feature of the piston crown.
Its shape directly affects the internal turbulent movement and flame propagation and
has a direct impact on the fuel economy and emission of the engine. The evaporation,
fragmentation, collision, and turbulent diffusion models of kerosene droplets were studied,
and the dynamic model of the combustion chamber under different crankshaft angles was
established. By changing the geometric shape of the combustion chamber, the mixing
quality of fuel and air was improved, the combustion speed was accelerated, and the
duration of swirl was prolonged. The generation laws of full state parameters such as
velocity field, temperature field, oxygen concentration, and NOx in the combustion chamber
under different diameter–depth ratios and reentrant diameter–maximum diameter ratios
were analyzed. The influence of the diameter–depth ratio on improving the squeeze and
turbulence of the intake swirl in the combustion chamber was studied. The influence of
the distance between the fuel injection nozzle and the combustion chamber wall on the
turbulence intensity near the combustion chamber wall was studied. The relationship
between the combustion chamber structure and parameters such as root and NOx were
comprehensively analyzed, and the coordination and unification of multiple variables was
considered.
According to the above analysis, the formula for defining the structural efficiency of
the piston is shown in Equation (1):

I = α 1 Dl + α 2 Dd + α 3 De (1)

where α1 , α2 , and α3 are the proportion factors, as shown in Equation (2):

3
∑1 αi = 1, αi ≥ 0 (2)

Dl : Maximum load of piston under thermal–mechanical coupling.

Dd : Fatigue deformation of piston pin bore under multiple fields.
De : Emission performance.
To compare between different structural schemes, it is necessary to perform a nor-
malization process, Dl , Dd , De . During the normalization process, the parameters of the
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 5 of 16

prototype engine can be used as the basis, or the optimal design target can also be used as
the basis. Since the connotation of structural efficiency is known according to the charac-
teristics of components, the proportion coefficient can be appropriately adjusted. In the
connotation definition of structural efficiency, the proportion coefficient is calculated as
αi = 1/3 [31].

3. Structural Efficiency Calculation of the Piston

The piston is used in a certain type of aviation kerosene piston engine. The engine
has a horizontal opposed layout, high power to weight ratio, fuel economy, and good
adaptability to general aviation aircraft. The engine parameters are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Engine specifications.

Item Parameters
Power 200 HP@2700 RPM
Displacement 3.5 L
Bore × Stroke 105 × 102 mm
Fuel Consumption 44 L/H@200 HP
Cruise Consumption 32 L/H @150 HP
Torque 500 N·m@2700 RPM

According to the analysis of the connotation of piston structural efficiency, three

important components of the connotation were determined. The three connotations were
calculated and analyzed and the numerical value was obtained. By comprehensively
analyzing the operating conditions of the engine, the multiple design iteration of the piston
was carried out, and two ideal piston design schemes were completed. According to the
above three connotations, the design scheme optimizes the parameters that affect the above
connotations. It mainly lies in the change of the distance from the center line of the piston
pin to the piston crown and the size of the combustion chamber. Ha represents the distance
between the center line of the piston pin and the piston crown, which affects the weight
and stiffness of the piston. The smaller the value of Ha, the closer the piston pin approaches
the piston crown, the larger the bearing area of the piston pin, and the lower the probability
of deformation of the piston pin bore. The piston crown’s thickness was reduced, the
piston mass was reduced, and the specific mass of the engine was improved. However, the
stiffness decreased, which affected the maximum bearing capacity of the piston, and the
connecting rod needed to be lengthened. The larger the value of Ha, the greater the piston
stiffness and the higher the bearing capacity of the piston. However, the piston weight
increased, the specific mass of the engine decreased, the stroke decreased, and the working
volume of the engine decreased. The size of the combustion chamber has a great influence
on the combustion efficiency and emissions of the engine. The three dimensional model
of piston was meshed, as shown in Figure 2. According to the design manual [32], the
key dimensions of the two piston design schemes obtained through multiple iterations are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Basic size of the piston.

Max Diameter Reentrant Mid-Depth Max Depth (H) Reentrant–Max Max Diameter–Max
Program Ha
(D) mm Diameter (d) mm mm (h) mm Diameter Ratio (d/D) Depth Ratio (D/H)
scheme 1 51.3 42.4 8.0 17 0.83 3.01 54.5
scheme 2 49.1 38 9.7 17 0.78 2.88 52.5
 Table 2. Basic size of the piston.

Max Diameter (D) Reentrant Diame- Mid-Depth Max Depth (H) Reentrant–Max Di- Max Diameter–Max
Program
mm ter (d) mm mm (h) mm ameter Ratio (d/D) Depth Ratio (D/H)
Scheme 1 51.3
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718
42.4 8.0 17 0.83 3.01
6 of 16
Scheme 2 49.1 38 9.7 17 0.78 2.88

FEmodel.
Figure2.2.FE
Figure model.

The mesh convergence was analyzed, and the size of the mesh was reduced by half.
Thethe
Under mesh
sameconvergence wasfound
conditions, it was analyzed,
that theand theofsize
change of difference
stress the meshwas was reduced by
within
3%, and the displacement was almost unchanged, so the current mesh convergence
Under the same conditions, it was found that the change of stress difference could was w
be determined.
3%, and the displacement was almost unchanged, so the current mesh convergence
be3.1.
determined.
Maximum Bearing Capacity of the Piston
To calculate the bearing capacity of the piston, it is necessary to understand the
boundary
3.1. Maximum conditions
BearingofCapacity
the piston.
of The combustion analyzer and the engine numerical
the Piston
model were used to obtain the explosion pressure curve and temperature field curve in
theTo calculate
engine cylinderthe bearing
under adverse capacity
conditions,of the piston,
as shown it is
in Figures necessary
3 and to understan
4. The maximum
boundary
explosion conditions ofcylinder
pressure in the the piston. The
was 139 bar,combustion
which appeared analyzer andthe
at 7 CA after thetopengine
dead num
model
centerwere
(TDC).used to obtaintemperature
The maximum the explosion pressure
was 1590 K, whichcurve andat temperature
occurred 20 CA after TDC, field cur
which was caused by the combustion characteristics of kerosene. The above
the engine cylinder under adverse conditions, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The maxi two schemes
were analyzed, applying the same temperature field and stress field, and the side stress
explosion pressure in the cylinder was 139 bar, which appeared at 7 CA after the top
of the primary and secondary thrust surfaces of the piston was considered, as well as
center (TDC).
the heat Thecoefficient
transfer maximum andtemperature was 1590
ambient temperature K, which
at different occurred
positions of theatpiston
20 CA after
which
underwas caused
the third kindbyofthe combustion
thermal boundary characteristics of kerosene.
conditions. The analysis results The aboveintwo sch
are shown
Figures
were 5 and 6. applying the same temperature field and stress field, and the side
analyzed,
of the primary and secondary thrust surfaces of the piston was considered, as well a
heat transfer coefficient and ambient temperature at different positions of the pisto
der the third kind of thermal boundary conditions. The analysis results are shown in
ures 5 and 6.
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Figure
Figure3.3.
3.Explosion
Explosionpressure
pressurecurve
curveinin
incylinder.
cylinder.
Figure Explosion pressure curve cylinder.

Figure
Figure4.4.
4.Temperature
Temperaturecurve
Temperature curvein
curve incylinder.
in cylinder.
cylinder.
Figure Temperature curve in cylinder.

Figure
Figure5.5.
5.Piston
Pistonstress
stressanalysis
analysisunder
underthermal–mechanical
thermal–mechanicalcoupling
couplinginin
coupling inScheme
Scheme1.1.
scheme 1.
Figure Piston stress analysis under thermal–mechanical Scheme 1.
Aerospace 2022,
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16 16

Figure
Figure Pistonstress
6.6.Piston stressanalysis
analysisunder
under thermal–mechanical
thermal–mechanical coupling
couplingininscheme 2. 2.
Scheme
After analysis, the maximum stress of the piston was 114.98 MPa in scheme 1, which
After analysis,
appeared the maximum
in the internal lubricatingstress of the piston
oil passage. wasof
The stress 114.98
schemeMPa in schemeand
2 improved, 1, which
the
appeared
maximum stress was 112.8 MPa, which is 2.1 MPa lower than that of scheme 1. At thethe
in the internal lubricating oil passage. The stress of scheme 2 improved, and
maximum
same time,stress was 112.8 MPa,
the temperature whichofisthe
distribution 2.1piston
MPa lower
was morethan that of the
uniform, scheme
stress1.
onAt
thethe
same
piston crown was smaller, and the stress on the skirt also improved. The maximum stressthe
time, the temperature distribution of the piston was more uniform, the stress on
piston crown
occurred waslubricating
in the smaller, andoilthe stressinside
passage on thethe skirt also crown,
piston improved.
whichThe maximum
had no effectstress
on
occurred in theoflubricating
the strength the piston. oil passage
During inside
fatigue the piston
analysis, crown, which
the calculation hadbe
should nocarried
effect on
outthe
according
strength to the
of the worstDuring
piston. working condition.
fatigue According
analysis, to the operating
the calculation shouldparameters
be carriedofout
theac-
engine, the frequency was 180 Hz, the load and temperature curves in
cording to the worst working condition. According to the operating parameters of the Figures 5 and 6 were
applied,
engine, theand constraints
frequency waswere
180imposed
Hz, the according
load and to the actual working
temperature curves state. The fatigue
in Figures 5 and 6
analysis of the key parts of the piston under the two schemes showed
were applied, and constraints were imposed according to the actual working state. Thethat the fatigue safety
factor analysis
fatigue was the weakest at the
of the key bottom
parts of the
of the combustion
piston under the chamber: the fatigue
two schemes safety that
showed factorthe
of scheme 1 was 1.71, and the fatigue safety factor of scheme 2 was 1.80, as is shown in
fatigue safety factor was the weakest at the bottom of the combustion chamber: the fatigue
Figure 7. The fatigue safety factor of other areas was high.
safety factor of scheme 1 was 1.71, and the fatigue safety factor of scheme 2 was 1.80, as is
shown in Figure 7.
3.2. Deformation of The fatigue
Piston safety factor of other areas was high.
Pin Bore
According to the design objective of the engine, after the test and simulation calcula-
tion, the cylinder pressure of each cylinder reached 138 bar when reaching the rated power.
For the same thermal–mechanical coupling analysis of the piston under the two schemes,
the deformation calculation results of the piston pin hole are shown in Figure 8. According
to the data in Figure 8, the pin bore deformation of scheme 1 reached 85 µm, and the pin
bore deformation of scheme 2 was about 60 µm. This is because the distance between the
piston pin bore and the piston crown in scheme 1 was greater than that in scheme 2, the
force area of the piston pin decreased, the specific pressure on the upper surface of the
piston pin hole increased, and the deformation under the same conditions will also increase.
With the increase of the deformation of the piston pin bore, the cross-sections at both ends
 Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 9 of 16

of the piston pin bore were also deformed. In scheme 1, the two ends are elliptical, while
in scheme 2, the two ends are circular. The shape of the cross-sections at both ends also
affected the lubrication between the piston pin and the pin bore. When the cross-sections at
both ends were elliptical, it indicated that the pin hole was deformed greatly at this time,
and extrusion occurred between the pin bore and the pin at the elliptical short half-axis. The
lubrication conditions were poor, which aggravated the wear between the piston and the
piston pin and reduced the service life of the piston components. When the cross-sections
at both ends were circular, it indicated that the deformation in the piston pin bore tended
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
to be uniform at this time. Within a reasonable control range, the lubrication between9 the of 16

piston and the piston pin was good, and the service life of the piston components was
improved.

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Fatigue
Fatigue safetyfactor
safety factorofofkey
keyparts
parts for
for the
the piston
piston under
underthe
thetwo
twoschemes.
schemes.
3.3. Emission Performance
3.2. Deformation of Piston Pin Bore
Emission is an inevitable problem of piston engines. The piston combustion chamber
wasAccording to thetwo
studied under design objective
schemes, of from
mainly the engine, after the
the emissions test andby
generated simulation calcula-
the combustion
tion,
chamber, for comparative analysis. The engine uses aviation kerosene as fuel, and rated
the cylinder pressure of each cylinder reached 138 bar when reaching the the
power. For the same
main emissions thermal–mechanical
are NOx coupling
and soot. The engine analysis
emissions underofthe
the piston
two pistonunder the two
combustion
schemes,
chamberthe deformation
schemes calculation
are shown results
in Figures 9 andof
10.the piston pin hole are shown in Figure 8.
According to the data in Figure 8, the pin bore deformation of scheme 1 reached 85 μm,
and the pin bore deformation of scheme 2 was about 60 μm. This is because the distance
between the piston pin bore and the piston crown in scheme 1 was greater than that in
scheme 2, the force area of the piston pin decreased, the specific pressure on the upper
surface of the piston pin hole increased, and the deformation under the same conditions
will also increase. With the increase of the deformation of the piston pin bore, the cross-
sections at both ends of the piston pin bore were also deformed. In scheme 1, the two ends
are elliptical, while in scheme 2, the two ends are circular. The shape of the cross-sections
at both ends also affected the lubrication between the piston pin and the pin bore. When
the cross-sections at both ends were elliptical, it indicated that the pin hole was deformed
greatly at this time, and extrusion occurred between the pin bore and the pin at the ellip-
tical short half-axis. The lubrication conditions were poor, which aggravated the wear be-
 Aerospace2022,
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10 of 16

Figure 8. Pin bore deformation under the two schemes.

3.3. Emission Performance

Emission is an inevitable problem of piston engines. The piston combustion chamber
was studied under two schemes, mainly from the emissions generated by the combustion
chamber, for comparative analysis. The engine uses aviation kerosene as fuel, and the
main emissions are NOx and soot. The engine emissions under the two piston combustion
chamber schemes are shown in Figures 9 and 10.
Figure8.8.Pin
Figure Pinbore
boredeformation
deformationunder
underthe
thetwo
twoschemes.
schemes.

3.3. Emission Performance

Emission is an inevitable problem of piston engines. The piston combustion chamber
was studied under two schemes, mainly from the emissions generated by the combustion
chamber, for comparative analysis. The engine uses aviation kerosene as fuel, and the
main emissions are NOx and soot. The engine emissions under the two piston combustion
chamber schemes are shown in Figures 9 and 10.

Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure
Figure9.9.Emissions
Emissionsofofscheme
scheme1 1atatdifferent
differentspeeds.
speeds.

Figure 9. Emissions of scheme 1 at different speeds.

Figure10.
Figure Emissionsofofscheme
10.Emissions scheme22atatdifferent
differentspeeds.
speeds.

From the data analysis results, it can be seen that the shape of the engine combustion
chamber had a great impact on the engine emissions. Both the necking size and the ratio
of diameter to depth affected the turbulent motion in the combustion chamber. From the
above two groups of schemes, when GT-POWER was used to conduct simulation analy-
sis, the temperature in the cylinder of scheme 2 was slightly higher than that of scheme 1,
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 11 of 16

From the data analysis results, it can be seen that the shape of the engine combustion
chamber had a great impact on the engine emissions. Both the necking size and the ratio
of diameter to depth affected the turbulent motion in the combustion chamber. From the
above two groups of schemes, when GT-POWER was used to conduct simulation analysis,
the temperature in the cylinder of scheme 2 was slightly higher than that of scheme 1, so
the NOx mass fraction generated by scheme 2 was slightly higher than that of scheme 1.
Soot production has a great relationship with the mixture concentration in the cylinder,
and the mixture and temperature in the cylinder of scheme 1 easily caused the generation
of soot. In the selection of emission data, the long-term operating conditions of the engine
should be fully considered, and the emissions under the 2500 rpm parameter should be
taken as the calculation data in combination with the long-term operating conditions of the
engine in cruise status.

4. Calculation of Piston Structure Efficiency

Before calculating the structural efficiency of the piston, the calculation rule of the
structural efficiency was first defined. The parameters of structural efficiency include
multiple levels. The structural efficiency coefficient is a top-level parameter, called a
coefficient item, which covers the maximum bearing capacity of the piston under thermal–
mechanical coupling, the deformation of the piston pin hole, and the emission performance.
These three items are called parameter items. Each parameter may contain several specific
evaluation parameters, and the calculation standard is based on the numerical item of
the best response selected for this item. The purpose of establishing the algorithm was to
complete the calculation of the structural efficiency coefficient by integrating multi-level
parameters with a unified operation method. In the calculation of the structural efficiency
coefficient, the sub-parameters involved in the calculation should be normalized first to
ensure that the parameter values of each level obtained are of comparative significance.
The calculation method of the structural efficiency coefficient is as follows.
(1) Each single-state sub-parameter was calculated and normalized to obtain the normal-
ized value.
(2) Using multiplication operation, the normalized values of single-state sub-parameters
were synthesized to obtain full-state sub-parameters.
(3) The multiplication operation was used to synthesize the full-state sub-parameters to
obtain the corresponding parameter terms.
(4) The structural efficiency of the piston can be obtained by adding and integrating all
parameter items.
According to the above conditions, the above three connotations were normalized,
and the calculation formula is:
VSV − VS
D = 1± (3)
VSV

where, VS is the calculated value of the simulation analysis, VSV is the set target value,
and the use of ±depends on the VS and VSV numerical comparison [33]. For example, the
maximum bearing capacity of the piston under thermal–mechanical coupling exceeded
the set value, indicating that the piston has strong load resistance, and therefore the plus
sign was used, and the normalized value showed an upward trend. On the other hand,
when the deformation of the piston pin bore was higher than the set value, it indicated that
the piston’s resistance to deformation was reduced, so the minus sign was used, and the
normalized value showed a downward trend. When calculating if VS was much more than
VSV , then D = 0, and VS was the limit value in each example.
Maximum bearing capacity: The maximum bearing capacity of the piston is reflected
in the fatigue safety factor. Under the same conditions, the higher the fatigue safety factor,
the greater the bearing capacity of the piston. According to design experience, the piston
combustion chamber requires the highest fatigue safety factor, at least 1.2, while other areas
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 12 of 16

can reach 1.0. Therefore, for this piston, VSV was 1.2. The normalized calculation of the two
schemes is shown in Equation (4):

Dl1 = 1.29 Dl2 = 1.32 (4)

Deformation of piston pin bore: According to the conventional design criteria of the
piston pin bore, the deformation of piston pin bore shall not exceed 80 µm during at least a
150 h durability test by FAA [34,35]. VSV was 80, and the normalized calculation results of
the two schemes are shown in Equation (5):

Dd1 = 0.938 Dd2 = 1.25 (5)

Emission performance: At present, emission standards are listed for aircraft for turbine
engines [36], and there are no clear emission indicators for aircraft piston engines, but the
European Union has determined that the indicators will be made clear in the near future.
For this engine, it was proposed that the mass fraction of Nox under cruise condition is
760 × 10−6 , and the soot emission design index is 0.18 g/(kW·h). In the actual simulation
analysis, both indicators exceeded the set value, indicating that the emissions of the two-
stroke engine are unsatisfactory, and the emission still needs further improvements. The
normalized calculation is shown in Equation (6):

De1 = 0.595 De2 = 0.385 (6)

According to the normalized calculation results of the above three parameters, the
structural efficiency of the piston was calculated. The calculation results are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of piston structure efficiency under the two schemes.

Max Load of Pin Bore Fatigue Structural

Design Scheme Emission
Piston Deformation Efficiency
scheme 1 1.29 0.938 0.595 0.941
scheme 2 1.32 1.25 0.385 0.985

According to the analysis of the above calculation results, the efficiency of the piston
in scheme 2 was better than that in scheme 1, and it was determined that the structural
efficiency of the piston in scheme 2 was 4.6% higher than in scheme 1. Although the
emission performance index of scheme 1 was better than that of scheme 2, the overall index
was still declining.

5. Experiment
The piston of scheme 2 was used to assemble the engine, the engine performance and
emission indicators were tested, and the propeller was used for testing according to the
durability test requirements of FAA. On the engine universal characteristic test bench, the
AVL combustion analyzer was connected. Through experimental verification, the cylinder
pressure curve was basically consistent with the design simulation curve. The AVL di-test
gas 1000 analyzer was used to monitor the combustion emissions of the engine, as shown
in Figure 11.

Aerospace 2022, 9, 718
emission indicators were tested, and the propeller was used for testing according to the
durability test requirements of FAA. On the engine universal characteristic test bench, the
AVL combustion analyzer was connected. Through experimental verification, the cylin-
der pressure curve was basically consistent with the design simulation curve. The AVL
di-test gas 1000 analyzer was used to monitor the combustion emissions of the engine,13as of 16
shown in Figure 11.

Figure
Figure TheThe
11.11. measurement
measurement unit
unit of the
of the AVLAVL di-test
di-test gasgas 1000
1000 analyzer.
analyzer.

The AVL was connected to the computer to collect emissions at 2500 rpm. The
The AVL was connected to the computer to collect emissions at 2500 rpm. The exper-
experimental steps were as follows:
imental steps were as follows:
1. It was installed on the engine test bench according to the AVL analyzer and smoke
1. It was installed on the engine test bench according to the AVL analyzer and smoke
meter instructions.
meter instructions.
2. The engine was started, the oil temperature was allowed to reach 80 ◦ C, and then
2. The engine was started, the oil temperature was allowed to reach 80 °C, and then
emissions data were measured under different RPM.
3. emissions data were
The sampling tubemeasured
of the AVL under different
di-test gas 1000RPM.
analyzer was inserted into the engine
3. Theexhaustsampling tube of the AVL di-test
pipe and the data were read. gas 1000 analyzer was inserted into the engine
4. exhaust pipe and the data were read.
After the measurement, the air pump should keep working for 10 min to clean the
4. After the measurement,
internal pipeline of thethe air di-test
AVL pump gas should
1000keep working for 10 min to clean the
analyzer.
internal pipeline of the AVL di-test gas 1000 analyzer.
The emission value was recorded at 2500 rpm. The mass fraction of NOx was
772The emission
× 10 −6 , andvalue
soot was recorded
emission was at 2500
0.20 rpm. ·The
g/(kW h). mass fraction of NOx
The combustion was 772
emissions of ×the
10 engine
−6, and soot
wereemission
tested, andwas the0.20 g/(kW∙h).
error betweenThe the combustion emissions
test results and of the engine
the simulation data of were
scheme
tested, and the error between the test results and the simulation data
2 was within 3%, which verifies the accuracy of the simulation data in Figures 9 and of scheme 2 was10,
within 3%, which verifies the accuracy of the simulation data in Figures
and specific test results are shown in Table 4. After the durability test, as is shown 9 and 10, and in
specific test results are shown in Table 4. After the durability test, as is
Figures 12 and 13, the engine was disassembled, and it was checked that the deformation shown in Figures
12 of
and the13, the engine
piston pin holewaswas disassembled, and it was
within the allowable checked
range, thatthe
and that thepiston
deformation
had not of the
suffered
Aerospace 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
piston pindamage,
fatigue hole waswhichwithinproves
the allowable
that the range, andefficiency
structural that the piston had notdesign
optimization suffered fa-
method
tigue
wasdamage,
feasible. which proves that the structural efficiency optimization design method
was feasible.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Bench
Bench test.
test.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 14 of 16

Figure 12. Bench test.

Figure
Figure 13.13.
TheThe piston
piston of scheme
of scheme 2. 2.
Table 4. Emission data under different operating conditions.
Table 4. Emission data under different operating conditions.
Soot/g/(kW·h) NOx/Mass Fraction 10−6
N·m Soot/g/(kW∙h) SchemeNOx/Mass
Scheme 2Fraction
RPM HP
RPM HP N∙m Scheme 1 Scheme 2 1
2700 200 Scheme
500 1 0.59 Scheme
0.29 2 755Scheme 776
1 Sche
2700 200 2500 500165 452 0.59 0.41 0.20
0.29 768 755 770 77
2300 150 420 0.20 0.19 772 781
2500 165 2100 452110 358 0.41 0.29 0.20
0.18 778 768 789 77
2300 150 420 0.20 0.19 772 78
2100 110 6. Conclusions358 0.29 0.18 778 78
The piston design schemes of aviation piston engines were compared by using the
analysis method of structural efficiency, and the following conclusions were drawn:
6. Conclusions
(1) Based on the role of the piston in engine performance, the connotation of piston
The piston design schemes of aviation piston engines were compared by u
structure efficiency was deeply analyzed. The parameter system of piston structure
analysis method
efficiency of structural
evaluation efficiency,
was established and
based on the followingload
the maximum conclusions were draw
of the piston
(1) under
Based thermal–mechanical
on the role of the coupling,
pistonfatigue deformation
in engine of the piston
performance, the pin bore under of pisto
connotation
multiple fields, and the emission performance index. The direction of piston structure
ture efficiency was deeply analyzed. The parameter system of piston struct
optimization was pointed out through the quantitative calculation and analysis of the
ciency evaluation
evaluation parameters. was established based on the maximum load of the pisto
thermal–mechanical
(2) Based coupling,
on the normalized formula of thefatigue deformation
evaluation parameters andof the piston pin bore und
the corresponding
algorithm, the calculation
tiple fields, method of performance
and the emission the piston structure efficiency
index. coefficient of
The direction waspiston s
established. This method makes the evaluation process clearer, and finally quantifies
optimization was pointed out through the quantitative calculation and an
the evaluation results into a numerical value, which directly reflects the performance
the evaluation
parameters affectedparameters.
by the piston and provides a reference for different structural
(2) design
Basedschemes
on thefromnormalized
an overall formula
perspective.of the evaluation parameters and the corr
ing algorithm, the calculation method
(3) Through the calculation and analysis of the ofstructure
piston the piston structure
efficiency, efficiency co
the structural
efficiency of the two schemes was compared. The results showed
was established. This method makes the evaluation process clearer, and that the maximum
bearing capacity index of the piston in scheme 1 was 2.3% lower than that in scheme 2,
the piston pin hole deformation in scheme 1 was 33.2% lower than that in scheme 2,
and the emission performance index in scheme 1 was 54% higher than that in scheme 2.
After comprehensive consideration, the calculation results of scheme 2 was better
compared to scheme 1. Subsequent tests have proven that the rationality of the
scheme 2 design verifies that the proposed structural efficiency evaluation method
has high applicability in piston design.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 718 15 of 16

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.P. and Q.H.; methodology, Z.P.; software, Z.P.; vali-
dation, Z.P., Q.H. and X.P.; formal analysis, X.P.; investigation, X.P.; resources, X.P.; data curation,
X.P.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.P.; writing—review and editing, Q.H.; visualization, Z.P.;
supervision, Q.H.; project administration, Q.H.; funding acquisition, Z.P. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by The Science and Technology Innovation Program of Hunan
Province, grant number 2021wk2007, The Scientific Research Project of Hunan Provincial Education
Department, grant number 21B0766, Talent Introduction Project of Changsha University, grant
number SF1804.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing does
not apply to this article.
Acknowledgments: Particular thanks to the Sunward Intelligent Equipment Co., Ltd. has provided
a high-precision testing equipment. Thank Guo Yujia for assisting in the translation of a large number
of references.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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