ME3245 Spring 2023 Chapter 2 Notes

Faculty of Engineering
ME 3245: Automatics Control Systems

Spring 2023
https://www.slideshare.net/sandiaecis/advanced-wec-dynamics-and-controls
Chapter 2
Modeling in the Frequency Domain
01/03/2023
Outline
❑ Introduction
❑ Laplace Transform Review
❑ The Transfer Function
❑ Electrical Network Transfer Functions
❑ Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
❑ Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
❑ Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
❑ Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
❑ Electric Circuit Analogs
❑ Nonlinearities
❑ Linearization
❑ Case Studies
S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 2
Introduction
o The next step in analysis and design process is to develop mathematical models
from schematics of physical systems.
o The first step in developing a mathematical model is to apply the fundamental

physical laws of science and engineering.
• Electrical networks: Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, etc.
• Mechanical systems: Newton’s laws, etc.
o Mathematical models:
1. Differential equations
2. Transfer functions in the frequency domain
3. State equations in the time domain
o Although the differential equation relates the system to its input and output, it is not
a satisfying representation from a system perspective.
o A mathematical representation such as that shown in the Figures, where the input,
output, and system (or subsystems) are distinct and separate parts, is preferred.
Block diagram representation of a system Block diagram representation an interconnection (cascaded) of subsystems
Laplace Transform Review
o The Laplace transform is an operational method that can be used advantageously
in solving LTI ODEs.
o Another advantage is that it converts linear differential equations in 𝑡 domain into
algebraic equations in 𝑠 domain.
o In solving the differential equation, the initial conditions are automatically taken care
of, and both the particular solution and the complementary solution can be obtained
simultaneously.
o The Laplace transform ℒ[𝑓(𝑡)] of a function 𝑓(𝑡), real function of time, is defined
as follows:
𝑇 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑡≥0
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 = lim න 𝑔(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡<0
𝑇→∞ 0
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔: 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
∞
ℒ: 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 = න 𝑔(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 ℒ −1 : 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
o The inverse Laplace transform ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] of a function 𝐹(𝑠), is defined as follows:

𝜎+𝑗∞
1
𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] = න 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗∞
o Linearity Property
• If ℒ[𝑓1 (𝑡)] and ℒ[𝑓2 (𝑡)] exist, then ℒ[𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡)] = ℒ[𝑓1 (𝑡)] + ℒ[𝑓2 (𝑡)]
• Also, ℒ −1 [𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝐹2 (𝑠)] = ℒ −1 [𝐹1 (𝑠)] + ℒ −1 [𝐹2 (𝑠)]
o Common functions/inputs Laplace transform table
• Exponential function
𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 , 𝑡≥0
𝑓 𝑡 =ቊ
0, 𝑡<0
∞
ℒ 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 = න 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= න 𝐴𝑒 −(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
𝑒 −(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑡
=𝐴 −
𝑠 +𝑎 0
𝐴
ℒ 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 =
𝑠+𝑎
Laplace transform theorems

Problem 1
(1) Obtain the Laplace transform of the following functions:
𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 = 7𝑡 − 3𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑏 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos𝜔𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
(2) Obtain the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:

5
𝑎 𝐹 𝑠 = 2𝑠 + 3 −
𝑠+1
1
𝑏 𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 3)2
2
𝑐 𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 20
Partial-Fraction Expansion
o To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, partial-fraction
expansion can be used to convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for
which we know the Laplace transform of each term.
o Given
𝑁(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑧1 )(𝑠 + 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 + 𝑧𝑚 )
𝐹 𝑠 = =𝐾
𝐷(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )
where 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , … , 𝑧𝑚 and 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑚 are either real or complex quantities, but for each
𝑧𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖 , there will occur the complex conjugate of 𝑧𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖 , respectively. 𝑚 and 𝑛 are the
orders of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠), respectively.
• If 𝑚 < 𝑛, then a partial-fraction expansion can be applied. For example,

𝑠+1
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 12
• If 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛, then 𝑁(𝑠) must be divided by 𝐷(𝑠) successively until the result produce a
polynomial, quotient, in 𝑠 (or constant) plus a rational function in 𝑠 (whose numerator,
remainder, is of lower degree than the denominator). For example,
𝑠−7 9 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7 2
𝑎 𝐹 𝑠 = =1− 𝑏 𝐹 𝑠 = = 𝑠 + 1 +
𝑠+2 𝑠+2 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5
Partial-Fraction Expansion 𝑚<𝑛
o Case 1: Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Real and Distinct
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
𝐹 𝑠 = = + + ⋯+
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛
where 𝑘𝑖 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 are constants called residues.
• The value of 𝑘𝑖 can be found by multiplying both sides of above equation
by (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 ) and letting 𝑠 = −𝑝𝑖 , giving
Coefficient
𝑁(𝑠) formula
𝑘𝑖 = (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 )
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠=−𝑝𝑖
• If 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are complex conjugates, then the residues 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are also
complex conjugates; only one of the need be evaluated.
• Since 𝑘𝑖
ℒ −1 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑒 −𝑝𝑖𝑡
𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖
𝑓(𝑡) is obtained as
𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑝1𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝑝2𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝑒 −𝑝𝑛𝑡
o Case 2: Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Real and Repeated
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑁(𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
𝐹 𝑠 = = = + + ⋯ +
𝐷(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑝)𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝑝)𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝑝)𝑛−1 𝑠+𝑝
𝑁(𝑠)
𝑘1 = (𝑠 + 𝑝)𝑛
𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠=−𝑝
1 𝑑 𝑛
𝑁(𝑠)
𝑘2 = (𝑠 + 𝑝)
1! 𝑑𝑠 𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠=−𝑝
… = …
1 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑁(𝑠)
𝑘𝑛 = (𝑠 + 𝑝)
(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑑𝑠 𝑛−1 𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠=−𝑝
−1
𝑘1 𝑛−1 −𝑝𝑡
𝑘2
∴ 𝑓 𝑡 =ℒ 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑡 𝑒 + 𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑒 −𝑝𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝑒 −𝑝𝑡
(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 2)!

o Case 3: Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Complex or Imaginary
• If 𝐹(𝑠) involves a quadratic factor ( 𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏, 𝑎 ≥ 0 and 𝑏 > 0) in the
denominator, and it has a pair of complex conjugate or imaginary roots, then
one method is not to factor the quadratic, in order to avoid complex numbers.
• Complete the square of the quadratic factor, and then convert the obtained
Laplace fraction expression into time domain using damped sine function
(𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin𝜔𝑡) and/or damped cosine function 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos𝜔𝑡.
• For example,
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑠 + 𝑘3
𝐹 𝑠 = = +
(𝑠 + 𝑐)(𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏) 𝑠 + 𝑐 𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏
𝐴= 𝑏12 + 𝑏22
𝑘 2 𝑠 + 𝑘3 𝜔 (𝑠 + 𝛼)
= 𝑎1 + 𝑎 2 𝑏2
(𝑠 + 𝛼)2 + 𝜔 2 (𝑠 + 𝛼)2 + 𝜔 2 (𝑠 + 𝛼)2 + 𝜔 2
∅ = tan−1
𝑏1
∴ 𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos𝜔𝑡
𝑏1
𝜃 = tan−1
= 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝐾𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑏1 sin𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏2 cos𝜔𝑡) 𝑏2
= 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝐾𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) = 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝐾𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)

Problem 2
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
2 𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 9𝑠 + 7
𝑎 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑏 𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3 5(𝑠 + 2)
𝑐 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑑 𝐹 𝑠 = 2
(𝑠 + 1)3 𝑠 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
2𝑠 + 12 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝑒 𝐹 𝑠 = 2 𝑓 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5

Laplace Transform Solution for Linear, Time-invariant Differential Equations
o Classical methods for finding the complete solution of a differential equation require the
evaluation of the integration constants from the initial conditions.
o In the case of the Laplace transform method, however, this requirement is unnecessary
because the initial conditions are automatically included in the Laplace transform of the
differential equation.
o The Laplace transform method yields the complete solution (complementary solution and
particular solution) of LTI differential equations.
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚−1
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑚 𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ℒ …+ ⋯+ ⋯ = ℒ …+ ⋯+ ⋯
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑃(𝑠)

𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜
𝑐 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝐶(𝑠) = ℒ −1 … + ℒ −1 … + ⋯ + ℒ −1 …
o If all initial conditions are zero, then the Laplace transform of the differential equation is
obtained simply by replacing 𝑑/𝑑𝑡 with 𝑠, 𝑑2 /𝑑𝑡 2 with 𝑠 2 , and so on; i.e., 𝑃(𝑠) = 0.
The Transfer Function (TF)
o From
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑃(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜
o If we assume all initial conditions are zero, i.e., 𝑃(𝑠) = 0, then
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜

= 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝐶(𝑠)

𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜
Block diagram of a transfer system

Problem 3
(1) Solve for 𝑦(𝑡) if all initial conditions are zero
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 12 + 32𝑦 = 32𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
(2) Find the transfer function represented by

𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
𝑎 + 2𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑3 𝑐 𝑑2 𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 + 3 2 + 7 + 5𝑐 = 2 + 4 + 3𝑟
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(3) Find the unit ramp response for a system whose transfer function is
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠
=
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)

Electrical Network Transfer Functions
o Transfer function to the mathematical modeling of electric circuits including passive networks
and operational amplifier circuits. Subsequent sections cover mechanical and
electromechanical systems.
o Equivalent circuits for the electric networks that we work with first consist of three passive
linear components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
o We now combine electrical components into circuits, decide on the input and output, and find
the transfer function. Our guiding principles are Kirchhoff’s laws.
o The Table below summarizes the components and the relationships between voltage and
current and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.
Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors

Simple Circuits via Loop/Mesh Analysis
o Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and summing
voltages around loops or meshes.
o Single Loop via Transform Method
Illustration 1
o Single Loop via Differential Equation
Laplace-transformed network
𝑉 𝑠
• Concept of impedance, 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝐼 𝑠
RLC network
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) ✓ Laplace transform of (1)
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) (1) 1
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠 (𝑎)
1 𝑡 𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑡 𝐶𝑠
𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝐶 (2)
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡
✓ In the form
𝑑2 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐼 𝑠
𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠]
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 1/𝐿𝐶 ✓ Other equation
= 1
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 (𝑏)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 𝑐𝑠 17
Simple Circuits via Loop/Mesh Analysis-Transform Method
o Steps:
1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as 𝑣(𝑡), 𝑖(𝑡), and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡), as
Laplace transforms 𝑉(𝑠), 𝐼(𝑠), and 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠), respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. This replacement is similar
to the case of dc circuits, where we represent resistors with their resistance values.
Complex Circuits via Loop/Mesh Analysis-Transform Method

o Steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their impedances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.

o For multiple loops, we need multiple equations to obtain the TF, in the form
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑖 𝑠 − ෍ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑖 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑖
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
− ෍ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑘
Illustration 2
o Given the network below, find the transfer function, 𝐼2 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠).

Illustration 2
(𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠) −𝐿𝑠

∆= 1
−𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 +
𝐶𝑠

Problem 4
Write, but do not solve, the mesh equations for the network shown in the figure.

Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis
o Transfer functions also can be obtained using Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and
summing currents flowing from nodes.
o Often, the easiest way to find the transfer function is to use nodal analysis rather
than mesh analysis.
Illustration 4 ✓ Applying KCL
o Single Loop via Differential Equation ෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
= ෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
+ − ෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 0
RLC network 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑠

=
1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑉 𝑠
𝑜𝑟 + − =0 𝑜𝑟 + =0
1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 1/𝐿𝐶
=
Laplace-transformed network 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1
S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 22
Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis-Transform Method
o The number of simultaneous differential equations that must be written is equal to
the number of nodes whose voltage is unknown.
o For multiple nodes we use KCL and sum currents flowing from each node.
o When writing nodal equations, it can be more convenient to represent circuit
1
elements by their admittance, 𝑌(𝑠), as the reciprocal of impedance, 𝑌 𝑠 = Z s =
𝐼 𝑠
.
𝑉 𝑠
o In nodal analysis, a voltage sources can be replaced by current sources.
Theoretically, we rely on Norton’s theorem, which states that a voltage source,
𝑉(𝑠), in series with an impedance, 𝑍𝑠 𝑠 , can be replaced by a current source,
𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠 /𝑍𝑠 𝑠 , in parallel with 𝑍𝑠 𝑠 .
o Steps:
1. Replace passive element values with their admittances.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed current sources.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s current law at each node.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.
o For multiple nodes, we need multiple equations to obtain the TF, in the form
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘
𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
− 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑘

Illustration 5
o Given the network below, find the transfer function, 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠).

o We now discuss a class of active circuits that can be used to implement transfer
functions. These are circuits built around an operational amplifier.
Operational Amplifiers
o An operational amplifier (op-amp), is an electronic amplifier used as a basic
building block to implement transfer functions. It has the following characteristics:
1. Differential input, 𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡
2. High input impedance, 𝑍𝑖 = ∞ (ideal)
3. Low output impedance, 𝑍𝑜 = 0 (ideal)
4. High constant gain amplification, 𝐴 = ∞ (ideal)
o The output, 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 , is given by

𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡 )
Operational amplifier
Inverting Operational Amplifier
o If 𝑣2 𝑡 is grounded, the amplifier is called an
inverting operational amplifier, and:
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −𝐴𝑣1 𝑡

Schematic for an inverting operational amplifier 27
o If two impedances are connected to the inverting operational amplifier as shown in
the Figure, an interesting result can be derived.
o If the input impedance to the amplifier is high, then by Kirchhoff’s current law,
𝐼𝑎 𝑠 = 0 → 𝐼1 𝑠 = −𝐼2 𝑠
o Also, since the gain 𝐴 is large,
𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 /𝑍1 𝑠
𝑣1 𝑡 ≈ 0 → ቊ 1
−𝐼2 𝑠 = −𝑉𝑜 𝑠 /𝑍2 𝑠
o Thus,
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑉𝑜 𝑠
=−
𝑍1 𝑠 𝑍2 𝑠
Inverting operational amplifier configured
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑍2 𝑠 for transfer function realization
=−
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑍1 𝑠

Illustration 6
Find the transfer function, 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠), for the circuit given in the figure.
Inverting operational amplifier circuit
= −1.232(45.95 + 1𝑠 + 22.55𝑠 −1 )
The resulting circuit is called a PID controller and can be used to improve the
performance of a control system. We explore this possibility further in Chapter 9.
𝑇𝑧 𝑧−1
𝐶(𝑧) = 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑖 + 𝐾𝑑
𝑧−1 𝑇𝑧
𝑡
𝑑𝑒(𝑡) 𝐾𝑖
𝑃𝐼𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖 න 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝐾𝑑 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 + + 𝐾𝑑 𝑠
0 𝑑𝑡 𝑠

▪ The table below summarizes the physical realization of P, PI, PD, and PID
controllers as well as lag, lead and lag-lead compensators using
operational amplifiers. Active realization of controllers and compensators,
using an operational amplifier
Operational amplifier configures for

transfer function realization

Lag-lead compensator implemented with operational amplifiers

▪ Lag, lead, and lag-lead compensators can also be implemented with
passive networks. The table below summarizes the networks and their
transfer functions.
Passive realization of components

Compensator/Controller: Types
1. Active compensator
o P, I, D, PI, PD, and PID use of active components, i.e., OP-AMP
o Require power source
o 𝑒(∞) converge to zero
o Expensive
2. Passive compensator
o Lag, Lead, and Lag-Lead use of passive components, i.e., RLC
o No need of power source
o 𝑒(∞) nearly reaches zero
o Less expensive






M-DUINO PLC Arduino

Ethernet 38AR I/Os

Noninverting Operational Amplifier
o Another circuit that can be analyzed for its transfer function is the noninverting
operational amplifier circuit shown in the Figure.
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖 𝑠 − 𝑉1 𝑠 )
o But, using voltage division,
𝑍1 𝑠
𝑉1 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 𝑠 𝑜
o Combining equations, rearranging, and simplifying,

𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝐴
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝐴𝑍1 𝑠 /(𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 𝑠 )
General noninverting operational
amplifier circuit
o For large 𝐴, we disregard unity in the denominator and the equation becomes
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 𝑠
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑍1 𝑠

Noninverting Operational Amplifier
Illustration 7
o Find the transfer function, 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠), for the circuit given in the figure.

Problem 5
If 𝑍1 𝑠 is the impedance of a 10 𝜇F capacitor and 𝑍2 𝑠 is the impedance
of a 100 kΩ resistor, find the transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 /𝑉𝑖 𝑠 , if these
components are used with (a) an inverting operational amplifier and (b) a
noninverting amplifier as shown in the Figures below.
𝐺 𝑠 = −𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 =𝑠+1
Mechanical System Transfer Functions
Translational
o Notice that the transfer function of a mechanical system, is mathematically
indistinguishable from an electrical network.
o Hence, an electrical network can be interfaced to a mechanical system by
cascading their transfer functions, provided that one system is not loaded by the
other. Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and mass
o Mechanical systems
parallel electrical networks
to such an extent that
there are analogies
between electrical and
mechanical components
and variables.
o Impedance,
𝐹(𝑠)
𝑍𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑋(𝑠)

Translational
o If a mechanical system requires just one differential equation, we called the equation of
motion. That’s the number of linearly independent motions is one or the system has one
degree of freedom.
o Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple-loop and multiple-node electrical
networks, where more than one simultaneous differential equation is required to
describe the system; two or more equations of motion or degrees of freedom are
required.
✓ Using Newton’s 2
nd Law
Illustration 1
o TF: One Degree of Freedom System
Spring-mass-damper system
• Concept of impedance
✓ In the form
𝐾𝑥(𝑡) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑋 𝑠
= [𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠]
𝑓𝑣 𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ
Transformed FBD
FBD of the mass S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 45
Translational
Transfer Function: Complex System
o For complex system, we need multiple equations to obtain the transfer function,
without drawing the free-body diagrams, the pattern is in the form:
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑋𝑖 𝑠 − ෍ 𝑋𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑘
𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑖
− ෍ 𝑋𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑋𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑘
𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑘
𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑘
Illustration 2
Find the transfer function, 𝑋2 (𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠), for the system in the figure.
Two-DOFs Translational
Mechanical System

Translational
Transfer Function: Complex System
Illustration 3
Write, but do not solve,
the equations of motion
for the mechanical
network shown in the
figure.
Three-DOFs Translational Mechanical System

Translational
Problem 6
Find the transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑋2 (𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠) , for the
translational mechanical system shown in the figure.
Translational Mechanical System
3𝑠 + 1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 1)
Rotational
o Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational
mechanical systems, except that torque replaces force and angular displacement
replaces translational displacement.
Torque-angular velocity, torque-angular displacement, and impedance rotational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and inertia

Rotational
o In general, for complex system, the TF, without drawing the free-body diagram, the
equations of motion pattern is in the form:
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝜃𝑖 𝑠 − ෍ 𝜃𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑘
𝑎𝑡 𝜃𝑖
− ෍ 𝜃𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝜃𝑘 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜃𝑘
𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑘
Illustration 4 𝑎𝑡 𝜃𝑘
Find the transfer function, 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇(𝑠), for the rotational system shown in the Figure. The rod
is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the
left, and the displacement is measured at the right.
Two-DOFs Rotational Mechanical System: Schematic

Physical System S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 50
Rotational
Illustration 4
Illustration 5
Write, but do not solve, the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for
the system.
Three-DOFs Rotational Mechanical System

Rotational
Problem 7
Find the transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇(𝑠), for the rotational mechanical
system shown in the figure.
Rotational Mechanical System
1
𝐺 𝑠 = 2
2𝑠 + 𝑠 + 1
Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
o Mechanical systems, especially those driven by motors, are rarely seen without
associated gear trains driving the load. Gears provide mechanical advantage to
rotational systems.
o For many applications, gears exhibit backlash, which occurs because of the loose
fit between two meshed gears.
o The drive gear rotates through a small angle before making contact with the
meshed (driven) gear. We idealize the behavior of gears and assume that there is
no backlash.
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Compound gear S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) Rack & pinion gear set 53
o The linearized interaction between two gears is depicted in the Figure.
o An input gear with radius 𝑟1 and 𝑁1 teeth is rotated through angle 𝜃1 (𝑡) due to a
torque, 𝑇1 (𝑡). An output gear with radius 𝑟2 and 𝑁2 teeth responds by rotating
through angle 𝜃2 (𝑡) and delivering a torque, 𝑇2 (𝑡) .
o Let us now find the relationship between
the rotation of Gear 1, 𝜃1 (𝑡) , and Gear 2,
𝜃2 (𝑡) .
o As the gears turn, the distance traveled along
each gear’s circumference is the same. Thus,
−1
𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝑁2 A gear system
𝛼
𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑁1
o If we assume the gears are lossless, that is they do not absorb or store energy,
the energy into Gear 1 equals the energy out of Gear 2.
𝑇2 (𝑡) 𝑁2
𝛼
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝑁1
Transfer functions for lossless gears
o Let us see what happens to mechanical impedances that are driven by gears.
Consider the rotational system driven by gears.
o We want to represent overall system as an
equivalent system at 𝜃1 (𝑡) without the gears. In
other words, can the mechanical impedances
be reflected from the output to the input, thereby
eliminating the gears?
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇2 (𝑠) Rotational system driven by gears
o 𝑇1 can be reflected to the output by multiplying by

𝑁2 /𝑁1 .
𝜃2 𝑠 𝑁2 /𝑁1
= 2
𝑇1 𝑠 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 Equivalent system at the output after
reflection of input torque 55
o Now convert 𝜃2 (𝑡) into an equivalent 𝜃1 (𝑡), so it looks as if it were written at the
input.
𝑁2 2
𝜃1 𝑠 𝑁
= 2 1
𝑇1 𝑠 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾
o Gives the equivalent system at the input. Thus, the load can be thought of as having
been reflected from the output to the input.
o General statement: Rotational mechanical

impedances can be reflected through gear
trains by multiplying the mechanical
impedance by the ratio:
2
Number of teeth of gear on 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 shaft
Number of teeth of gear on 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 shaft
where the impedance to be reflected is Equivalent system at the input after reflection
attached to the source shaft and is being of impedances; without gears shown
reflected to the destination shaft.
Illustration 1
Find the transfer function, 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇1 (𝑠), for the system shown in the Figure.
Rotational mechanical system with gears System after reflection of torques and
impedances to the output shaft
Block diagram

o In order to eliminate gears with large radii, a gear train is used to implement large
gear ratios by cascading smaller gear ratios.
o For gear trains, we conclude that the equivalent gear ratio is the product of the
individual gear ratios.
Gear train
Illustration 2
Find the transfer function, 𝜃1 (𝑠)/𝑇1 (𝑠), for the system shown in the Figure.
Equivalent system at the input
Gear train system: Gears are not lossless

Block diagram 59
Problem 8
Find the transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇(𝑠), for the rotational mechanical
system with gears shown in the figure.
Rotational mechanical system with gears
1/2
𝐺 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 +𝑠+1

Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
o Now, we move to systems that are hybrids of electrical and mechanical variables,
the electromechanical systems.
o Several applications: Antenna azimuth position control system, robot controls, sun
and star trackers, computer tape and disk-drive position controls, etc.
o A motor is an electromechanical component
that yields a displacement output for a voltage
input, that is, a mechanical output generated by
an electrical input.
o Consider the armature-controlled dc servomotor
below.
NASA flight simulator robot arm with

electromechanical control system components
DC Motor: Schematic
DC Motor
o The loop equation around the Laplace transformed armature circuit, we have
o Substituting values
o From the equivalent system
Typical equivalent
mechanical loading on a motor
DC motor parameters
Back Back emf Armature Torque Applied armature Angular Motor torque
emf constant current developed voltage displacement constant
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑏 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑡
Armature Armature Equivalent inertia at Equivalent viscous

resistance inductance the armature damping at the armature
𝑅a 𝐿𝑎 𝐽𝑚 𝐷𝑚
o Substituting
o If we assume that the armature inductance, 𝐿𝑎 , is small compared to the

armature resistance, 𝑅𝑎 , which is usual for a dc motor, we have, 𝐿𝑎 = 0,
𝛺𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾 𝛺𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐷𝐶

= =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝛼 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝐾𝑡 1
𝐾= 𝛼= 𝐷 𝑅 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏
𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑚 𝑚 𝑎
𝐾𝑡 𝐽𝑚 𝑅𝑎
𝐾𝐷𝐶 = 𝜏=
𝐷𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏
o If 𝐿𝑎 ≠ 0, Motor gain constant Motor time constant
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑡
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠[𝐽𝑚 𝐿𝑎 𝑠 2 + 𝐽𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐷𝑚 𝐿𝑎 𝑠 + (𝐷𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏 )]
𝛺𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑡
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑚 𝐿𝑎 𝑠 2 + 𝐽𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐷𝑚 𝐿𝑎 𝑠 + (𝐷𝑚 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏 )
𝑇𝑑 (𝑠) ≈ 0
− 1 𝛺𝑚 (𝑠) 1
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) + 1 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)
𝐾𝑡 𝑠
− 𝐿𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐽𝑚 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑚
𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐾𝑏
Block diagram model of an armature-controlled DC motor
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 0.42
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.67)
Ω𝑚 (𝑠) 0.42
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 + 1.67
Simulated unit-step response of an armature-controlled DC motor

o How to evaluate the constants?
o Mechanical constants: 𝐽𝑚 and 𝐷𝑚

• Assuming that all inertia and
damping values shown are
known, then DC motor driving a rotational mechanical load
http://www.directindustry.com/prod/mea-testing-systems-
ltd/product-29120-524479.html
Inertial Dynamometer for DC PM Micro Motors
o Electrical constants: 𝐾𝑡 and 𝐾𝑏
• These constants can be obtained through a dynamometer test of the motor. A
dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, torque,
power or speed.
• From
https://powertestdyno.com/products/electric-motor-test-system/
• We have, 𝐿𝑎 = 0, Power Test’s Electric Motor Test Systems
• When the motor is operating at steady state with a dc voltage input:

𝐿𝑎 = 0
• A dynamometer measures the torque
(𝑇𝑚 ) and speed (𝜔𝑚 ) of a motor under
the condition of a constant applied
voltage (𝑒𝑎 ); we have a torque-speed
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑚
curve (a straight line). =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝑎𝑚 )
➢ 𝜔𝑚 = 0, 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒)
➢ 𝑇𝑚 = 0, 𝜔𝑚 = 𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑛𝑜-𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
Torque-speed curves with

an armature voltage, 𝑒𝑎 , as a parameter 67
Illustration 1
Given the system and torque-speed curve shown, find the transfer function,
𝜃𝐿 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠).
𝜃𝐿 (𝑠) 𝑁1 1
= = ,
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑁2 10
Problem 9
Find the transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃𝐿 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠), for the motor and load
shown in the figure. The torque-speed curve is given by 𝑇𝑚 = −8𝜔𝑚 + 200
when the input voltage is 100 volts.
Electromechanical system
1/20
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠[𝑠 + 15/2]

Electric Circuit Analogs
o The variables of the electric circuits behave exactly as the analogous variables of
the mechanical systems.
o In fact, converting mechanical systems to electrical networks before writing the
describing equations is a problem-solving approach that you may want to pursue.
o An electric circuit that is analogous to a system from another discipline is called an

electric circuit analog.
o When compared with mesh equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a
series analog. When compared with nodal equations, the resulting electrical circuit
is called a parallel analog.
Series Analog: Force-voltage Analogy

Illustration 1
Consider the translational mechanical system shown in Figure.
Mechanical system
Desired electrical representation Series analog

Illustration 2
Draw a series analog for the mechanical system shown in the Figure.
Two-degrees-of-freedom translational mechanical system

Illustration 2
Series analog of mechanical system

Problem 10
Draw a series analog for the mechanical system shown in the Figure.

Nonlinearities
o The models thus far are developed from systems that can be described
approximately by linear, time-invariant differential equations. An assumption of
linearity was implicit in the development of these models.
o A linear system possesses two properties: superposition and homogeneity.
o The property of superposition means that the output response of a system to the
sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to the individual inputs.
𝑟1 𝑡 → 𝑐1 (𝑡) and 𝑟2 𝑡 → 𝑐2 (𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑟1 𝑡 + 𝑟2 𝑡 → 𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 (𝑡)
o The property of homogeneity describes the response of the system to a
multiplication of the input by a scalar..
𝑟1 𝑡 → 𝑐1 (𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐴𝑟1 𝑡 → 𝐴𝑐1 𝑡
𝑓 𝑥 = 0.5𝑥
Linear system S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.)

Nonlinear system 75
Nonlinearities
Backlash in gears
Amplifier saturation Motor dead zone
Examples of some physical nonlinearities

Saturation Dead zone Backlash
o For example, an o For example, a motor o For example, gears that
electronic amplifier is that does not respond at do not fit tightly exhibit a
linear over a specific very low input voltages nonlinearity called
range but exhibits the due to frictional forces backlash: The input
nonlinearity called exhibits a nonlinearity moves over a small range
saturation at high input called dead zone. without the output
voltages. responding.
o A designer can often make a linear approximation to a nonlinear system. Linear

approximations simplify the analysis and design of a system and are used as long as
the results yield a good approximation to reality.
Linearization
o The electrical and mechanical systems covered thus far were assumed to be linear.
However, if any nonlinear components are present, we must linearize the system
before we can find the transfer function.
o The first step is to recognize the nonlinear component and write the nonlinear
differential equation.
o When we linearize a nonlinear differential equation, we linearize it for small-signal
inputs about the steady-state solution (called equilibrium) when the small-signal input
is equal to zero.
o The Taylor series expansion is used for linearization of a function, given as
o For small excursions of 𝑥 from 𝑥𝑜 , we can neglect higher-order terms. The resulting
approximation yields a straight-line relationship between the change in 𝑓(𝑥) and the
excursions away from 𝑥𝑜 . 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 , 𝛿𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥𝑜
𝑜𝑟
Linearization
Illustration 1: Linearizing a Function
Linearize 𝑓(𝑥) = 5cos𝑥 about 𝑥 = 𝜋/2.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = 5cos + −5sin𝑥ቚ 𝜋 𝑥 −
2 𝑥= 2 2
𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = −5 𝑥 −
2
𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥 = −5𝛿𝑥
Graphically, showing the linearization of

5cos𝑥 about 𝑥 = 𝜋/2
Linearization
Illustration 2: Differential Equation
Linearize the differential equation below for small excursions
about 𝑥 = 𝜋/4.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛿𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜋/4, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑cos𝑥
cos 𝛿𝑥 + = cos + ቤ
Solve for 𝛿𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4 4 4 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝜋
4
Observations
• Homogeneous/unforced → Nonhomogeneous/forced
• Linearized system is unstable around 𝜋/4
Linearization
Illustration 3
Find the transfer function, 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠), for the electrical network shown in the
figure, which contains a nonlinear resistor whose voltage-current relationship
is defined by 𝑖𝑟 = 2𝑒 0.1𝑣𝑟 , where 𝑖𝑟 and 𝑣𝑟 are the resistor current and voltage,
respectively. Also, 𝑣(𝑡) is a small-signal source.
𝐾𝑉𝐿:
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖:

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣 𝑡 , 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦-𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 = 0
10ln 0.5𝑖𝑜 − 20 = 0 → 𝑖𝑜 = 14.78 A
Nonlinear electrical
network
Voltage across the inductor about the equilibrium point

Linearization
Illustration 4: Case study (Human leg)
The transfer function of a human leg relates the output angular rotation about the hip
joint to the input torque supplied by the leg muscle. A simplified model for the leg is
shown in the Figure. The model assumes an applied muscular torque, 𝑇𝑚 (𝑡), viscous
damping, 𝐷, at the hip joint, and inertia, 𝐽, around the hip joint. Also, a component of
the weight of the leg, 𝑀𝑔, where 𝑀 is the mass of the leg and 𝑔 is the acceleration due
to gravity, creates a nonlinear torque. If we assume that the leg is of uniform density,
the weight can be applied at 𝐿/2, where 𝐿 is the length of the leg (Milsum, 1966). Do
the following:
a. Evaluate the nonlinear torque, 𝑇𝑤 (𝑡).
b. Find the transfer function, 𝜃(𝑠)/𝑇𝑚 (𝑠), for small angles of rotation, where 𝜃(𝑠) is the
angular rotation of the leg about the hip joint.
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝜃 = 0
Cylinder model of a FBD of leg model

human leg S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 81
Linearization
Problem 11a 1
Find the linearized transfer 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠+2
function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠) , for
the electrical network shown in
the figure. The network contains
a nonlinear resistor whose
voltage-current relationship is
defined by 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑣𝑟 . The current
source, 𝑖(𝑡) is a small-signal
generator.
Problem 11b: Case study (Electrical network)

Given the nonlinear electrical
network shown in the figure,
find the transfer function
relating the output nonlinear
resistor voltage, 𝑉𝑟 𝑠 , to the
input source voltage, 𝑉(𝑠). 𝛿𝑉𝑟 𝑠 6.32
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 + 6.32
Case Study: Antenna Control
Transfer Functions
o Problem: Find the transfer
function for each subsystem of
the antenna azimuth position
control system schematic
shown. Use Configuration 1.
Detailed layout
Functional Block Diagram

Transfer Functions
Schematic
o Solution: First, we identify the individual subsystems for which we must
find transfer functions; they are summarized in the Table below. Then,
proceed to find the transfer function for each subsystem.
Transfer Functions
Subsystems of the antenna azimuth position control system
𝐾𝑚
Motor time constant, 𝜏 = 1/𝑎𝑚
Motor gain constant, 𝐾𝐷𝐶 = 𝐾𝑚 /𝑎𝑚

Block diagram
Transfer Functions
o Input Potentiometer; Output Potentiometer
• Same configuration, same TF
• Neglect dynamics: 𝐾𝑝𝑜𝑡
• Voltage is zero at center position
• 5 turns toward either the +ve 10 V or –ve 10 V yields a voltage of 10 V
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
=
𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
10 1
= = = 0.3183 = 𝐾𝑝𝑜𝑡
10𝜋 𝜋

Transfer Functions
o Preamplifier; Power Amplifier
• TFs of both amplifiers are given in the problem statement.

• Assumptions:
✓ Saturation is never reached
✓ Dynamics of the preamplifier are neglected since its speed of
response is typically much greater than that of the power amplifier.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑇𝐹 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Preamplifier Power Amplifier
𝑉𝑝 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐾1 100
=𝐾 = =
𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑝 (𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑎 𝑠 + 100
Transfer Functions
o Motor and Load
• The TF relating the armature displacement, 𝜃𝑚 , to the armature voltage, 𝐸𝑎 , is
given as 𝐾𝑡
𝐾𝑚 =
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑚
= 1
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝑎𝑚 ) 𝑎𝑚 = 𝐷 𝑅 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏
𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑚 𝑚 𝑎
• The equivalent inertia, 𝐽𝑚 , at the armature is determined as
2 2
𝑁1 25
𝐽𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝐽𝐿 = 0.02 + (1) = 0.03 kg. m2
𝑁2 250
• The equivalent viscous damping, 𝐷𝑚 , at the armature is determined as
2 2
𝑁1 25
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑎 + 𝐷𝐿 = 0.01 + (1) = 0.02 kg. m2
𝑁2 250
• Using the parameters in Configuration 1, we have
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 2.083 𝜃𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑁1 25 𝜃𝑜 (𝑠) 0.2083
= = = = 0.1 =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.71) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑁2 250 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.71)
Transfer Functions
Evaluate the transfer function of each subsystem using Configuration 2.

ME3245 Spring 2023 Chapter 2 Notes

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Faculty of Engineering

ME 3245: Automatics Control Systems

o The first step in developing a mathematical model is to apply the fundamental

o The inverse Laplace transform ℒ −1 [𝐹(𝑠)] of a function 𝐹(𝑠), is defined as follows:

• Also, ℒ −1 [𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝐹2 (𝑠)] = ℒ −1 [𝐹1 (𝑠)] + ℒ −1 [𝐹2 (𝑠)]

o Common functions/inputs Laplace transform table

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 6

(2) Obtain the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:

• If 𝑚 < 𝑛, then a partial-fraction expansion can be applied. For example,

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 10

= 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝐾𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) = 𝑘1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 + 𝐾𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 12

𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑃(𝑠)

o If we assume all initial conditions are zero, i.e., 𝑃(𝑠) = 0, then

𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜

𝑅(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑜 𝐶(𝑠)

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 14

(2) Find the transfer function represented by

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 15

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 16

Complex Circuits via Loop/Mesh Analysis-Transform Method

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 18

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 19

(𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠) −𝐿𝑠

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 20

S. K. Armah (PgCAP, Ph.D.) 21

= ෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

+ − ෍ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 0

RLC network 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑠

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o The output, 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 , is given by

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Inverting operational amplifier circuit

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Operational amplifier configures for

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Lag-lead compensator implemented with operational amplifiers

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M-DUINO PLC Arduino

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o Combining equations, rearranging, and simplifying,

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Translational Mechanical System

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Two-DOFs Rotational Mechanical System: Schematic

Three-DOFs Rotational Mechanical System

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Rotational Mechanical System

https://www.wikihow.com/Determine-Gear-Ratio https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Gear https://www.pinterest.com/pin/352054895849764078/