Most Indians grow up with a basic understanding of the Ramayana and Mahabharata,

deeply embedded in their cultural heritage. These epics exist in numerous literary and
oral forms, reflecting the diverse experiences of Indians throughout history. Indian
politics frequently invokes the epics, using terms like "ramarajya" to denote an ideal
state and "Kurukshetra" to metaphorically describe electoral and ideological battles. The
significance of these epics permeates all aspects of Indian social life, especially
statecraft, as they revolve around princely protagonists and their journeys to power.
GRAND STRATEGIC THOUGHT AND THE INDIAN EPICS: Analytical Challenges
The simple meaning of 'Grand strategic thought' is the combination of resources a
government uses - military, diplomatic, economic, cultural, and political - to achieve
security.
The concept of grand strategy is tied to specific historical and cultural contexts. Most
discussions of strategic thought begin with the era of the French Revolution and
Napoleonic Wars. However, applying these concepts to the mythical times of the
Ramayana and Mahabharata is challenging because there were no modern nation-states
or global maps. The epics focus on dharma, family politics, and honor, with conflicts
centered around the restitution of rights rather than conquest.
Despite this, today's globalized world, with its constant flows of people, information,
money, goods, and weapons, resembles the world of the epics more than the classical
Westphalian model. The state’s nature and power are as variable today as in the epics,
influenced by ruling elites and various institutions. People move between communities,
much like in the epics, and the lines between communities and species are blurred,
reflecting our growing ecological consciousness. Our ability to communicate globally
mirrors the connected universe of the epics, where moral standards and the demand for
enforceable morality resonate across both contemporary and mythical contexts.
THE EPICS: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
The Ramayana and Mahabharata are key Indian epics, rich in political themes due to
their warrior protagonists. They're widely studied for insights into Indian political ideas,
and their influence persists in modern politics, seen in concepts like "ramarajya."
The Ramayana
Dasharatha of Ayodhya, despite being childless, had four virtuous sons through a ritual.
Rama, the eldest, won Sita's hand in marriage but was exiled due to palace politics,
fulfilling an old promise. Rama, Sita, and his brother Lakshmana lived in the forest,
where they encountered Shoorpanakha, leading to Sita's abduction by Ravana. Rama
allied with vanaras, notably Hanuman, and waged war against Ravana to rescue Sita.
After victory, Rama returned to Ayodhya but later exiled Sita due to doubts about her
chastity. Various versions of the Ramayana exist, with Valmiki's being the most famous.
The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is a vast epic encompassing India's mythological heritage and the
story of Bharata's dynasty. Succession struggles, notably within the Kuru dynasty, lead to
the famous rivalry between the 100 Kaurava and 5 Pandava brothers. The epic details
their conflicts, including diplomatic efforts before the epic Mahabharata war. After the
war, the Pandavas receive guidance in statecraft, with Krishna playing a central role as
advisor and divine incarnation. Multiple versions of the Mahabharata exist, reflecting its
complexity and richness.
SEARCHING THE EPICS FOR STRATEGIC INSIGHTS
In discussions about political ideas in the epics, the focus often shifts to two specific
sections of the Mahabharata: the Shanti Parva and the Anushasan Parva. These parts
contain Bheeshma's advice on governance and dharma to Yudhishthira after the war.
While rich in lessons, these sections are less commonly known due to their didactic
nature, contrasting with the oral tradition's storytelling approach. Therefore, when
examining the epics' political ideas, it's more practical to explore the broader themes of
values and security creation found throughout the stories, reflecting the perspectives
and values of ancient Indians in their interactions with the world.
VALUES - Incidents and interactions in the epics reflect three core values: dharma, the
fear of anarchy and a valourisation of diversity, and the very fluid definition of the self.
Dharma
Dharma, a core value in Indian traditions, serves as the ideological foundation and
purpose of the political community, aiming to maintain social order and protect
morality. It's flexible, adapting to time, individuals, and circumstances. In politics,
dharma has atleast three dimensions.
The first dimension of dharma in Indian traditions pertains to social order, often
embodied in the concept of varnashramadharma. This concept outlines the idea that
each social station or varna and stage of life carries specific duties and responsibilities.
For example, Brahmanas are tasked with observing austerities, performing rituals, and
upholding spiritual practices for the benefit of society. Kshatriyas, on the other hand,
have the responsibility to protect not just the Brahmanas but the entire social order.
This notion is evident from early narratives like Sage Vishvamitra seeking protection
from King Dasharatha's sons in the Ramayana to philosophical discussions in texts like
the Bhagavad Gita, emphasizing the link between one's varna and their social duties.
The second dimension of dharma focuses on individual responsibilities and choices
based on their roles and relationships. This includes fulfilling duties as a son, wife, or
fulfilling promises made, as seen in Rama honoring his father's promise and
Yudhishthira abiding by the consequences of gambling. Adherence to dharma
sometimes conflicts with personal desires, as seen in Vibheeshana siding with Rama
against his own brother. The dharma of kings and rulers is to maintain social order and
punish actions that disrupt it, whether through legal means or divine intervention.
Dharma serves as both a guiding principle and a source of legitimacy for political elites
in the epics.
The Fear of Anarchy
Dharma holds immense importance in Indian political thought as it serves as a defense
against chaos, depicted as the worst possible state of anarchy where society devolves
into lawlessness and conflict. The concept of dharma ensures social order and stability
by emphasizing righteous conduct and the protection of individuals' rights and duties,
especially within the framework of varnashramadharma. The king's role is crucial in
upholding dharma and preventing matsyanyaya, a metaphor for the powerful exploiting
the weak. In today's context, dharma can be seen as advocating for norm-based
interactions and shared values, as reflected in global forums like the United Nations.
However, modern constraints often limit the collective's ability to address gross
transgressions, highlighting the complexities of applying ancient principles in
contemporary governance.
The Self, Other and Diversity
The epics blur boundaries between individuals, species, and worlds, challenging the
concept of self and 'other.' Protagonists like Rama and Krishna embody complex
identities and relationships that transcend ordinary human understanding. Family ties,
marriages, and diverse parentages further complicate distinctions between individuals
and groups. Land and identity are loosely connected in the epics, emphasizing diversity
and mobility over fixed boundaries.
Dharma, central to Indian thought, delineates the self from the 'other' and guides
individual and collective behavior. Upholding dharma ensures social order and moral
conduct. The epics portray characters on both sides of dharma, emphasizing individual
choices and consequences. Redemption is possible for those who stray from dharma but
not for persistent transgressors. Villains like Ravana and the Kauravas exhibit
multifaceted personalities but choose adharma, leading to their downfall. Allies of
adharmik individuals are not inherently evil but often influenced by personal motives or
circumstances.
In the Ramayana, two instances of 'othering' stand out. Firstly, Rama justifies his killing
of Vali by referring to him as an animal, highlighting a distinction where no justification
is needed for hunting animals. This reflects a mindset where beings like Vali, despite
their intelligence and interactions with humans, are reduced to mere animals. Secondly,
the killing of Shambuka based on his caste brings caste-based 'othering' into focus.
Rama views Shambuka's actions as adharma due to his caste, leading to his swift
punishment.
These instances highlight how identities and divisions are constructed in the epic world.
While caste becomes a crucial marker of 'othering,' the true distinction in the epics lies
in adherence to dharmik norms rather than external factors like caste or species. This
fluidity of identities contrasts with the rigid borders and identity politics prevalent in
contemporary society.
In today's world, 'othering' is complex and fluid, similar to the epic world. States and
security decision-makers emphasize the importance of borders and mobility
restrictions, contributing to mutual alienation within and between states. When states
violate international norms, they face censure, but intervention in the name of security
and norm enforcement is common. Within states, enforcing norms can be challenging,
with both state and non-state actors involved in violence. Human rights violations are
widespread, blurring the line between adhering to norms and deviating from them.
CREATING SECURITY
In the epic universe, security hinges on maintaining order to uphold dharma. The ruling
class's duty is to ensure order and protect dharma, as seen when Vishwamitra asks
Dasharatha to send the princes for protection and when Krishna advises Arjuna to fight.
A ruler's duties involve sovereignty rituals, policy implementation, and engagement
protocols, all reinforcing social order when observed correctly.
Rules of Sovereignty
Sacrifices were crucial for political authority in early India, serving multiple purposes.
The Rajasuya and Ashvamedha were prominent rituals. These rituals served purposes
like atonement for rulers' actions, forging alliances, and establishing suzerainty. The
Rajasuya, performed by Yudhishthira, showcased Pandavas' glory and unity, receiving
lavish tributes from across Bharatavarsha. The Ashvamedha empowered kings, cleansed
sins, and expanded influence, exemplified by Yudhishthira's and Rama's post-war
performances, symbolizing restoration and purification. The narrative also emphasizes
the moral equivalence of sacrifices with virtues like abstention from harm, contentment,
sincerity, penance, and truthfulness.
Policy Instruments and Approaches
Classical Indian political thought outlines four expedients (upaya) for rulers: sama
(conciliation), dana (gift-giving), bheda (dissension), and danda (punishment). Later
texts add upeksha (indifference), maya (illusion and deceit), and indrajala (strategem).
Sama involves praise and cooperation, focusing on commonalities and empathy. The
Mahabharata shows both sincere and insincere sama, seen in the Pandavas' return and
Yudhishthira's sincere gestures despite deceit. Military defeat often led to tribute and
acknowledgment of suzerainty, not occupation. Rama's crowning of Vibheeshana
exemplifies sama by avoiding direct rule after defeating Ravana.
Dana, or giving, plays a vital role in life and especially for Kshatriyas seeking atonement
for violence in their dharma. Yudhishthira's advice to perform a Rajasuya yajna and give
generously after the Mahabharata war highlights its significance. In policy, dana includes
monetary rewards, favors, tax exemptions, and employment opportunities.
Duryodhana's gift of a kingdom to Karna starts a lasting friendship, showcasing the
importance of generosity, which is a mark of greatness in kings, as seen in the legendary
status of Harishchandra.
Karna's role in Indian Bheda, or sowing dissension, involves exploiting existing
differences within another camp. Before the Mahabharata war, Karna faces a crucial
moment when Krishna reveals his true parentage as Kunti's son. Despite this revelation,
Karna chooses to remain loyal to his friend Duryodhana, who has supported him during
difficult times. However, when Kunti approaches him with the same information, Karna
promises her that either he or Arjuna will survive. This promise weakens the Kaurava
army significantly, as Karna is a crucial asset and his pledge to spare his other brothers
undermines the Kauravas' prospects in the war.
Danda refers to the use of punishment or force and holds a central role in the
functioning and authority of the epic polity. This emphasis on danda stems from the fear
of injustice (matsyanyaya) and the principle of dharma as the basis for political
organization. It serves to uphold dharma and deter those inclined towards wrongdoing,
reflecting the evolving dynamics of governance across ages.
On the other hand, upeksha, translated as neutrality or indifference, is not viable in the
context of war. Both Rama's conflict with Ravana and the Mahabharata war are waged to
establish the supremacy of dharma over forces aligned with adharma. Balarama's
decision to go on a pilgrimage rather than take sides between the Pandavas, who
represent dharma, and his favored student Duryodhana, reflects this concept of
upeksha.
Maya, or deceit, plays a significant role in both epics. In the Ramayana, Mareecha takes
the form of a golden deer to distract Rama and lure him away from Sita, while Ravana
disguises himself as a mendicant to approach Sita in her vulnerable state. In the
Mahabharata, Bheema uses deceit to end Keechaka's acts of harassment by disguising
himself as Draupadi.
Indrajala, or stratagem, is also employed extensively, notably by the Kauravas. One
instance is when the Pandavas are sent to Varanavata, where a palace of lac is secretly
built to trap and burn them. However, the Pandavas escape through a tunnel, averting
disaster. The infamous game of dice orchestrated by Shakuni is another example, where
Yudhishthira's honor compels him to play despite the odds being heavily stacked against
him.
The six methods of statecraft called shadgunyam are explicitly more outward-looking:
sandhi (peace), vigraha (war); asana (waiting for the enemy to strike the first blow),
yana (attack), samshraya (alliance), and dvaidibhava (duplicity).
Sandhi involves open diplomatic activities, like negotiations and alliances, as seen before
the Mahabharata war with emissaries shuttling between the Kaurava and Pandava
camps. It covers both temporary and permanent agreements between parties.
Vigraha encompasses both open and covert warfare, as seen in Rama's attack on Vali
while he was engaged in combat with his brother, the planned massacre at Varanavata,
and the wars that mark the culmination of the epics. The methods themselves are value-
neutral; it's their application that determines their significance and ethical value.
Asana, or restraint, is indeed an important method, exemplified by Yudhishthira's
patient vigil during his 13 years of exile. Despite having justification, support, and
advocates for immediate war to reclaim his rights, Yudhishthira chooses to wait. This
decision is based on moral principles and the strategic advantage of time. Yana, on the
other hand, refers to preparedness for action, possibly after a period of restraint.
Allies and associates play crucial roles in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata wars.
In the Ramayana, Rama and Lakshmana seek support from the vanara king Sugriva and
his army of monkeys and bears to aid them in their campaign against Ravana. With their
help, Rama crosses the ocean and confronts Ravana. Similarly, before the Mahabharata
war, both sides engage in diplomatic efforts to secure support from various clans and
kings across Bharatavarsha. Duplicity, or dvaidibhava, is sometimes used to maintain
distance from allies while keeping enemies at bay, making it an appealing strategy.
Rules of Engagement
The world depicted in the epics operates within a framework of rules and protocols
governing various engagements. This includes respectful approaches to hermitages and
communities, where guests seek permission before entry and often offer protection in
return. The rules of combat are clearly defined, emphasizing fair fighting, respect for
preparedness, and limitations on striking certain individuals or groups, such as non-
combatants and those seeking quarter. Combat is generally restricted to daylight hours,
with wounded soldiers receiving medical attention in the evening.
However, the covenants specifying these rules are not absolute, as seen in critical
moments where they are violated to gain advantage or turn the tide of battle. Instances
like Drona's death through deception, Abhimanyu's tragic fate in the chakravyuha, and
Arjuna's killing of Karna in a vulnerable moment highlight how these norms can be
circumvented for strategic or moral reasons. These violations are often justified as
serving a higher moral purpose or dharmic cause, indicating that while the rules of
engagement are important, they are not synonymous with dharma itself.
GRAND STRATEGIC THOUGHT IN THE INDIAN EPICS
The epics reflect a structured worldview where the king's role is crucial, using tools like
punishment, conciliation, and sometimes deceit to maintain order. Dharma, guiding
personal and political conduct, is the key to stability and distinguishes self from other.
While rules of engagement are important, sometimes dharma requires breaking rules
for a greater moral purpose.
In today's global context, parallels can be drawn with the importance of upholding
norms, such as human rights and environmental protection. The focus on dharma in
Indian foreign policy history echoes ideals of moral governance and a nuanced approach
to power dynamics. This contrasts with classical realist views, emphasizing power and
self-interest. The fluidity of identity and the blurring of insider-outsider distinctions are
reminiscent of India's complex relationships in South Asia, shaped by shared histories
and cultural ties.
While traditional grand strategic thinking may seem absent in Indian foreign policy, this
aligns with the epics' emphasis on moral action over power-driven strategies. The core
political values from the epics include inclusivity, moral governance, and defined
protocols for state actions, resonating with modern international norms and
constitutional principles.