Communication Skills

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UNIT 4.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION
General learning outcomes: Define the basic concepts of communication.

4.1.1. Describe the nature and purpose of communication
4.1.2. Describe the Communication Process
4.1.3. Identify barriers to effective communication
4.1.4. Explain the significance of communication in business discourse
4.1.5. Explain the strategies to effective communication
4.1.1 THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication involves giving, receiving information, ideas, through written sound, or visual means
from a sender to a receiver for particular purpose. You are communicating every day by talking,
gesturing, writing, and symbols. In business communication is conducted internally and externally
through various methods to achieve set goals.
The issue of communication is a vital one for any organization. Communication can be defined as…
… the giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or ideas either by
writing or visual means so that the material communicated is completely
understood by everyone concerned.
OR
…all the process by which information is transmitted and received. The
information may include: facts, intentions, attitudes etc.
OR
communication is the process of creating, transmitting and interpreting ideas,
facts, opinions and feelings.’ (G. A Cole, 2004).
OR
It is a process that is a sharing one, a mutual interchange between two or more
parties.
The purpose of communication is to make the receiver understand what is in the mind of the sender.
Communication is therefore incomplete unless it is understood by the receiver. When communication is
understood, it will always result into behaviour change, meaning that someone will have to take an
action.
Communication can also be defined as …

the conveying of a message or an idea from one party to another in such a
fashion that both parties perceive its identical meaning.
In other words, not only must information or instructions or ideas be passed from one party to another,
but the receiving party must understand exactly what the transmitting party had in mind. It is lack of
clear understanding on the part of one of the parties which give rise to disagreements and disputes.
LBTC/Mandondo E. Ngoma/02-01-14 (Communication Skills for the Zambian Technocrat- Draft Copy)
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Without communication, nothing could happen in an organization or in a classroom situation because

with no information or instructions to be given or received, there could be no contact between
members of management or between them and subordinates or between lecturer and students or no
contact with suppliers and customers. No organization can exist in vacuum.
COMMUNICATION
TYPES FORM METHOD

Telephone
Intercom
ORAL Meeting
Presentation
Face to Face
Report
Graphs
E-mail
INTERNAL
Fax
WRITTEN Questionnaires
Minutes
Newsletter
Memo
SMS
Circular
Meeting
Conference
ORAL Conversation
Telephone
Presentation
Leaflets
Letter
EXTERNAL Invitation
Forms
Questionnaire
WRITTEN
Press Release
Customer magazine
Advert
Notice
Graphs/Charts
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Reports
E-mail
Fax
Letter
4.1.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. Sender:-
A sender is a party or person who originates an idea for sending the communication. This could also
be an organization or department. When you have something to say, one should consider the best
means of putting that message across, and you must bear in mind or consider that the timing is
important.
2. Encoding the message:

This is the stage in which the sender puts the information into an appropriate form suitable to both
the sender and the receiver in which the sender decide first the specific outcomes that he or she
want from the communication. It is at this stage where a sender chooses whether words will suffice,
or whether printed record is necessary. It helps you choose appropriate language and tone.
3. The medium:
This is a group of ways of communication in which a particular communication can be classified and
there are mainly three media: written communication which either be letter, memos, books,
articles, notices, posters etc. the second one is oral communication, a method using spoken word
such as meetings, lectures etc. thirdly is visual communication in form of drawing, photographs,
maps etc.
4. Selecting the channel:

This is the physical means by which the message is conveyed, may be through notice boards or
public postal services or it could be through cell phone or fax. At this stage you must also consider all
aspects such as speed, cost, quick response, printed record, confidentiality before you send the
message, otherwise time and money may just be wasted if you choose wrong channel. You must
that the medium and channel are different. A medium may be written communication a letter for
example and the channel could be the post office.
5. The receiver:
This is a person or body or party which receives the messages. It can be an individual or an
organization or a group of people. In order to achieve success at this stage it is important that the
sender must use the language and the vocabulary that the receiver understands.
6. Decoding the message:

It is important to consider the communication so that the correct message is received. Distortion of
the message may occur if the sender has not carefully encoded the communication, in this case the
receiver will interpret the message differently from how it was intended.
7. Feedback:
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Feedback refers to the immediate reaction Feedback is Rx’s response to Tx stimulus. The
communication process cannot be complete or successful without a feedback. In oral
communication is immediate, for example in a meeting audience may nod or smile to show
understanding and agreement. In a written message like assignments given to students, lecturers
have to wait until when they are submitted. Feedback reassures Tx that
~ The message has been received.
~ The message has been understood, i.e. interpreted correctly.
~ That there is an appropriate action taken in response to the message.
ELEMENTS OR FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SENDING A MESSAGE
Purpose:
What do you want your communication to achieve? You must think about it before deciding which
method to use, and think about what kind of contact will encourage people to do what you want
them to do. Will a formal letter be more effective than personal visit? Is telephone call more likely
than a simple written notice encourage someone attend a meeting?
Confidentiality:
some messages are confidential and should be read and heard only by the intended receiver or
recipient and others are less private. This difference sometimes can be important If the message is
confidential it should be communicated in a letter other document which is seen only by those
authorized to do so.
Cost:
You must consider how mush the communication will cost in terms of results expected. Short local
telephone is cheaper than a letter, when the cost of writing, typing and stationary is considered.
Long distance call is very expensive, unless the communication is urgent.
Speed:
Some messages must be conveyed very quickly, in which case the telephone or personal meeting
will be necessary. Others are less urgent and first or second class post may be more than adequate.
Speed is usually linked with cost.
The receiver:
The sender must consider the receiver of the message as whether when the message is received
one will be upset, happy or sad which they could have been told in person. Would they have
proffered a written statement?
4.1.3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Frame of reference:
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Different individuals can interpret the same communication differently depending on their previous
experiences. This results in variations in the encoding and decoding process. As a result, distortion often
occurs because of differing frames of reference. People in various organizational functions interpret the
same situation differently. There are different positions in the positions in the organization structure,
and this influences their frames of reference. As a result, their needs, values, attitudes and expectations
will differ, and this difference will often result in unintentional distortion of communication.
2. Selective listening:
This is a form of selective perception in which we tend to block out information, especially if it conflicts
with what we believe. When we receive information from management, we notice only those things
that real affirm our beliefs. Those things that conflict with our preconceived notices we distort to
confirm our preconceptions.
3. Value judgment:
Value judgment is made by the receiver in every communication situation. Basically this involves
assigning an overall worth to a message prior, to receiving the entire communication. Value judgments
may be based on the receiver’s evaluation of the communicator.
4. Source credibility:
Source credibility is the trust, confidence, faith that the receiver has on the words and actions of the
communicator. The level of credibility turn directly affects how the receiver views and reacts to words,
ideas and actions of the communicator. How subordinates view a communication from their manager is
affected by their evaluation of the manager.
5. In – group language:
Occupation, professions and social groups develop words or phrases that have level meaning only to
members such as doctors, lawyers etc. such special language can serve many useful purposes. It
provides and in many cases, self esteem. It does facilitate effective communication within the group.
The use of non-group language can however result in service communication breakdown when outsiders
or other groups are involved.
6. Status difference:
Organizations often express through a variety of symbols such as titles, offices etc. such status
difference can be perceived as threads by lower ranks in the hierarchy and this can prevent or distort
communication. A nurse may remain quiet even when she or he knows that the doctor is wrong, express
an opinion.
7. Relationships:
The effectiveness of any communication may depend on our relationships with the person giving the
message. If the relationship between people is not good, communication may fail to be effective or may
breakdown.
8. Pre-judgment:
Most people in life their own principles and assumptions and so sometimes jump to conclusions or close
their minds to new information or anything that don’t go by their believes and values.
9. Selective listening:
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Selective listening is listening whereby one select what to listen, they only tune out until the hear
something that attracts their attention and interest.
10. Selfishness:
Some people prefer not to listen but take control of conversations, it does matter whatever the subject
may be because they believe that they know more that speaker, and they set to prove it by relating their
own experiences and their problems.
11. Body Language:

The body gestures may send a wrong signal to the receiver of the message.
12. Sender breakdown:

too much information is being sent, so the recipient misses key points. Also, language can be difficult to
understand, as it can be too complex.
13. Method breakdown :

when information is very detailed or complicated, then written instructions are better than messages
which can be misinterpreted.
14. Recipient breakdown:

the recipient deliberately makes a choice to misinterpret the message because of their attitude to either
the sender to the message at hand.
15. Emotional Stress:

communication will be ineffective if the person involved in sending the message or receiving it will be
afraid, angry,
and crying.
Other problems with communication could be:
~ Long chain of command.

~ Language - complex, and hard to understand.
~ Vague purpose – not detailed enough, more explanation required
~ Inappropriate medium (method used, e.g. written, electronically etc).
~ Red tape – message gets passed on to many different people before finally reaching the
recipient making the process too long and the message changing. Also, actions can be delayed
as a result of a late arrival of the message.
~ Location – distance of recipient or where message has to reach.
~ Distraction – Communication channels breaking up.
~ Inappropriate language
~ Lack of feedback
~ Selection of wrong medium
~ Omission, errors, misspelling
~ Educational levels
~ Inconvenient time
~ Cultural Clashes (Beliefs)
~ Inferiority complex
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~ Wrong methods of communication

~ Poorly phrased messages
~ Loss in transmission through poor retention ny receiver
~ Understated or incorrect assumptions
~ Biased interpretation
~ Lack of preparation and planning before communication
~ Poor listening skills
~ Mistrust and fear
Barriers to communication can be classified in six main categories

Problems of Information exchange
Problems of Psychological Distance
Problems of Attitudes in interaction
Problems of Strategies
Problems of Physical Distance
Problems of Communication Devices
STRATEGIES TO MINIMIZE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
For communication to be effective apply the following guidelines:

~ Read – expand your language by reading
~ Listen attentively – before you speak listen
~ Think and plan – before you speak or write plan your communication very carefully
~ Use appropriate language – use simple and clear language
~ Be open minded – do not make judgment before you hear the message
~ Select the right media – select the right method you will use to communicate
~ Time your communication – select the right time to communicate
~ Use suitable language – use the right words to send the right meaning
~ Get feedback – find out the message reached and it was understood
~ Maintain standards – aim for quality language and presentation.
Summary
Communication involves giving, receiving information, ideas, through written sound, or visual means
from a sender to a receiver for particular purposes. There are a number of communication methods.
The method used is usually
determined by cost, confidentiality, security, influence, urgency, distance, time, resources, written
record, Receiver of message. Miscommunication is a common problem in personal or business lives. It
has been a source of conflicts and waste. There are number of strategies one can apply to minimize
communication break down?
EXERCISE:
1. What is communication?
2. Want is the importance of communication in an enterprise?
3. What are the barriers communications? Give examples.
4. Suggest three strategies that can reduce barriers to
communication.
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EFFECTIVE COMMUNCATION (How can communication be improved?)
Follow – up:
This involves assuming that you are misunderstood and whenever possible attempting to determine
whether your intended meaning actually was received.
Utilizing feedback:
Feedback is an important element in effective communication. It provides a channel for receiver’s
response that enables the communicator to determine whether the message has been received and
produce the intended response.
Empathy:
Empathy requires communicators to replace themselves in the shoes of the receiver in order to
anticipate how the message is likely to be decoded. Empathy is the ability to put oneself on other
person’s role to assume that individuals view points and emotions.
4.1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS DISCOURSE
THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
o Communication acts as a link between management and employees of the organization.

o Communication coordinates the activities of both management and employees.
o Communication makes management decisions are easily made known to employees.
o Through communication issues are discussed and resolved.
C0MMUNICATION: Simple yet complex, easy to do and

easy to blunder.
“We send from100 to 300 messages a day. These
THE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
include the message we intend to send; the message we
actually send; the message as the hearer interprets it
o Give out information and the response of the hearer based on what he/she
o Make your ideas understood has heard; and the reaction to the exchange of words,
o Initiate some actions meaning and interpretation.
o Share ideas, attitudes, beliefs etc
o Establish links with other people
What does communication accomplish?

According to Henry Mwanza, managers have three basic jobs, that is:
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1. To convey information
2. To make decisions
3. To promote interpersonal unity – that is to make people to work together in order to achieve
the organization goals. All jobs in the organization happen because of communication.
The purpose of messages in Organizations:

Messages in organizations have one or more of three basic purposes:
1. To inform
2. To request
3. To persuade
When you inform, explain something or tell readers something. When you persuade, you want the
reader to act. The word request suggests that the action will be easy or routine.
Why do people talk to each other?
When we talk, it is because we have a thought, idea, feeling, idea that we want to share with someone.
We talk so as to become acquainted, build relationships, express emotions to others, share information and
persuade others to understand our personal views. In order to have communication both listening and
speaking are necessary.
Communicating effectively helps group members build trust and respect, foster learning and accomplish
goals.
Written, Oral and Body Language are important tools for sharing ideas, feeling and commitments.
Your group is made up of people who share a common interest and commitment and yet perhaps see
things from a variety of perspectives.
Effective communication is the way this diverse group of people will be able to understand the issues
and make decisions for effective change.
4.1.5 STRATEGIES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
To compose effective written or oral messages, you must seek maximize the principles below;
• Completeness,
• Conciseness,
• Consideration,
• Correctness,
• Concreteness,
• Clarity,
• Courtesy.
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1. Completeness
Your business message is complete when it contains all facts the
reader or listener needs for the reaction you desire.
• Provide all necessary information – answering the five W’s helps make messages clear: who,
where, what, when and why.
2. Conciseness
• Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the
other C qualities.
• A concise message is complete without being wordy.
3. Consideration:
Means preparing every message with the message receivers in mind, try to put yourself in their
place!
4. Correctness
Communicating corectely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general.
Often It means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary –based) rather than
connotative words (ideas of notions suggested by or associated with a word or phrase).
4. Concreteness
• Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general.
• Often It means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary –based0 rather than
connotative words (ideas of notions suggested by or associated with a word or phrase).
5. Clarity:
• Getting the meaning from your head into the head of your reader – accurately – is the purpose
of clarity.
6. Courtesy:
• Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy, be aware of your message will
affect the receiver.
• be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative.
7. Correctness:
• At the core of correctness is proper grammar, punctuation and spelling.
• However, a message may be perfect grammatically and mechanically but still insult or lose a
customer.
THE THREE V’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
VISUAL:
Or in other words, body-language. This is the gestures you make when you speak; the way you might
unconsciously place a hand on your heart when you say you’re sorry, or twirl your hair or play with a
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piece of jewellery if you’re nervous. It’s your posture – are you slouched, or sitting/standing tall? Are
you leaning towards or away from the person you’re talking to? It’s your facial expressions, eye contact
or a lack of it. Your emotions leak out through your body language, even if you don’t say a word.
VOCAL:
The tone you use. Ever heard the expression “it’s not what you say, it’s how you say it?” This is exactly
what that well-used phrase is referring to. If you want to be calming, gentle or loving, you naturally
speak more softly and slowly. If you’re angry, you raise your voice or shout. There’s a certain tone of
voice that makes me want to run and hide, regardless of the actual words. (That said, there’s also a tone
which can make me weak in the knees in a moment… Nomad knows the one! *mischievous grin.*)
Your tone when you speak will often betray how you’re really feeling. It will give away when you’re
angry, upset, afraid, or really, really happy. It will give you away when you say you’re “okay” or “fine”
when you’re very much not.
VERBAL:
Finally, the actual words you say. Did you know that there is a theory which suggests that the actual
words you say make up a mere 7% of what the other person you’re speaking to perceives?
According to this theory, Visual (body-language) has about 55% of the total impact on your
communication, and tone 38%.
Food for thought.
Some final thoughts to take away from this:
This brings to light in a whole new way one of the reasons why DIRECT communication is so important.
Think about it: if someone is playing the middle-man (say, the shared partner in a poly Vee, for
example,) even if they relay perfectly word for word what was said between one person and another, so
much of the intended message will be lost, as the person receiving the message will not have the benefit
of the tone and body-language which went along with it.
It’s often useful to get someone to repeat back to you what they’ve understood by what you have said.
It is amazing how often what somebody hears and what you think you said are not the same.
Face-to-face IS, in fact, the preferable choice (over phone, email, text, etc) for important communication
when it is available as an option.
What are your favourite theories of effective communication?
Verbal Communication
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Verbal communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have
originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The basis of
language formation are: gender, class, profession, geographical area, age group and other social
elements. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and is again classified into two types viz.
interpersonal communication and public speaking.
Good verbal communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business, you come
across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent verbal communication is essential, to deal
with people in business meetings. Also, in business communication self-confidence plays a vital role
which when clubbed with fluent communication skills can lead to success.
Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of people.
Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the speech must be
prepared according to the type of audience you are going to face. The content of your speech should be
authentic and you must have enough information on the topic you have chosen for public speaking. All
the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these points should be delivered in the correct
order. There are many public speaking techniques and these techniques must be practiced for an
effective speech.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication involves physical ways of communication, like, tone of the voice, touch,
smell and body motion. Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes singing, music,
dancing and sculpturing. Symbols and sign language are also included in non-verbal communication.
Body language is a non-verbal way of communication. Body posture and physical contact convey a lot of
information. Body posture matters a lot when you are communicating verbally to someone. Folded arms
and crossed legs are some of the signals conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact, like, shaking
hands, pushing, patting and touching expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures and
eye contact are all different ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you know a
person better.
Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written
communication is essential for business purposes. Written communication is practiced in many different
languages. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written communication in
business. The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is
communicated to the second party to whom the communication is intended. This is one of the main
advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business activity. Written
communication is used not only in business but also for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS
is an example of informal written communication.
Visual communication
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The last type of communication is the visual communication. Visual communication is visual display of
information, like topography, photography, signs, symbols and designs. Television and video clips are
the electronic form of visual communication.
Effective communication is essential for the success of any type of business. Informally too, nothing can
be achieved without proper communication. Therefore, developing communicative skills is a must. One
must understand that all the four types of communication are equally important and one must develop
communicative skills in all the mediums. Communicative media is growing day by day to ensure clarity
and to eliminate the ambiguity in communication.
Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication
These principles underlie the workings in real life of interpersonal communication. They are basic to
communication. We can't ignore them
Interpersonal communication is inescapable

We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through
not only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we
constantly communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive
communication from others. Even when you sleep, you communicate. Remember a basic principle of
communication in general: people are not mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by
your behavior, not your intent.
Interpersonal communication is irreversible

You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite
the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the witness made," the lawyer
knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes
out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again."
Interpersonal communication is complicated

No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even simple requests
are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate there are really at least six
"people" involved: 1) who you think you are; 2) who you think the other person is; 30 who you think the
other person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person thinks you
are; and 6) who the other person thinks you think s/he is.
We don't actually swap ideas, we swap symbols that stand for ideas. This also complicates
communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways,
and no two people use the same word exactly alike.
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Osmo Wiio gives us some communication maxims similar to Murphy's law (Osmo Wiio, Wiio's Laws--
and Some Others (Espoo, Finland: Welin-Goos, 1978):
~ If communication can fail, it will.

~ If a message can be understood in different ways, it will be understood in just that way which
does the most harm.
~ There is always somebody who knows better than you what you meant by your message.
~ The more communication there is, the more difficult it is for communication to succeed.
These tongue-in-cheek maxims are not real principles; they simply humorously remind us of the
difficulty of accurate communication. (See also A commentary of Wiio's laws by Jukka Korpela.)
CONTEX OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Interpersonal communication is contextual. In other words, communication does not happen in

isolation. There is:
· Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your needs,
desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both
participants in the interaction.)
· Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix."
· Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction
that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a bar.
· Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating. Furniture,
location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the
environmental context.
· Cultural context includes all the learned behaviours and rules that affect the interaction. If you
come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to make
long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes
from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the
cultural context a basis for misunderstanding.
.
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UNIT 4.2 THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
General learning outcomes: Define the types of communication.

4.1.1. Describe the three forms of communication
4.1.2. Describe the verbal and non-verbal communication models
4.1.3. Describe formal and non-formal communication
4.1.4. Explain forms of written presentations
4.1.5. Illustrate forms oral presentations
4.2.1 THE THREE FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Oral Communication
2. Written Communication
3. Non-Verbal Communication
1. ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is communication by word of mouth note that verbal communication means
communication through words which can either be spoken or written.
Oral communication: it is the most frequently used method of communication for most managers,
supervisors, foremen, lectures, but in spite of, and because of the familiarity, care must be taken in
using this method. Oral communication is the communication by word of mouth. It may be direct when
two people meet and talk. Oral communication can take a variety of forms such:
· Interviews
· Formal meetings
· Telephone conversations
· Training sessions
· Group meetings etc.
Due to its expressiveness spoken communication has many advantages. In the first place, the
presentation can be adapted to suit the listener, for instance, more easily understood words can be
selected if necessary; words can be pronounced more clearly or spoken more slowly, depending on the
listener(s). in general, oral communication allows an immediate response or a reply or action (feedback)
and if necessary, the opportunity to repeat what was said without delay. Of courses the listener must be
give the opportunity to reply.
It is worth remembering that some face to face communication may not be oral or oral alone. Thoughts
and feelings can be conveyed, both consciously and unconsciously, by facial expressions such as smiles
and by gestures of a variety or different types. Even the movements of the eyes can convey an
impression, for instance. Looking at a speaker implies interest, whilst looking away from him imply that
one is not interested. All these unspoken forms of communication can emphasize or contribute to what
is actually being spoken, or even in some cases replace wrong speech, and a wrong facial expression,
gesture or movement or at the wrong time can cause offence or annoyance.
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2. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. It is one of
the two main types of communication, along with oral/spoken communication. Written communication
is very common in business situations, so it is important for business owners and managers to develop
effective written communication skills. Some of the various forms of written communication that are
used internally for business operations include memos, reports, bullets, job descriptions, employee
manuals, and electronic mail.
Ironically, the importance of good writing skills in the business world has become more evident even as
companies rely increasingly on computers and other technologies to meet their obligations. Indeed,
business experts warn that any business’s positive qualities from dedication to customer service to high
tech expertise will be blunted to some degree if they are unable o transfer that dedication and
knowledge to the printed page. Business proposals, status reports, customer documentation, technical
support, or even e-mail replies all depend on clear written communication.’
Written communication is essential or preferable in many different instances. The variety of

circumstances in which letters or circulars must be sent to potential and existing customers, clients and
suppliers are legion, as are those requiring letters to professional people, government departments etc.
certain legal and statutory documents are required. Written reports are generally required. Where there
is distance between the sender and receiver, written communication is required may only be feasible
form of communication. Where the same message is conveyed to a large number of people or
employees or customers printed circulars are necessary. Off-course there is also need for notices and
posters etc.
It is important for the best or most suitable method of written communication to be selected to suit the
message and the reason why it is being sent. Letters must be properly laid out and typed, checked and
signed. Memos are usually simpler and more to the point than are letters, and are generally used for
written communication within the organization. Some communications can go on post cards; others
must go in envelopes and there are different methods of dispatch here in Zambia such as EMS, DHL, and
POSTNET etc.
Advantages of written communication:

Thomas S. Bateman and Carl P. Zeithma, in their book, management: Function and strategy described
several advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that written messages do not have to be
delivered on the spur of moment; they can be edited and revised several times before they are sent so
that the content can be shaped to maximum effect. Another advantage is that written communication,
provides a permanent record that can enable the receiver to take more time in reviewing the messages
and providing appropriate feedback. Other advantages may include:
· One of the advantages of written communication is that it can be carefully planned and
revised before it is committed to paper in its final form. Theoretically, this means that there
is less chance for errors to be made than in the form oral communication.
17
· It allows the reader to pause and consider, or perhaps carrying out an investigation before
responding, whether by letter or memo, report etc.
· All parties involved have record of what has been communicated.
Disadvantages of written communication:

There are several potential disadvantages associated written communication. Unlike oral
communication, for instance, where impressions and reactions are exchanged instantaneously, the
sender of written communication does not generally receive immediate feedback to his or her message.
This can be a source of frustration and uncertainty in business situations in which a swift response is
desired. In addition, written messages often take more time to compose, both because of their
information – packed nature and the difficulty that many individuals have in composing such
correspondence. Other disadvantages may include the following:
· Since written communication provides a permanent record, it can not be altered or
modified to take into consideration of the reactions from others.
· It has to a highly skilled communicator to change the opinions or ideas of others by written
response.
· Written communication that take place at a distance between two parties would lack
personal touch which is often so positive a feature in oral communication.
· It is very difficulty to keep a written communication to remain confidential; since it passes
through many hands such as the secretaries and others at all levels may see a document and
thus diminish its confidentiality.
3. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication is the communication that involves body language. In face to face
encounters non verbal communication is often just as important as verbal communication (Shirley
Taylor, 2005).
As one speaks, information is transmitted, given conveyed or
exchanged non – verbally as well as verbally.
We can define non-verbal communication as
… the communication that involves cues, gestures, in short body

language and attitudes that allows us to communicate without words.
…as the communication of using signs and symbols and object

language.
Non-verbal communication differs from verbal communication in many ways:

1. It is less structured and such; it is difficult to study it because you cannot master the vocabulary
of gestures, expressions, and inflections that are common in our culture. We don’t know how
people learn non- verbal behavior. For example, no one teaches a child to cry or smile and yet
these forms of self – expression are almost universal.
2. In verbal communication we generally plan our word. When we communicate non-verbally, we
sometimes do unconsciously, for example, when we mean to raise an eyebrow, the actions
come naturally without our consent; our emotions are written on our faces.
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4.1.2 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION MODELS
Types of non-verbal communication:
Facial expression and eye behaviour:

Our face is the site for expressing emotions because it reveals both the type and intensity of our
feelings. Our eye effectiveness can influence others, regulating interactions and establishing dominance.
Despite the fact that our eyes and our face are a reliable source of meaning, sometimes people
manipulate their expressions to stimulate a wrong emotion of their feelings.
Gestures and posters:

Your body movements express specific and general message of which are voluntary or involuntary,. For
example, a wave of hand has specific meaning such as hello or goodbye. Other movements of the body
such as “brisk” are unconscious signals that suggest whether you fell confident or nervous, friendly or
hostile, powerful or powerless.
Personal appearance:
Personal appearance is important because it helps establish your social identity. You can believe me or
not but you respond to other people on the basis of their physical attractiveness. This is because we see
ourselves as others see us. If other people give comments that you are attractive and beautiful or
handsome, you will feel good about yourself and this affects your behaviour which letter affects other
people’s perception on you. Although facial expressions impose limitations, most of us are able to
control our attractiveness to some extent. If your objective is to make a good impression, then you must
adopt style of the people you want to impress.
Touching behaviour:
Touching is very important when one wants to convey warmth, comfort reassurance. Touching contact
creates feelings. One of the reasons why touching creates positive feelings is because of its intimacy.
The touching behaviour is in most situations governed by customs that establish who can touch who and
how. For example in Zambia, nearly in all tribes the son-in-law cannot touch the mother-in-law, in the
same way he would not touch the sister-in-law. Off course the accepted norms vary, depending on the
gender, age, status, and cultural background of those involved.
The importance of non-verbal communication
Although non-verbal communication is often unplanned, it has more impact than verbal communication.
The non-verbal cues are important in conveying feelings. Just as in any message, emotional meaning is
exchanged in any interaction. The impact of any message is affected by the blending of non-verbal
communication.
Non verbal communication is important because it is powerful enough to actually release mood-altering
chemicals in both the sender and the receiver, consider smiling, makes us feel happier. Another
importance of non verbal communication is that of its reliability. If you look closely, most people are
19
able to decide us more easily with words than they can with their bodies because words are easy to
control than body language.
In most cases if a person says one thing but transmits a conflicting message non-verbally, people will
almost invariably believe the non verbal signal, for example, how can you say that you are happy to
receive a birthday present from dad with your face showing tears? It is obvious that when people see
your facial expression they will know that you are not happy but sad. Another importance of non verbal
communication is that it can be interpreted correctly by people who can read other people’s non-verbal
messages through the underlying attitudes and intentions. Most successful people share this ability.
People are able to determine whether someone is happy, sad, angry etc. people, who cannot read other
people’s non verbal messages and reactions correctly, prevent them from adjusting their behaviour to
improve their relationships.
Involves giving, receiving information, ideas, through written sound, or visual means from a sender to a
receiver for particular purpose. You are communicating every day by talking,
Effective communication is the way this diverse group of people will be able to understand the issues
and make decisions for effective change.
Types of non-verbal communication:

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4.1.3 FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION NETWORK:
An organization is composed of many individuals working together towards a common goal. The
people constantly interact or get in touch of each other also with outside the organization. The
communication network in an organization is of two types:
1. Internal
2. External
Internal communication:
This is the communication that take place within the same organization. It can be formal or informal. It is
very difficult for people in big organizations to interact to each other and with everyone. Big
organizations therefore use different ways to communicate. For example they may use news letters,
annual reports to communicate important messages. Internal communication also refers to the
exchange ideas with the organization. The communication is the best means of production and unity
since members of the organization inform each other on the procedures through memos, reports and
letters eta. In big and busy organizations internal communication on large scale can be exchanged by
phone, fax, email etc. to help and equip employees to do work and react promptly to serious problems.
External communication:
Communication is an ongoing process. It doesn’t only take place within the organization but with people
outside the organization. If the organization has to survive in its business, it must maintain the
20
relationship with the people outside it. External communication is the relationship of the organization
with the outside environment. This can take a number of forms such as advertisement, media
interaction, public relation, letter etc.
Without external communication an organization would be isolated from its potential and existing
clients or customers and it suppliers. Effective and efficient two-way external communication is
important in maintain good public relations: ensuring that customers or clients are satisfied with the
standard of good or services provided and that what is being produced or provided is what they require;
ensuring that consumers are kept appraised of new or improved products or services.
Good regular commutation with suppliers is also essential to ensure the continuous avaibilty of all
necessary items and services. It is not simply a matter of placing orders but of ensuring receipt of
requirements at the right times and places and on the most advantageous of terms. Up to date
information is necessary on changes in prices, discounts offered, credit terms allowed, promotional
campaigns etc. Without up to date information forward planning and forecasting cannot be undertaken
with any degree of accuracy.
COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS
Organizations whether small or big depend on communication for the survival and existence.
Communication enables organizations to function. Communication brings unity an production in an
organization. Many organizations would like see that communication both inside and outside the
communication is open, honest and clear(internal and external). “To succeed organizations must share
with people both inside and outside the company.” (Bovee et. Al 2003).
Every member of management and every employee will receive precise and accurate information to
ensure that every person working for the Enterprise knows exactly what he or she is expected to do,
when and where for what and for whom, and to whom, they are responsible. Misunderstandings and
misinterpretations which can result in wastage of time, effort, labour or money or loss of profit can
therefore be greatly reduced or even eliminated.
21
DIRECTOR
TRAINING FINANCE AND

ADMINSTRATION
MANAGER MANAGER
HOD - HOD - HOSPITALITY HOD - BUSINESS ACCOUNTANT

ENGINEERING
LECTURER 1 LECTURER 2 LECTURER 3
STUDENTS
No organization exists in a vacuum, changes trading conditions, in law and attitudes, and fashion and
consumer demand, as well as technological, occur continuously, for an organization to prosper
management must not only be able to react quickly in the right way to changes, but also to be able to
pass on information to those who are concerned. Effective two-way communication will help to
promote good understanding between management and employees an din turn reduce disputes.
Effective communication should not concentrate solely on passing instructions down the line an don
receiving reports at higher levels, it should also concerned with the two-way flow of information.
The manager’s role is to make and carry out decisions by collecting facts, analyzing them and
transmitting directions to lower level employees. Each organization has its own approach to
transmitting information through out the organization.
The formal communication system in any organization sets out the command structure and
interrelationships between the departments. An organization that outlines the chain of command and
responsibilities often indicates the information flow within that organization. The flows of
communication within an organization may progress from either downwards, upwards, horizontal and
diagonally.
Downward communication:
Downward communication starts from the top management flowing going downwards to employees.
For example, if a Director or Principal of a college has an idea that needs to be communicated to
students, he/she will first communicate to the Training Manger who will in turn communicate the same
idea to the head of departments who will then relay the same idea to lecturers and the lecturers will
also communicate to the students. In most organizations, decisions are made at the top and flow down
the employees who implement them. Downward messages may take one of the following:
· Through causal conversations
· Formal interviews
· Communicated orally in a meeting
22
· Messages my be written
· Newsletter or bullets
· Announcements
· Policy directive
Typically the message may include:

· Briefings
· Instructions on how to perform different jobs
· Explanations of policies and procedures
· Feedback on the employees performance
Advantages of downward communication:

· Downward communication helps managers to get the information on the progress and
challenges of work as they get the feedback from employees on instructions that have been
given to them by mangers or supervisors.
· Downward communication helps managers to express their feelings towards work as they their
seriousness through giving out the appropriate instructions.
Disadvantages of downward communication:

· Downward communication can be of advantage because information easily misinterpreted as it
passes through many stages before it reaches the intended person or employee.
· In some cases, information does not reach the intended employee because at some stage it is
held up.
Upward communication:
Upward communication is the opposite of downward communication. It is as important because

management use it to solve problems and issues; they need to know what is going on in an organization.
Upward communication starts with the subordinates flowing going upwards to the supervisors or
managers. For order of respect, upward communication is the most ideal to use when subordinates
want to debate with managers, managers depend on the lower level employees in the organization to
furnish them with accurate reports on problems that emerge and opportunities for improvements. The
formal method of changing information upward may include the following:
· Group meetings
· Interviews with employees who are leaving the company
· Formal procedures for resolving grievances
Vertical communication:
The term vertical refers to the main channel for passing directives, instructions and policies from the top
decisions makers down through the organization to the people at various levels of the organization who
does the implementations.
Vertical communication also describes those channels in which ideas, suggestions, criticisms and queries
would travel from the branch or factory floor or middle management.
23
Vertical communication is the combination of downwards and upwards communication. It is called

vertical because the two, downward and upward exist vertically fro top to bottom and bottom to top.
Vertical communication must operate in both directions, upwards as well as downwards. It is important
for employees to be able to make quickly to those of their senior concerned any complaints or
grievances they may have and, of course have faith that attention will be paid and that action will be
quick taken. In this way, grievances will not grow into major ones because of resentment against
management’s apparent lack of interest. Naturally, discussions and consultations may be necessary,
which themselves must be two-way exchanges of information and views.
Advantages of vertical communication:

· People share personal experiences and career interest on things that happens with the
organization since formal communication inherits problems of command and the idea of
informal communication plays a major role with the employees.
· The organization can exist because of information is a powerful tool. Whoever passes
information from down to top and top to down, they find themselves in the position of strength
because everything is considered better to be interactive in the environment of the
organization.
· The success of the organization depends in the role and responsibilities played by employees are
most important.
Disadvantages:
· When vertical communication is not clear, or closed, it leads to employees developing rumors or
gossip in order to satisfy employee’s curiosity.
· If top management does not interact with employees, could lead into low morale that could
lead into low productivity in an organization.
Horizontal communication:
In addition to vertical communication, there is horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is

the flow of information between staff of about equivalent status in different department, for example
the sales manager and the production manager or marketing manager. Horizontal communication can
only be effective if there is cooperation between various departments and their subordinates.
Horizontal communication is concerned with the flow of information and not with the flow of
instructions or authority.
Diagonal Communication:
Here communication flows from a subordinate to a supervisor who is ones immediate supervisor or
from a supervisor to a subordinate who is not ones immediate subordinate
Informal communication or grapevine:
Every organization has an informal communication network called the grapevine that supplements
official channels. As employees go about their work, they joke and discuss many things. Although in
many cases the discussion is on personal matters, business is often discussed. Information conveyed by
what is called the grapevine can be very dangerous, and can cause damage to an organization and to
management.
24
When employees are starved with accurate information, they can react to rumours and speculations.
Grape vine can only be effective in an organization unless employees are kept informed of
management’s intention and decision. The executives often worry of informal communication network
possibly because it threatens their power to control the flow of the information. Informal
communication increases more especially when the official channels are closed or when organization
faces periods of change.
4.1.4 FORMS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
WRITTEN CONMUNICATION
Report
Graphs
E-mail
Fax
INTERNAL Questionnaires
Minutes
Newsletter
Memo
SMS
Circular
Leaflets
Letter
Invitation
Forms
Questionnaire
Press Release
Customer magazine
EXTERNAL
Advert
Notice
Graphs/Charts
Reports
E-mail
Fax
Letter
25
4.1.5 FORMS OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Oral communication is communication by word of mouth note that verbal communication means
communication through words which can either be spoken or written.
Unplanned exchange:
This is simply a chance meeting at which a few words are exchanged by two or more people about a
subject of common interest. For example, having just boarded a minibus, somebody introduces a subject
on whether it is important that a president should have or not? Then, most people join in the discussion
but soon or later for one reason you reach your designation and exchange of information ends. The
disadvantage is that since the meeting is or was unplanned, important points may be left out.
Interviews
An interviews is a formal exchange between two or more people or between one person and a small
group of people. Interviews nay take place for so many reasons. When planned carefully, interviews may
be very effective, allowing those involved to exchange ideas and reach a conclusion.
Group meeting:
Group meeting allow many people to come together to share their skills and reach a conclusion
agreeable to the majority. Group meetings need to be carefully planned so that you do not spend a lot
of time.
Formal presentation:
A lecture may be given as a presentation. It allows one person to present detailed account of a subject.
Presentations are often used in seminars and workshops convey ideas to a large number of people at
one time.
A disadvantage of oral communication is that there is generally no record of what was said during
informal conversations. Therefore, where there is any possibility disagreement or uncertainty art a later
date about what was said, it is best for notes to be made and for written confirmation by either a letter
or memo.
26
UNIT 4.3 APPLYING STUDY SKILLS
General learning outcomes: Apply study Skills

4.3.1. Use library facilities to obtain information
4.3.2. Apply Study Skills for Intensive reading
4.3.3. Apply appropriate writing skills
4.3.4. Use effective listening and speaking skills
4.3.5. Use E library to obtain required information
4.3.1 USING THE LIBRARY
SECTIONS OF THE LIBRARY
· Circulation
· Catalogue
· Reference
· Serial Periodicals
CIRCULATION SECTION
The circulation section is the backbone of the library. This section has a unique role for providing the
latest information to readers. Furthermore many circulation sections have introduced computerized
systems for proper record keeping. Its functions are as follows:
· Register new members, issue borrowers cards and renew membership cards e.tc.
· Collects delay fine for overdue books.
· Informs members about the reading material reservations
· Settles cases regarding books lost, damaged or defaced by the borrower.
· Issues and receives books to members only.
· Issues the library clearance certificate.
· Keeps statistics of daily transactions e.t.c.
CATALOGUE SECTION
This is to classify the reading material. After purchasing, accessioning and labeling material in the
Acquisition Section, it is sent to the cataloguing section for technical processing. The reading
material is classified according to the Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme. A traditional card
cataloguing system consists of a number of large cabinets with tray like drawers labeled in
alphabetical order and contain three by five cards also arranged in alphabetical order.
27
Each gives basic information about one book or other item in the Library and provided a Call
Number which tells you where that book or item is found in the library.
REFERENCE SECTION
This is a section where instructors can put books and other material on reserve. Sometimes, these
materials are not loaned out at all. Sometimes they can only be signed out for a very short period of
time, like 24 or 48 hours. These are materials for supplementary reading for students.
There may be enough copies available for every one or the item may be too short or expensive to
require students to purchase them. By putting them on reserve the instructor ensures that everyone
has access to the material.
SERIALS/PERIODICALS SECTION
It is the source of current and latest published information which is very useful in research work. It
acquires journals of almost all subjects. Local and international newspapers are subscribed. When a
volume of a journal or a file of newspapers is completed it is bound. Bound volumes are displayed
on racks in classified order and fresh issues are displayed alphabetically. Title journals and
newspapers are not issued but photocopying of the required articles is allowed under the library
rules.
This section publishes a monthly newspaper articles index under the title “Newspaper Index”. The
newspaper article index includes important National, International, Religious and Scientific topics. A
Table of Contents is provided to all departments when a new foreign research journal is received. If
the teachers are interested in any article a free copy is provided them.
OUTLINE OF THE DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION
Books in the library aren’t just placed in haphazardly. Most operate a system of placement called the
Dewey Decimal Classification system or put simply DDC.
000 GENERAL 359 Naval Forces 647.94 Hotels, Inns

WORKS
360 Social Welfare 650 Business
Methods
002 Books 362 Hospitals, Medical 655 Printing, Book
Services Trade
010 Bibliography 364 Reformatory 656 Transport
Institutions,
Criminology
016 Bibliography of 365 Prisons 658 Management
Subjects
020 Library Economy 368 Insurance 660/68 Manufactures
0
28
028 Reading Aids and 370 Education 690 Building

Habits
029 Literary Methods 380 Economics of
Education
030 General 390 Social Customs 700 FINE ARTS
Encyclopaedias AND
RECREATIO
N
040 General Essays 391.1 Costume
[1]
050 General Periodicals 398 Folklore 710 Landscape and

Civic Arts
050 General Societies 400 LANGUAGES 711 Town and

Country Planning
069 Museums 720 Architecture
070 Journalism 408.9 Artificial Languages 730 Sculpture, Plastic
Arts
080 Polygraphy 420 English 737 Numismatics
090 Book Rarities 430 German 739 Artistic Metalwork
440 French 740 Decorative Arts
100 PHILISOPHY 450 Italian 745 Arts Crafts

and
PSYCHOLOGY
460 Spanish 750 Painting
110/12 Metaphysics 470 Latin 760 Engraving
0
121 Theory of Knowledge 480 Greek 770 Photography
130 Psychology 491.66 Welsh 780 Music

131.34 Psychoanalysis 491.7 Russian 780
133 Psychical 790 Entertainment,
Phenomena, Sport
Occultism
136.7 Child Psychology 500 SCIENCE 793/79 Indoor games
5 and Amusements
140 Philosophical 796 Sports

Systems
150 Psychology 510 Mathematics
160 Logic 520 Astronomy 800 LITERATURE
170 Ethics 526 Geodesy
180 Ancient and 527 Navigation 808 Literary
Mediaeval Composition and
Philosophers General Criticism
190 Modern Philosophers 530 Physics 810 American
539.7 Nuclear Physics 820 English
200 RELIGION 540 Chemistry 830 German

548 Crystallography 840 French
29
210 Natural Theology 549 Mineralogy 850 Italian

215 Religion and Science 550 Geology 860 Spanish
220 Bible 551.1 Meteorology 870 Latin
230 Christianity 560 Paleontology 880 Greek
290 Non-Christian 571 Prehistory 891.66 Welsh

Religions,
Comparative Religion
572/57 Anthropology 891.7 Russian
3
300 SOCIAL 574 Biology
SCIENCES
580 Botany 900 UNIVERSAL
HISTORY
301 Sociology 590 Zoology
301.15 Social Psychology 910 General
Description and
Travel
309.1 Social Surveys 600 TECHNOLOGY 913 Antiquities
312 Demography 914/91 Description and
9 Travel, Special
Localities
320 Politics 608 Inventions 920 Biography
323 Internal Politics 610 Medicine 929 Genealogy,
Heraldry
325 Colonies, Empires 614 Public Hygiene and 930 Ancient History
Safety
327 Foreign Relations 620 Engineering 940/99 Modern History,
0 Special Localities
330 Economics 630 Agriculture 940 Europe
340 Law 634.9 Forestry 950 Asia
350 Public Administration 635 Gardening 960 Africa
352 Local Government 636 Livestock, Domestic 970/98 America

Animals 0
355 Military Forces 639 Hunting, Trapping, 994 Australia
Fish Culture
358.4 Air Forces 640 Domestic Economy
If you refer to the chart above you will notice that within each main number, there are many sub-
divisions. To take technology for instance, all Technology books come in the 600’s: 608 e.g. is Inventions,
620 e.g. is Engineering, and 690 e.g.
30
But even these can be split further. For example 620 is engineering, but there are many branches in
engineering.
The 600’s put us into Technology, the 620’s put us into
Engineering and for example 622 puts us into Mining. However
there are many different kinds of mining and these can be
620 General Engineering
specified by putting a decimal after 622, and then carrying on
621 Mechanical Engineering
with further subdivisions.:
622 Mining Engineering
623 Military Engineering
622.1 Prospecting
624 Civil Engineering
622.2 Underground Mining
625 Railways Engineering
627 Hydraulic Engineering 622.3 Types of Mining
628 Sanitary Engineering 622.4 Equipment and Environmental Comfort in Mines
622.5 Drainage and Drainage Systems
629 Vehicles Engineering
622.6 622.31
Haulage and Haulage Systems Open Pit and Strip
622.7 Ore Dressing 622.32 Alluvial Mining
622.8 Hazards and Accidents 622.33 Carbonaceous Deposits
622.34 Metallic Deposits
So 622.3 gives us ‘Types of Mining’. This can then be 622.341 Ferrous Metals
further sub-divided into various types, such as “Metallic 622.342 Gold, Silver, Platinum
Deposits” etc. 622.343
This is the end of the line and no further sub-divisions are
622.349 Other Non-Ferrous Metals
made and this explains why ‘The World of Copper’ by
Geoffrey Banda is classified in the college library as 622.35
622.34. 622.38 Other Deposits e.g. Diamonds
Diagrammatically this can be represented as

600 Technology
620 Engineering
622 Mining
622.3 Types of Mining
622.34 Metallic Ores
It is not necessary to know the DDC in detail as long as you understand the principle of it. There are
other ways of finding books in the Library.
USING INDEXES
As long as you know the Author, Title or Subject then you are good to go because books are usually
indexed under
31
· Author
· Title
· Subject
SEARCH BY TITLE
Suppose you were looking for ‘The World of Copper’ by Brown Banda; if you knew its title you could
look it up under WORLD of Copper (always disregard the The) and you would find the following card:
.
THE WORLD of Copper: by
BANDA, Brown
622.34 The World of Copper Lond. OUP
1967
Paper covers
SEARCH BY AUTHOR
If however you knew the author’s name you would look up under BANDA and you would find the
following card:
.
BANDA, Brown
622.34 The World of Copper
Paper Covers
SEARCH BY SUBJECT
Lastly if you didn’t know either the name of the author or the indeed the book then you would look up
under the subject of the book: Copper. Then you would find the following card:
.
COPPER
BANDA, Brown
The World of Copper Lond. O.U.P. 1967
Paper Covers
32
4.3.2. STUDY SKILLS FOR INTENSIVE READING
DEFINTION OF READING
Reading is an activity that may be defined in many different ways according to the purpose. It may be
thus defined as
“... thinking under the stimulus of the printed page” (Webster, 1992:30)
“... a psycho-linguistic game.” (Webster 1992:19)
“... understanding a written text. Understanding a written text is extracting the required information
from it as efficiently as possible.” (Francoise Grellet 1991:3)
The above definitions suggest that when we read a text, we understand the given text at three levels-
(i) Pure literal response to the familiar words on the page – There is no in depth understanding.
(ii) Recognition of the writers meaning. In other words, we read and recognize the intention of the
author in writing the given text.
(iii) Personal experience, which helps you to understand the given matter.
PURPOSE OF READING
We read many different things on a day to day purpose. What for instance is your purpose for reading
some of the following
· Advertisements
· Articles
· Cartoons
· Comic strips
· Diagrams
· Dictionaries
· Email
· Leaflets
· Legal Documents
· Letters
· Magazines
· Maps
· Menus
· Newspapers
· Novels
· Pamphlets
· Puzzles
· Recipes
· Reports
33
· Short-stories
· Statistical graphs
· Telephone directories
· Textbooks
· Timetables
The above items are read for

· Knowledge
· Personal interest
· Pleasure
· Information
As a student your purpose of reading may be for interest, pleasure or to acquire information and
knowledge. Reading for interest, pleasure is usually fulfilled through reading fiction, while reading to
learn is associated with informative articles. Reading information may be both internal and external.
When you read for necessary background information about what is going on within the company
where you work, or within your group, it is called reading for internal information. Reading for
information about what is going on in your field, but outside your own company, is called reading for
external information.
You may also need to do something concrete in the near future after you have read whatever it is you
are reading. This is called action reading. Professional reading is done when you need to continue
learning and studying, so that you develop your own thinking and skills.
Remember that no one text written/read for one particular purpose. For instance an autobiography or
biography may be read by one person for personal interest, to understand the story of an individual. The
same book may also be read by a research scholar for research purposes. People interest is so varied
that any text can meet any purpose.
READING SKILLS
Just as in the case of listening there is Passive Listening and Active Listening.
Passive Listening:
This is where one sits down and more-or-less relaxes as the casually run their eyes though the word
on the page.
Active Listening:
This is meaningful reading or reading for comprehension. A reader can only fully comprehend a text
when s/he fully deploys his/her mental faculties. To be an efficient reader one must
· Know the writing system of the language
34
· Know the grammar and vocabulary of the language

· Be able to interpret.
· Have a reason for reading.
· Have an appropriate method of reading
· Have knowledge the world (experience/background knowledge)
TYPES OF READING
Skimming
“... quickly looking over a text to get the general idea of the content.”
“... looking over a text/book quickly, in order to get a general or superficial idea of the content.”
Example 1
Let us say you have only K3.00 and would like to buy a newspaper. You can buy on of either ‘Times
of Zambia’ or ‘Zambia Daily Mail’. You may skim both papers to get a general idea of content. This
is a quick perusal of the stories contained therein to enable you purchase the most y.
Example 2
Your instructor has requested that you write an assignment on ‘The Varieties of English’ you go to
the Library and a book the same title. You do not have the time to read the pages before the
library closes. Therefore you go through the contents, title page and the blurb (this is the short
piece of writing on the cover of a book that reviews and promotes the book). By now you will
decide whether to borrow the book or not.
Scanning
“... careful reading to find out specific details.”
Example 1
So now you have bought one of the papers above. You may decide to pick out stories covering the
Zambia National Team football team or President Obama. Now you will be compelled to look into
the stories for specific information.
Example 2
As you read the book titled ‘Varieties of English’ you may come across terminologies/words you
are not familiar with. So you get a dictionary and carefully find the word. You see the meaning
and also the various uses of the word (if any)
Extensive reading
“... rapid reading to get an overall understanding of the matter.”
Most of us have a habit of reading especially when we are free, or have a lot of leisure time. We
might grab a newspaper, a novel or magazine. When we read for the pure pleasure of reading it is
35
known as reading extensive. We tend to cover a very wide range of topics but not in much detail.
A kind of Jack of all traded but master of none.
Intensive reading
“... reading slowly with concentration to get specific details.”
When we read shorter texts like a research paper for getting details or information, we read
slowly with a lot of concentration because the overall understanding is not the objective or
purpose of our reading.
Loud and silent reading

This depends whether we are reading to ourselves or to others.
Most of our reading is done silently. Reading aloud is a bit more demanding because it tends to
divide our attention between reading and speaking. However situations arise when we cannot
avoid reading aloud documents that others have no access to or simply wish to ensure that there
is no misunderstanding.
TECHNIQUES OF READING (SQ3R)
SQ3R
This form of reading was developed by Robinson in his book ‘Effective Study’ (1970). SQ3R stands for the
initials of the five steps in studying a text.
Survey S
Question Q
Read R
Recall R
Review R
Survey
Survey refers to a quick glance through the title page, preface and chapter heading of a text. By
surveying, you will be able to gauge the main ideas of the text. Besides the author’s name, date,
place of publication and title page can give you an idea of the themes and how they are organised.
A survey of the index or bibliography tells you immediately whether the book contains what you
need.
Question
The survey of the text will raise a few questions in your mind
Is the book useful or relevant to my study?
36
Does it provide some guidelines/information on the subject at hand?

As you read further you may have specific questions regarding the topic. This will lead to gaining
insights into the text, topic and the author’s comments. You will be surprised as to how your
questions are answered in the process of reading and understanding the text.
Reading
After surveying and questioning you now begin the actual reading. Read the text over and over
again each time with a different question and a different purpose in mind.
Recall
Reading is not an isolated activity. Every reading exercise increases your background knowledge.
You should be to connect the information gained with the already existing background. Recalling
what ever you have read will enable you to make connections and relate the content with the
previous and future learning of the subject.
Review
This involves checking whether we have followed the earlier stages promptly and efficiently.
Review will sharpen your own opinions on the topic ands express them to others.
4.3.3. WRITING SKILLS
4.3.4. LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS
4.3.4.1 LISTENING:
Listening in the communication process is a skill that needs to be practiced, if the communication
process require to yield good results or to be effective and efficient. Most people have taken hearing to
mean listening. The two are very different but alike. For good communication, you need to depend on
good listening than hearing. Hearing is the ability to receive sound, meaning that when you hear, you
become aware of the presence of sound. Listening has six stages which include the following:
You physically hear the message and get note of it. The message at this stage is affected by
RECEIVING many external factors such as noise, poor hearing skills or lack of attention and interest.
At this stage, the receiver of the message will infer the speaker’s meaning, based on his own
INTERPRETING experience and expectations, values beliefs and his needs.
After the receiver has the message, he or she has to store the information or message for
REMEMBERING future reference. If it is a lecture one will have to make short notes which can be used as
reference in the future.
37
At this stage the listener must consider which points to take and not take. One needs to
EVALUATING access the message or the information received by weighing its importance.
After one has received the messages or information and has an appropriate valuation the, at
RESPONDING some point must react to the message. Sometimes one will just nod or give a verbal
feedback
ACTING Action is very important and it must be delivered.
OBJECTIVES OF LISTENING
The objectives when listening are both basic and simple.
· We want people to talk both freely and frankly

· We want them to cover maters and problems important to them
· We want them to furnish as much information as they can
· We want them to gain greater insight and understanding of their problems
· As they talk it out we want them to try and see the causes and reasons for their problems and
figure out what can be done about them.
TYPES OF LISTENING
1. Discriminative listening
This is the most basic type of listening, where the difference between the sounds is identified.
Unless the differences between the sounds is identified, the meaning expressed by such
differences cannot be grasped.
Once we learn to distinguish between sounds in our language, we can do the same in other
languages. One reason why people belonging to one country find it difficult to speak the
language of another country, is that they find the sounds similar and cannot understand the
subtle differences.
2. Comprehension Listening
Once we learn to discriminate between the different sounds, the next step is to try to
comprehend the meaning of these sounds. In order to do this, we require a dictionary of words,
along with the rules of grammar and syntax. Apart from the verbal communication, we also
need to understand the meaning conveyed by the speakers non-verbal behaviour. This is
achieved by a close observation of the speaker’s body language and tone of voice.
3. Evaluative Listening
This involves making judgements about what the speaker is saying. We listen critically and try
to asses what is being said as good, bad, worthy or unworthy. We generally resort to this kind of
listening when the other person is trying to persuade us, or change our behaviour or
convictions. The tendency then is to question what the speaker is trying to say.
4. Appreciative listening
This kind of listening could be in the form of paying selective attention to certain kinds of
information which might be relevant to us, or which helps to meet our needs and goals. The
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tendency is to appreciate such information better. Appreciative listening is also used when
listening to good music, poetry or a powerful speech.
5. Empathetic Listening
This involves putting yourself in the shoes of the speaker, to try to understand the moods,
beliefs, goals and feelings behind the speakers words. It requires excellent discrimination and
paying attention to the nuances of emotional signals. It also require a high degree of sensitivity
and probing on the part of the listener.
Empathetic listening is most needed at work when dealing with customer complaints.
6. Therapeutic Listening
Here the listener goes beyond being empathetic with the speaker but now doubles up as a
therapist diagnosing the problem at hand and offering a remedy or solution.
This type of listening is common in family and social situations, where family and personal
problems are resolved through counselling.
7. Dialogic Listening
This type of listening involves listening and learning through dialogue. This implies that listening
is a two-way process. It involves interchange of idea sand information between the speaker and
the listener. This type of listening is active where the speaker continuously seeks clarifications,
gives feedback and engages in conversation with the speaker. This type of listening is also
called “Relational” Listening since a relationship is established through the exchange of ideas.
CATEGORIES OF LISTENING BARRIERS

1. Physiological barriers
Some persons may have genuine hearing problems or deficiencies that may prevent them from
hearing properly. Others may have difficulties in processing information, or memory related
problems that make them poor listeners. Another physiological barrier is rapid thought. Listeners
have the ability to process information at the rate of 500 words per minute, whereas the average
speaker talks at around 125 words per minute. Since listeners are left with a lot of spare time, their
attention may not be on what the speaker is saying, but may wander elsewhere.
2. Physical barriers
These are distractions such as the sound of an air conditioner, cigarette smoke, or an overheated
room, which interfere with the listening process.
3. Attitudinal barriers
Preoccupation with personal or work related issues can make it hard for one to focus their attention
to what a speaker is saying. Another common attitudinal barrier is egocentrism, or the belief that
you are more knowledgeable than the speaker and that you have nothing new to learn from his
ideas. People with this kind of closed mind attitude make poor listeners.
4. Wrong assumptions
It is wrong to assume that
39
· Communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or speaker.

· Listening is a passive activity in which the listener merely absorbs the thoughts of the
speaker.
· Speakers are more powerful than listeners.
(“Big people monopolize the listening. Small people monopolize the talking” David J. Schwarz)
5. Cultural barriers
Accents can be barriers to listening since they interfere with the ability to understand the meaning
of the words that are pronounced differently. This problem arises not across cultures but also
between cultures, but also within a culture. For example India where there is enormous cultural
diversity.
Another type of cultural barrier is differing cultural values. The importance to attached to listening
and speaking differs in western and oriental cultures. Oriental regard listening almost as a virtue,
whereas westerners attach greater importance to speaking.
6. Gender barriers
Communication research shows that gender can be a barrier to listening. Studies have shown
revealed that men and women listen very differently and for different purposes. Women are more
likely to listen for emotions (eg. Tone, hesitation) behind a speaker’s words while men listen more
for facts and content.
7. Lack of training
Listening is not an inborn skill. People are not bon good listeners. They have to develop the art of
listening through practice and training.
8. Bad listening habits

There is a category of persons that have developed poor listening habits that can prove difficult to
overcome.
Here is a list of poor listening habits together with some suggestions as to how these habits might
be corrected.
a) On-Off Listening: This unfortunate habit arises from the fact that most individuals thins about
four times as fast as the average person speaks. Thus the listener has three-quarters of a minute
spare thinking time for each listening minute. Sometimes the listener uses this extra time to
think about personal affairs, concerns and troubles instead of listening, synthesizing and
summarizing what the speaker has to say.
b) Red-Flag Listening: To some individuals words are like the proverbial red flag to a bull. When we
hear them we get upset and stop listening. These terms vary in every organization. To some
individuals words like communist’, liberal, modern youth’ etc. are signals to which we respond
almost automatically. When this signal comes in, we tune out the speaker. We lose contact with
her and fall to develop and understanding of her.
c) Open ears-Closed mind listening: Sometimes we decide rather quickly that either the subject or
the speaker is boring, and what is said makes no sense. Often we jump to conclusions that we
can predict what he knows or what he will say-and so conclude that there is no reason to listen
40
because nothing new will be said. It’s much better to listen and find out for sure whether this is
correct or not.
d) Glassy-eyed listening: Sometimes we look at a person intently and seem to be listening

although our minds may be on other things or in far distant places. We drop back into the
comfort of our own thoughts. A glassy-eyed (if not dreamy) expression appears on our faces. We
can tell when people look at us in this way. Similarly then can see the same in us – we are not
fooling anyone. Postpone day-dreaming for another time.
e) Too-deep- for-me listening: When we are listening to ideas that are too complex and
complicated we should force ourselves to follow the discussion and make a real effort to
understand. It’s quite possible that we might find the speaker and subject quite interesting
when we listen and understand what she is saying.
f) Matter-over-mind listening: Most of us do not like to have our pet ideas, prejudices and points
of view and judgments challenges. Consequently when a speaker says something that clashes
with what we think, believe and hold firm – then we unconsciously stop listening or even
become defensive and plan a counter-attack. Even if we want to do this, it is better to find out
what she thinks, get the other side of the question so we can do a better job of understanding
and replying.
Chapter 12: Parts of Speech 41
STRATERGIES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

The number of barriers that stand in the way are numerous and have not been conclusively dealt with in
this chapter. This obviously means that the number of strategies to be deployed for effective listening
will also be numerous. Below however, are some suggested methods.
1. Create a conducive environment

If possible try as much as you can to control the environment, to select one that free of distractions
to the listening process Consider the acoustics, ventilation, lighting. Have mobile phones switched
off.
2. Select a face to face channel.

Face to face communication is the best channel to guarantee effective listening. Listening is less
accurate in the absence of face-to-face communication.
3. Be open minded and avoid distractions

Listening is an exhausting activity that require total concentration. You have to focus your attention
absolutely on what the speaker is saying more so if you feel you are an expert of the subject at
hand. The speaker may surprise you with a perspective you were not previously aware of.
4. Use non-verbal cues to indicate active listening

It is important o communicate to the speaker that you are listening attentively. This can be done by
using non-verbal cues that are discussed in this module. For instance you may maintain eye contact
and sit upright.
5. Use verbal communication to indicate active listening

While non-verbal behaviour by itself can communicate that you are an active listener, it is also
imperative that you use verbal communication. Silence is often interpreted as lack of understanding
or attention. You need to seek clarifications, give further feedback and suggestions or just
paraphrase in your own words what the speaker has said, in order to convey that you have
understood the message.
6. Listen first before responding

Always let yourself to finish listening before you begin to speak. Avoid the tendency to formulate
your own response before you have listened to completely to the speaker’s words. You may miss
something important that the speaker says if you do so. In addition it also give the speaker the
impression that you are preoccupied or rude.
7. Use the speaker listener gap constructively
We have the ability to absorb words faster than the rate of speech. This spare time available to the
listener is often misused by letting the mind wander and is on of the psychological barriers to
listening. One way of overcoming this barrier is to use the time to make notes. Another would be to
think ahead to anticipate what is like to come next.
8. Focus on the verbal and non-verbal messages
Listening involves not hearing the and understanding the meaning behind the words but also being
alert to the non-verbal behaviour of the speaker. The importance of non-verbal cues is emphasised
throughout this module. It is important to watch for any positive or negative messages that may be
conveyed through the speaker’s tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and outward appearance.
9. Focus on the content, rather than the delivery
Listening involves not only hearing but and understanding the meaning behind words, but also being
alert to the non-verbal behaviour of the speaker. It is important to observe any positive or negative
messages that can be conveyed through the speakers tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and
outward appearances.
10. Ask questions of yourself and make notes.
Engage in active listening. In order to do this you may have to ask yourself questions, eg. “How does this
fit in with what I already know on the subject?”, “What is the key idea the speaker is trying to convey?”,
“How is this presentation organised?”
DO’s AND DON’T’s OF LISTENING

In listening we should try and DO the following:-
· Show an interest
· Be understanding of the other person
· Express concern and understanding
· Single out the problem if there is one, listen for causes of the problem
· Help the speaker associate the problem with the cause
· Encourage the speaker to develop competence and motivation to solve her own problems
· Learn to be silent when silence is needed. Successful people usually know when to be silent and
keep their counsel
In listening DON’T do the following:-
· Argue
· Interrupt
· Pass judgment too quickly or in advance
· Give advice. Present alternatives and help people to think through them.
· Jump to conclusions
· Take the responsibility for decision – making away from the complainant
· Let the speaker’s sentiments react too directly on your own
We live with a great complexity of problems involving people and situations. The need for listening in
order to understand is most urgent
- We think we understand people when we don’t listen to them.

- We think we understand a situation when we see only a part of the situation and experience
even less of it.
- We think we understand the problems people fact when we have only a surface acquaintance
with their elements and relevance, and in actuality we may be dealing merely with symptoms
and not causes.
- We should realize that listening is a key to knowledge and understanding.
WHY ACTIVE LISTENING WORKS

· The other person sets the pace.
You let them the lead in the conversation. You don’t push them faster that they want to go
away. This communicates respect and builds trust.
· The other person is completely free to be natural.
That’s a rare chance for many people and they will probably take advantage of it by relaxing and
behaving in the ways that are most real and hones to them. When you show that you can
trusted. When you show that you can be trusted, others feel free to tell you about their hurts,
secrets and ambitions. The result-you really get to know them.
· The other person explores the problem.
Active listening helps people sort out their concerns and problems. They can bring the situation
into focus, understand it better, and then define the problem quite specifically and accurately.
· The other person explores the problem.
When you reflect their feelings and help them clarify those feelings, it helps them to get those
feelings out of their system. They often feel they have unloaded a great burden by simply
‘talking it out’.
· The other person gets more self-understanding.
In a mirror you can see things about you physical set that cannot otherwise be seen. In the same
way, active listening serves as a mirror in which persons can see their behaviours and attitudes
more completely. This helps them understand themselves better and forces them to decide
whether or not they like themselves the way they are, or if they want to change.
· It keeps you out of trouble.
Active listening prevents you from imposing you own or understandings of the problems or
doing something else that is painful, punishing or hurtful to the other person.
· To actively listen is to give something value.
Active listening is hard work and the other person knows it. When you actively listen, you prove
to the other person that you care.
CHECKING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS

This questionnaire will help you identify your listening skills
TASK
1. Answer the question below as honestly as possible, stating what you normally do.
2. When you have completed the questionnaire check your score.
LISTENING SKILLS
Sometimes
Seldom
Usually
WHEN YOU LISTEN TO SOMEONE ON A ONE-TO-ONE BASIS DO YOU?

Never
3 2 1 0
1. Face the Speaker
2. Concentrate on what the speaker is saying and fight distractions.
3. Encourage the speaker by nodding and making “listening noises”.
4. Let the speaker finish what they have to say without interrupting or talking
them over.
5. Ask questions if you do not understand what is being said.

6. Make judgments on what the speaker is saying, not on who they are or what
they look like.
7. Paraphrase or repeat the key words that the speaker uses.
8. Listen to what the person is saying and the tone of voice they use to say it.
ANALYSING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS
How to score
Score 3 points for usually
Score 2 points for Sometimes
Score 1 point for Seldom
Score 0 point for Never
TOTAL SCORE: _______________________________________
What your score means
21 to 24 points You listening skills are highly developed

15 to 20 points You listen but could still improve
8 to 14 points You are not consistent in your listening and need to develop your skill further.
0 to 7 points You need to concentrate more on actively listening
HOW WELL DO YOU LISTEN?
Read the statement below and rate yourself using the following scale.
Always = 4 Almost always = 3 Seldom = 2 Never = 1 Don’t know = 0
0 1 2 3 4
1. I allow the other person to express him or herself without
interrupting
2. I actively try to develop my ability to remember important facts.
3. I make notes of the most important details when listening to

someone.
4. I listen between the lines when interacting with someone who

uses hidden meanings.
5. When making notes, I focus on recording the major facts and key
phrases.
6. I ask questions to check that I have a clear understanding of

what the other person is saying.
7. At the end of a discussion I summarize what has been said and /
or agreed, making use of my notes.

8. I avoid becoming negative or excited when the other person’s
views differ from my own.
9. I ignore distractions when listening to others.
10. I show interest in what the other person has to say.
Your Score
32-4 You are an excellent listener

27-31 You are an above average listener
22-26 you are an average listener and need to consciously practice listening.
0-21 you really need to work on reducing the ‘seldom’ and ‘never’ responses.
HALLMARK OF A GOOD LISTENER
1. Considers all the message content before jumping to a conclusion

2. Takes note when listening in order to recall information or understand a difficult idea.
3. Concentrates on what the speaker is saying not on unrelated thoughts.
4. Is willing to consider opinions of others.
5. Listens openly when others disagree with him.
6. Encourages others to express their ideas instead of occupying the center stage.
7. Is able to grasp the main idea from others comments.
8. Is curious about other people and their ideas.
9. Does not interrupt others, or change the topic to suit his ideas.
10. Makes the speaker feel comfortable while talking.
11. Remembers important ideas given by others, even when he is busy.
12. Does not pretend to be understand, when he is confused.
13. Recognizes that people may change over time and may have something new to offer.
14. Tries to find solutions to others’ problems.
15. Knows when to speak and when to listen.
4.3.4.1 SPEAKING:
At some point in our lives we shall be required to make an oral presentation to the public. To a few
persons speaking in public comes easy perhaps even naturally. This, however, is not the case for the
majority of people. Suppose a colleague of yours has been asked to make a presentation and asks you
what he should do to be effective, what points/things would you suggest he does, and what must he
absolutely not do?
It is not that difficult to make presentations in front of a larger audience if a few factors are considered.
A POSITIVE MIND
Primary among these factors is Attitude. Is the attitude towards the audience and the situation positive?
Any negativity should be removed. You must consider yourself the expert in the field hence the invite. A
positive attitude may be displayed by instilling interest and enthusiasm in the audience by sharing
information in as open a manner as possible. The audience will certainly notice you and your positivity
by the verbal content, voice inflection, modulation, articulation, and body sport (attention grabbers).
Notice from the table below how very important body sport is.
ATTENTION GRABERS
COMMUNICATION STYLES
Verbal content 7%
Voice inflections. Modulations, articulation 38%
Body sport 55%
A successful presentation entails more than the availability of adequate material with the speaker. Body
language (body sport) is one silent method of communication which needs polishing and perfecting as it
enhances the overall effect of the presentation. Some negative aspects of the presentation could be as
follows
§ Nervous pacing
§ Excessive movement/rubbing of the hands
§ covering the mouth while speaking
§ using a pen or pencil as pointers
§ lack of eve contact
§ fidgeting
For successful handling of an audience a presentation requires excelling and exercising control over
three domains:
Exercise control over Controlled factors

Listening
1. ... the material Structuring
Visual Aids
2. ... the self Pause to relax
Pitch
Volume
3. ... the audience Pauses
Language
Question-Answer sequences
THE MATERIAL
The first stage in giving a talk is preparation of the material. Have you prepared adequate material?
Have you done your homework and have all data or information you need. There is no harm in
preparing more material than is thought necessary at this stage because you later have the comfort of
discarding what you don’t need rather than having a deficit or information gaps. Once the material is
has been collated the next step will be to give your material structure. Decide how your presentation
shall flow.
· What will go into the introduction the main body, and conclusion?
· Will there be a question/answer session?
· Are handouts ready?
· Are presentation aids available?
· What is the size and location of the venue?
THE SELF
The second step now deals specifically with the self (presenter). It is not unusual to feel nervous when
delivering a presentation. Stop and relax. Take a deep breath to relax taut nerves. Harmonise your ideas
and body language so the two are not at variance. Any uncertainties during delivery will show in
negative body language. Once relaxed, the presenter will be able to pay attention to other factors which
would portray him as positive and confident. At this stage you must
· Maintain eye-contact.
· Keep feet firmly planted on the ground.
· Keep the shoulders back and straight.
THE AUDIENCE
The last stage is: taking control of the audience. Find out their needs and requirements so as to make
your message clear, simple and easily acceptable. The basic purpose of the presentation should be such
that the audience is able to understand the message. Big words or jargon confuses them. Use a language
close to the audience, one they are familiar with. When anecdotes are narrated or examples given, use
examples closest to their hearts or with which they can relate easily. They will have more appeal.
5 Ws 1 H OF EFFECTIVELY PREPARING FOR PRESENTATIONS
HELPERS DETERMINING FUNCTIONS
1. Why Purpose:
To inform, to persuade, to influence, to educate, to empathise, to
entertain
2. Who Attributes of listener:
Personality, age, education, status, knowledge, anticipated response.
3. Where Place:
Formal or informal
4. When Context/Time:
5. What Subject matter:

Scope and need
6. How Strategies to be adopted:
Words, pictures, slides, transparencies etc.
VOICE
VISUALS
CLEAR
SIGNIFICANT SUITABLE SPEED
WELL DESIGNED VARIED PITCH
HELPFUL VOLUME
IMAGINATIVE BREATHING
USE COMPETENT PAUSES
EQUIPMENT EMPHASIS
USE APPROPRIATE NO JARGON
LANGUAGE WORDS
NO LONG
SENTENCES
GOOD
PRESENTERS INTRODUCTION
IMPRESSION
SELF
INTERESTED SUBJECT
ENTHUSIASTIC STATES
SCOPE
KNOWLEDGEABLE PURPPOSE
STRUCTURE
CONFIDENT
NEED
EYE CONTACT ESTABLISHES
KEPT IN VIEW BENEFITS
MANNERISMS
CONSOLIDATED DISPLAYS STRUCURE
RHETORICAL NOTES
QUESTIONS CLARIFIES
HAND OUTS
PROCEDURE
LINKED QUESTIONS
SECTIONS
THE IMPRESSION YOU MAKE
WORDS USE,
7% TONE OF
VOICE, 13%
BODY
LANGUAGE,
80%
The main advantage of oral communication are its high interactivity, personal quality, possibility of making
quick contact, immediate feedback and command over the listener’s attention. Oral communication can
be classified as Face-to-face (meetings and presentations) and non face-to-face (telephone,
teleconferencing and voice mail) communication. While face-to-face communication is superior in so most
ways, it is also time consuming and expensive. when people are separated by distance. Teleconferencing
is a suitable substitute for face –to-face communication and has the same advantages, except that it is
unsuitable for certain types of communication. Telephone communication makes it possible to contact
people who would otherwise be impossible to reach. Voice mail makes it possible to keep a permanent
record of the communication and to control the content of the message.
Oral communication are needed when written communication alone cannot do a good job such as when
persuading audiences and getting approval for ideas. Oral presentations are of different types and may
have different purposes. They may be for both internal and external audiences.
Irrespective of its nature and purpose, the steps involved in preparing a presentation are the same a
include the following-
DEFINE GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF THE PRESENTATION

Be clear on the purpose of the presentation before you commence. Knowing what it is you want to
achieve will help you determine whether your presentation was successful. Generally presentation
sever to
· Inform
· Persuade
· Entertain
While it is useful to define the general purpose of the presentation you may find it more useful to
frame a specific statement of purpose, which spells out answers to the following questions.
· Whom do I want to influence?

· What do I want them to do at the end of the presentation?
· How do I want them to do it?
· When?
· Where?
DEVELOP THE KEY IDEA/ MAIN IDEA
The key idea of a presentation is a statement(s) made to the audience. It is not the same as a
statement of purpose, in that the purpose is generally made for you as the presenter while the key
idea is made for the audience normally at the beginning of the presentation.
Example: If the purpose of your presentation is to convince management to change shift hours in
odder to maximise production, the key idea would be to show how changing shift hours would
achieve this.
Once the key idea is stated it becomes easy to develop the rest of the presentation.
ANALYZE THE AUDIENCE

Each presentation should be tailored to the audience. To do this an analysis of the audience done in
terms of:
· Demographic Characteristics- ie gender, age, cultural background, economic status etc.
· Size of the Audience
· Knowledge of Subject
· Attitude of the Audience
ANALYSE YOURSELF
Do a self analysis of yourself as a speaker . Determine your level of interest, motivation, knowledge.
ANALYSE THE CIRCUMSTANCES.

Under what environment or circumstances will the presentation be held. i.e. infrastructure, time
available for presentation, lighting, acoustics, seating arrangement, time of presentation, etc.
PREPARE A PRESENTATION OUTLINE

Irrespective of content and purpose a standard format is followed including the following
· Introduction: This seeks to draw and grip the attention of the audience.
· Body or main section: This is where the points of the presentation are presented and
discussed. It is best to perhaps restrict the number of main points to five so as not to
overwhelm the audience.
· Conclusion: A summary of the discussion along with concluding remarks in presented. The
conclusion should capture and captivate the audience as much as the introduction.
COLLECTING INFORMATION
Once you have the outline in place you can now proceed to gather information and relevant materials
from what ever sources or whatever research means appropriate and relevant.
ORGANIZING THE BODY, INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION

Organise the body before the introduction. Identify key points that will support your main idea and the
select an organizational plan to develop these key points.
PLANNING THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction is important not least because it creates a first impression. First impressions matter a
lot. Therefore it must be planned with care. It generally will take 10-15% of the total speaking time.
You need to assert yourself as a credible speaker by showing that you are knowledgeable on the
subject at hand. An attention grabbing ice breaker such as humour, an interesting story, a dramatic
question, or a startling statement can be used.
PLANNING THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion should be shorter than the introduction occupying approximately 5% of total speaking
time. Try to have a review and closing statement. The review statement attempts to reinforce the key
ideas and is a summary of the main points. The main points can be enumerated as in the
introduction. The closing stamen should be as strong as your opening statement so that your
audience remembers the presentation.
SELECTING A STYLE OF DELIVERY

All your good work thus far may be spoilt by having a poor delivery style. There are basically five
methods of delivery
· Impromptu – Meaning sudden, unrehearsed, unplanned. The speaker is asked to say

something and does not have the benefit of time for preparation. This is best suited for
experienced speakers. Impromptu speeches should be brief, simple and direct., compared to
prepared speeches.
· Extemporaneous – While an impromptu speech is delivered on the spot without preparation,
an extemporaneous speech is planned and rehearsed in advance but is delivered without the
aid of notes or other aids. This style is suitable for experienced speakers that have mastery of
the subject matter.
· Memorization – This is the least appealing style because it comes across as unnatural and
monotonous to the audience. There is also the danger of forgetting parts of speech that have
been memorized word for word.
· Reading from written notes – This is the style used by government and business officials
where presentation are read from written sources. It may be appropriate where the content is
detailed or careful wording needs to be used. The down side is that it is a rigid format and the
speaker will not be able to maintain eye contact.
· Speaking from notes – This is perhaps the most effective method of delivery. The speech is
made naturally while referring to main points or guidelines written in bullet or skeleton form on
cue cards. The speaker merely elaborates on these ideas in his own words and speaks for
any length of time.
VISUAL AIDS AND ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Presentations should try to use visual aids wherever relevant, since visuals are more attention getting,
persuasive and memorable. Several types of visual aids may be used in presentations, such as product
demonstrations, photographs, diagrams, lists and tables, pie charts and graphs. These aids may also be
personated through a variety of media, including flip charts, transparencies, power point slides, hand
outs, computerized displays and videotapes.
Each of the above media has advantages as well as shortcomings and should be used only when they
are relevant. Attention should be paid to the design, to ensure that visuals are kept simple, yet
sophisticated enough, depending on the audience. The presentation should be rehearsed to make sure
that visuals are displayed at the right time.
· No matter the type of visual aids you employ some basic rues must be followed.
· Use visual only when they add value
· Match you visuals with the level of the audience.
· Make the visuals clear and large enough
· Make the visual simple
· Avoid too much text with the visuals
· Give each visual a title and a number
· Show a visual only when you discuss it
· Remove visuals after use
· Check if visuals will work beforehand
· Rehearse setting up visuals
· .
4.3.5. USE E LIBRARY TO OBTAIN REQUIRED INFORMATION
UNIT 4.4 WRITING BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
General Learning Outcome: Write business correspondences
Learning Outcomes: On completion of this unit the trainee should be able to:
4.4.1 Apply appropriate skills in writing different types of letters
4.4.2 Apply appropriate skills in writing memorandum
4.4.3 Apply circular writing skills
4.4.4 Apply notice writing skills
4.4.5 Write safety slogans
4.4.6 Apply safety newsletters and bulletins writing skills
4.4.0 INTODUCTION TO WRITTEN BUSINESS COMMUNCATION
Errors ion grammar, spelling, punctuation are harmful since they can lead to misunderstanding of a
message and make the reader lose confidence in the sender. Therefore it is important to strive for
perfection in order to ensure that your message is received accurately. Remember also that general
writing is very different from business writing in terms of tone, language and degree of formality.
In addition to the learning outcomes above, after studying this unit you should be able to:
1. Improve your writing style
2. Avoid common errors in English usage.
3. Understand the appropriate use of active and passive voice.
4. Understand the appropriate use of grammar and punctuation
5. Write a piece of business communication correctly.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WRITING
Written messages must be as readable as possible.

· Passages must be uncomplicated and easy even for the average person to understand
· Avoid overly long sentences. Complex compound sentences may baffle even the accomplished
readers.
· Do not fall into the trap of trying to impress the reader by using flowery language and an oratory
style of writing.
“Write to express, not to impress.” “Keep it Short and Simple.”
TIPS ON WRITING STYLE
Writing can be improved by your choice of words. Some problems arise because the choice of words
includes use of complicated words, jargon, slang and colourful language and mistakes in various parts of
speech
Simple vs. Complex words.
If the choice of words is outside the vocabulary of the reader there will be communication breakdown
Complex = Multifaceted
See = Perceive
Basic = Fundamental
Improve = Ameliorates
Letter = Epistle
Jargon, Slang and Metaphors
Jargon: Refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area. For instance some
medical jargon will be understood by medical practitioners only. Jargon is to be used when
writing technical documents and where the reader is in a position to understand the terms.
Slang: Refers to casual words that are not accepted and recognized in a Standard English
dictionary. While they may be used in a limited way in general writing, they are to be avoided in
business writing, which needs to be formal in nature
Metaphors: A metaphor is a figure of speech and refers to colourful comparisons which evoke
visual images.
Parts of speech
In the same way that the use of big complicated words may result in receipt of wrong signals, the use of
small words in the wrong way grammatically could have the same result. This is dealt with in detail in
the next paragraph.
PARTS OF SPEECH
Our language is made up of words that may be divided into groups, called parts of speech. The eight
groups are
55
· Nouns
· Adverbs
· Pronouns
· Conjunctions
· Verbs
· Prepositions
· Adjectives
· Interjections
.THE NOUN
A noun is a word which tells the name of anything. Nouns are classified in different ways.
PROPER nouns tell the names of people, cities, countries, months, days, stars. Any name
which is spelled with a capital is a proper noun.
Patricia, Mansa, Gambia, February, Wednesday, Jupiter
COMMON nouns tell the names of things not usually spelled with a capital letter
Boy, crocodile, book, manuscript
CONCRETE nouns tell the names of things which can be understood by means of sense
Typewriter, musician, perfume, home,
ABSTRACT nouns tell the name of things which require the use of the mind, or conscience,
or spirit to understand.
Ambition, nature, knowledge, art, blessing,
COLLECTIVE nouns tell the names of groups of things or people or animals, rather than
individual names.
Group, news, herd, flock, crowd.
1. THE PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word which is substituted for a noun. Pronouns are divided in to several classes.
PERSONAL
1st person I, me We, us
2nd person You You
3rd person He, she, it They, them
POSSESIVE
1st person My, mine Our, ours
2nd person Your, yours Your, yours
rd
3 person His, her, hers, Their, theirs
its
DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns point out something.
· Did I say that?

· Did this man do that?
INTERROGATIVE pronouns ask questions.
· Who? What? Which? Whom? Whose?
RELATIVE pronouns connect a subordinate clause to some part or parts of the sentence in
which they occur.
DRAFT COPY OF THE COMMUNICATION SKILLS HANDBOOK

PREPARED BY MANDONDO NGOMA
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· Which (with no question mark), whichever, what, whatever, that, whoever, whose,
whom, whomever.
a) This is the letter that my employer dictated.
b) I see a boy whose face is shinning.
INDEFINITE pronouns refer to the general numbers or quantities, rather than to exact ones.
· Some, any, something, anyone, much, few, others, every, each, none. anybody
REFLEXIVE pronouns are often used as objects of verbs or prepositions, when they refer to
the same person as the subject, or to someone or something just mentioned.
a) The dog chased himself around the yard.

b) Why don’t you speak for yourself, John?
EMPHATIC sometimes self pronouns follow the word they emphasize.
a) I gave the parcel to Mr Smith himself.

b) You yourselves can bear witness to the fact.
c) I myself will deliver the message.
2. THE VERB
A verb expresses an action performed by the subject, or a state of being related to the subject.
· The Children sang in the festival.

· Those birds are robins.
· The children felt warm by the fire.
· The property will be sold in the spring.
Verbs have VOICE (Active and Passive)

An ACTIVE verb expresses an action by the subject.
· The girl broke the pencil.

· The waves beat upon the shore.
· The children were waving their flags.
A PASSIVE verb expresses an action performed upon the subject. Passive verbs have two or
more parts, so they are really verb phrases.
· The new office was painted green.

· The old lady was knocked down by the car.
Verbs have TENSE. The time of the verb is called its tense. It may be PAST, PRESENT, or FUTURE.
Past I wrote, I have written, I had written, I did write, I was writing.
I used to write
Present I write, I am writing, I do write
Future I shall write, I shall be writing, He will write, He will be writing
These verb forms may involve the use of the simple form or one of the other PRINCIPAL PARTS,
along with parts of the verb to be.

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Principal parts - present tense – write
Past tense – wrote
Past participle – written
Verbs have GRAMMATICAL function. They are classified according to the work they do in the
sentence.
TRANSITIVE verbs require an object.
· The student passed his exam.

· He touched the hot stove.
· She dropped the pen.
INTRANSITIVE verbs are complete in themselves.
· He ran all the way home.

· The moon will rise tonight.
· My bones are aching.
· The secretary has been rewarded.
COPULAR verbs indicate a state of being about the subject.
· The weather will be hot.

· I am sure that he will come.
· He seemed indifferent to his audience.
If a copular verb is followed by a noun or a pronoun, use the nominative case.
· It was I who answered the question.
Verbs also have a NUMBER. Verbs can have both SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. A singular subject
must be followed by a singular verb, and a plural subject must be followed by a plural verb. In many
cases there is little difference between the two forms, but we must watch the third person
particularly.
SINGULAR PLURAL
1st Person I come We come
2nd Person You come You come
3rd Person He, she, or it comes They come
SUMMARY: Verbs may be classified as to voice, tense, grammatical function, person, and number.
3. THE ADJECTIVE
An adjective is something added to a noun or pronoun. It may describe a quality, or limit the
meaning, of a noun or pronoun.
DESCRIPTIVE adjectives give more details about the noun or pronoun
· The lady carried red roses.

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· I am cold and hungry.

· We had a very pleasant evening.
LIMITING adjectives describe the quantity or give the relative position of the noun.
· This is your last chance.

· Three blind mice
PRONOMINAL are also pronouns.
· My heart was broken.

· Which blouse shall I wear today?
· God save our gracious King!
· These children should be in their beds.
The articles are the most adjectives of all. The definite article is the. The indefinite article is a
or an.
4. THE ADVERB
An adverb is a word which describes, qualifies, or limits a verb, adjective or another adverb.
When an adverb modifies a verb, it tells how, why, when, where, or under what circumstances the
action or state of being of the verb occurs.
· The bell tolled slowly.

· A new family came to our street recently.
· I am going home now.
When an adverb modifies an adjective, it may suggest quantity or degree.
· I am very hot.
· It was too late to be of any use.
· We were quite early for the game.
· She sent me a neatly written letter.
When an adverb modifies another adverb, it suggests degree or extent.
· The birds sang very sweetly.
5. THE CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that joins two words, phrases, clauses, or expressions.
CO-ORDINATING conjunctions join expressions of equal value. The most common are and,
but and for
· Matildah and Daniel Iive next door.

· In the morning and in the evening I will make my prayer.
· The girls played volleyball but the boys played basketball.

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CORRELATIVE conjunctions are expressions of equal value. The most common are pairs of
words such as either-or, both-and, neither- nor, not only-but also.
· He will either go or miss out on the fun.

· Neither the Mayor nor the Councilors could answer the question.
· He ate not only the pie, but also a huge piece of cake.
· Both men and women are invited.
SUBORDINATE conjunctions relate subordinate clauses to principal clauses. Here are some
subordinate conjunctions: how, however, when, whenever, where, wherever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, that,
as, while, if, which, whichever, what, whatever, after, before, because, since, although.
6. THE PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that joins a noun or pronoun in a phrase to another word and shows the
relation between the ideas they express. A preposition is the first word in a phrase.
Some prepositions are: of, for,by,at,from,on,off,in,out,up,doum,before,after,below,above,beside,behind,againist, around, along, about,

under, over, with within, without, underneath, alongside, though.
The preposition may occur as a phrase: in regard to, out of.
7. THE INTERJECTION
The interjection is an exclamation that does not form part of the sentence proper, but occurs at the
beginning, or in the middle of the sentence. It is separated from the sentence by commas or the
exclamation mark examples are oh, ah, whew, goodness.
· Ah, how beautiful is that?

· Oh! That hurts.
· Where, oh where, has the manuscript gone?
THE SENTENCE
DEFINITION
A sentence is a group of word complete in itself, containing a subject and a predicate.
The bare subject is a word or a words having the value of a noun.
The bare predicate is a verb. The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Both bare
subject and bare predicate have modifiers.
THE PURPOSE OF A SENTENCE

As we look about us we see objects in relation to their background or in relation to other object – a
jet plane against sky and cloud, machines operating in a workshop, a bulldozer uprooting trees- and
much of our communication is aimed at passing such experience to others by means of writing or
speech.
Words are useful labels for the objects we see, but they mean little until they are placed within the
framework of a sentence, and it is the sentence which is really the basic unit of expression.

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Sentences should be complete in themselves. They may be in the form of
a) A plain statement: He pressed the switch

b) A question: Which part of the machine is defective?
c) A command, order or instruction: Set up that bar between centers.
d) A hope or wish: I hope the replacement cable will arrive soon
e) An emotional comment: Bless my soul
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
Sentences may be classified according to FUNCTION, FORM, and STYLE.
FUNCTION
Assertive: An assertive sentence makes a statement
· I like the Green uniform strip of the Chipolopolo.
Imperative: An imperative sentence gives a command.
· Brush your teeth with toothpaste everyday.
Interrogative: An interrogative sentence asks a question.
· How many welding rods should I use?
Exclamatory: An exclamatory sentence expresses great feeling.
· What an interesting talk the SAO gave us!
FORM
Simple sentence makes one statement only. It has one subject and one predicate.
· He went to town.
Compound sentence is one made by joining together two or more independent

clauses. The joining words are and, but, or,
· He dictated a letter and I typed it.
(A clause is a group of words having a subject and a predicate that are joined to one or
more other groups of words by a co-coordinating conjunction to make a longer
sentence. Clauses may be independent or subordinate. An independent clause is one
that makes sense by itself, and does not depend on any other clause; a subordinate
clause is one that cannot make sense of itself without the other clause.)
Complex sentence is one made up of an independent clause and one ore more
subordinate clauses.
· The letter that he wrote was too long.

· The bird could not fly because its wing was broken.
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· We noticed that the lathe machine was too old.
Compound-Complex sentence is one that contains two or more independent

clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
· We hurried outside, and we saw the accident that had taken place.
STYLE
Period sentence is one that makes complete sense only at the end. The principal
clause may come at the end.
· When the manager signs the letter, I will mail it.
Loose sentence is one that can brought to an end in two or more places and still be
complete in sense. In conversation and letter writing this form is used frequently.
Beginners in letter writing, though, are advised to use this style of sentence with
caution, as it may lead to obscure and careless writing. The normal form of word
order is used: Subject + Verb + Object or Complement
· We reached home at last, after a long ride over poor roads, in pitch dark and pouring rain.
Balanced sentence is one containing two clauses that are in form, and are either
parallel or contrasted in meaning.
· A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger.
· Victory means value; defeat means depreciation.
Vary the kinds of sentences you use, as well as length. The most commonly used sentence is, of
course, the simple, periodic, assertive sentence, but a whole paragraph of sentences of this type
would sound childish and immature. The discreet use of other kinds sentences gives variety, and
adds interest to your letter.
THE STUCTURE OF A SENTENCE

The commonest rule in sentence structure is that every sentence must begin with a capital letter and
end with a full stop. Unfortunately most students take it that they need do nothing else, and many
shapeless, incomplete, and meaningless collections are made into ‘sentences’ in this way. To write
the collection of words
‘With reference to the delivery of machines’
does not make a sentence. The reader is introduced to the topic and then left in the air just as he
expects something to be said about the delivery. The sentence should be completed:
‘With reference to the delivery of machines, I must remind you that the cost of transport will be extra’
Most sentences are designed to relate objects to other objects by action, and this function is
particularly important in technical writing. The engineer constantly faces problems involving objects
and relative movements.
a) Ball bearings may be lubricated with grease.

b) The operator feeds the tool along at a predetermined rate.
c) The belt ruins in 40° vee belts.

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Each of these sentences in deals in some ways with objects and movement, and expresses them in a
simple manner, the words almost parallel to the actions they describe.
Sentences are constructed according to the complexity of the message being expressed and may
vary from a simple statement to a complex explanation:
a) The feed-shaft of a simple lathe may be driven by a belt.

b) If the feed-shaft of a simple lathe is driven by a belt, there is a limit to the number of different feeds.
c) The form of drive to the feed-shaft may vary but the lead-screw must be gear-driven.
d) If the feed-shaft of a simple lathe is driven by a belt there is a limit to number of different feeds, but the operation of the
machine is safer because the belt will merely slip off if trouble occurs.
The first sentence makes a plain statement, the second adds a condition ‘if… , ’ the third makes two
parallel statements about the feed-haft and the lead-screw, and the last sentence contains simple
statement, condition, reason and parallel statements.
The terms given to these type of sentences are:
a) Simple sentence – a plain sentence with few modifications

b) Complex sentence – more detailed modifications and qualifications. Greater emphasis on
subsidiary idea.
c) Compound sentence – Parallel statements showing simple relationships within a single
sentence.
d) Multiple sentence - Parallel ideas with detailed modifications and qualifications.
More important than knowing what theses sentences are called is knowing that the framework can
be used to give clarity and variety to your sentence.
ADVICE ON SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

A sentence should be Accurate, Consistent, Direct, Methodical, and Interesting.
Be accurate
a) Write grammatically
b) Verify your Information
Do not:
· Make errors fact

· Make careless grammatical errors
· Misquote information
· Exaggerate
· Make hasty generalizations
· Be vague (especially in using rather or quite)
Be consistent
Deal with one topic at a time
Do not:
· Shift the subject in mid sentence

· Cram different ideas into one sentence
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· Muddle classifications – e.g., saying that a “a lathe is a process…” when it is a

machine
· Mix metaphors
Be direct
Write sentences as economically, and as briefly as possible.
Do not
· use padding
· repeat information unnecessarily
· use waste full introductory words
· make irrelevant side comments
· use pompous words and phrases
Be methodical
Arrange words carefully to give a clear direct impression.
Do not
· twist the word order

· add afterthoughts
· misplace phrases, causing ambiguity
· use overlong sentences
· depend too much on “and” and “but”
Be interesting
Style is important. (think before you begin to write.) Write in a smooth easy manner,
varying the length and structures of the sentences.
Do not
· Write sentences that sound awkward and jerky

· String together sentences of similar construction.
PUNCTUATION
The chief purpose of all punctuation marks is to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Before
deciding what punctuation marks to use, read the whole sentence through. Pause in your reading
are a safe guide to the introduction of punctuation marks.
Try to read the following sentences as they are written:
1. While we were eating a boy the son of the councilor passed by.
2. It was and I said not but.
3. Woman without her man would be a savage.

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The effect would be ridiculous unless you pause at certain places. Where you have paused, some
form of punctuation mark is indicated. Try them again.
1. While we were eating, a boy, the son of the councilor passed by.
2. It was “and” I said, not “but”.
3. Woman! Without her, man would be a savage.
THE PERIOD (Full Stop)
Use a period:
1. At the end of an assertive or an imperative sentence.

· He arrived on the train last night.
· Shut the door quickly.
2. After initials and most abbreviations. It is usual to leave a space after the period following an
abbreviation.
· Ms. P. M. Bwalya Ltd.
3. Between the dollar/kwacha and cents/ngwee in figures; e.g., $25.50 K250.35
4. After items in a list, if they make complete sentences.
NOTE: Omit the period and spaces in the names of television or radio stations and some
abbreviation (acronyms)
Radio Station QFM ZESCO UNESCO
THE COMMA
One of the greatest faults in writing letters is to insert too many commas. DO NOT USE COMMAS
UNLESS YOU HAVE A REASON FOR DOING SO.
Use a comma
1. When a sentence begins with words such as If, As, When, While, Until, Unless, Though or
Although, Since, Because, Should, Had, imperfect participles, and prepositions unless the
introductory phrase or clause is short.
· Although it was hard to understand his reason, we had to accept his decision.
· Listening intently through the noise of the storm, I thought I heard a child crying.
· As I walked home I met our next-door neighbour.
2. In the middle of a sentence, to separate clauses joined by words and, but, and or. (in a short
sentence this comma may be omitted.)
· The principal decided on the plan, and the staff agreed to try it.
· She typed three letters but I typed five.
3. To separate a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauses even before the word and.
(The American plan is to omit the comma before the word and.)
· There were apples, mangoes, and oranges in the basket.
· The typist looked under her deck, behind the door, and in the basket.
4. To introduce a direct quotation.
· The teacher asked, “Why did you use that comma?”
5. To take the place of omitted verbs.
· We respect deeds; they words.
Pairs of Commas
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Some expressions require a comma before and a comma after them. (If they begin or end a
sentence, then one comma is needed.)
Use commas before and after.
1. Non-restrictive phrases or clauses. (Restrictive phrases or clauses do not require the

commas.)
· The promotion policy, which had been in effect for a long time, came up for revision.
· The eggs that I bought were stale.
2. Parenthetical words or expressions such as however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore, I
believe, on the other hand, in the first place.
· The explorers could not have survived, however, had they not been befriended by the Indians.
3. The second in a pair of nouns in apposition.
· Mr Musonda, our CEO, is out of the country.
4. The name of a province following the name of a city.
· Chembe, Luapula, is Zambia’s newest district.
5. Nominative address.
· As you can see, Ms Zulu, the goods were shipped in good condition.
6. The year, when it follows a month.
· September, 1939, was the month of the outbreak of the last war.
7. The date, when it follows the name of the year.
· Wednesday, March 25, is the day appointed.
NOTE: Never use a comma without reassuring yourself that it is absolutely necessary.
THE QUOTATION MARKS
Use quotation marks:
1. To enclose direct words of a speaker (Indirect narration does not require quotation marks).
· “ I shall leave at once,” she said
· “Yes,” she said, “I shall leave at once.”
2. To denote the title of a book or article (unless underscoring is used).
· I have just finished reading “Chinua Achebe.”
· I have just finished reading Chinua Achebe
3. To denote quotation from writing.
· Hamlet’s soliloquy begins, “To be or not to be; that is the question.
4. At the beginning only of paragraphs in long quotations, excepting the final paragraph. Which
should have concluding quotation marks.
5. To enclose an unusual, slang, or technical terms.
· The so called “soap operas” are not so popular now.
NOTE: Use single quotation marks to indicate a quotation within a quotation.
· She said, “Teddy’s first words were ‘Daddy’.”

· John replied, “I am reading ‘Mandela’.”
Use quotation marks with other punctuation marks.
Place the period and the comma inside the final quotation mark, no mater what the sentence
construction.

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· Angela Musonda’s essay is entitled “A Message to My Enemy.”
Place other quotation marks inside the final quotation mark only if the form part of the
quotation.
· We believe that “Might does not make right”; however …

· I would like to tell you, but “decency forbids”!
· Did you write, “I shall pay the invoice”?
· They discussed the question, “Where are we going?”
THE APOSTROPHE
Use the Apostrophe
1. To indicate possessive case.

· person’s
· children’s games, women’s hats
· ladies’ gloves, consumers’ protests
· Mavis’s poems, Charles’s bicycle, horse’s mouth, Agnes’ Book (two syllable)
· the member from Toronto’s motion
· Lord and Taylor’s store, Mary and the boys’ toys
· daughter-in-law’s voice
To denote the omission of a letter in contractions.
2. To indicate plurals of figures, letters of the alphabet, and words used as words.
· Can’t, I’m, ‘tis, they’re, couldn’t, won’t, o’clock, it’s.
3. To indicate the verb forms of letter or unusual words.
· You’re a’s look like o’s.
· In the 1800’s the three R’s formed the basis of education.
· Do not use too many “and’s” and “but’s” in your letters.
4. To indicate verb forms of letters or unusual words.
· OK’ed, X’d out
Do not use the apostrophe after a possessive pronoun.
· His, hers, theirs, its
THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon has more strength than a comma, but not so much as the period or colon.
Use the semicolon:
1. To separate clause of a compound sentence when a connective is not used.

· We are not telling you anything new; we are simply repeating something old.
2. To separate a series of clauses or phrases already punctuated with commas.
· Socks had reached the following levels; sugar, 25kg; salt, 5 kg,; mealie meal, 100 kg.
3. Between the clauses of a compound sentence where the second clause is introduced by
words such as : however, therefore, consequently, moreover.
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· They disputed the statement; however we were correct.

4. Before namely (viz.), for example (e.g.), that is (i.e.)
· There are many large universities in Canada; e.g. McGill, Toronto, Western, Dalhousie, McMaster, British Columbia,
Memorial
THE COLON
The colon denotes a pause not as great as the period, but greater than the comma.
Use the colon
1. Introduce a list, or introduce formally a statement, an enumeration, or an illustration.

· There are three virtues: faith, hope, and charity.
· Follow these steps:
I. Formulate your pan.
II. Make the examination.
III. Write the report.
2. To follow the salutation in a letter.
· Dear Mr Ngosa: (Old style)
3. To separate hour and minutes.
· 7:30 p.m, 19:30hrs
4. To separate Bible chapter and verse.
· Psalms 19:2; Genesis 27:22.
5. To introduce and extended quotation.
Professor Mathew spoke as follows: “the era …”
THE QUESTION MARK
The question should be used
1. After a direct question.

· What are you planning to do about it?
· He asked, “ What are you planning too do about it?”
2. To indicate uncertainty (within parentheses).
· My father was born in1958(?).
· When the reports come in next Friday (?), I shall study them.
3. To indicate a question not in question form
· He said that?
· They are going to abandon the ship?
NOTE: If an answer is not expected, and the question is a request or suggestion, omit the
question mark.
THE EXCLAMATION POINT?
Use an exclamation point:

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1. To express something strong

· Hurrah!
· Impossible!
· I can’t believe it!
2. If the entire sentence is an exclamation, at the end of the sentence.
· How impertinent she can be
3. With OH or O.
· Oh, what a life!
· my friends!
· Oh! That is an iPod.
NOTE: Avoid as much as possible the use of exclamation mark in business correspondence.
THE HYPHEN
A hyphen is used:
1. To indicate division of a word at the end of a line.

2. In compound numerals under one hundred.
· Ninety-five
· Four hundred and twenty-six
3. In fractions used as adjectives, but not as nouns.
· He owns a one-third interest in the business
· One third of the members were called by telephone, and letters were written to the remaining two thirds.
4. In compound word s made up of nouns and prepositional phrases.
· His daughters-in-law were beneficiaries, as well as his daughter.
· The guerillas engaged in hand-to-hand fighting.
5. To indicate a span of time or intervening pages.
· The report covered the period 2010-12.
· Pages 125-139 inclusive.
6. When a prefix is joined to a proper noun.
· Anti-Zambian, pro-socialist
7. To avoid doubling of vowels in and tripling of consonants.
· Eagle-eye, bell-like
8. With words in identical vowels in separate syllables.
· Co-operate, pre-eminent
9. In words whose meaning may be misinterpreted or ambiguous.
· Re-treat (treat again) retreat (withdraw)
· Re-cite (cite again) recite (narrate)
· Re-cover (cover again) recover (get well after illness
10. In verbs composed of two or more words containing a single thought.
· Blue-pencil, cross-reference
11. In proper nouns in which two names are used.
· Madame Schumann-Heink, Donald Ronald-Ross
12. When figures, letters, or numbers are compounded with words to form a single idea.
· Five-O’clock tea, ten-foot pole, 100-yard dash, U-turn, X-ray
13. In titles compounded with ex or elect.
· Ex-mayor, President-elect Obama

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14. In adjectives compounded with well preceding the noun, but NOT when the expression
follows the word modified.
· The well-known entrepreneur addressed LBTC students.
· The entrepreneur is well known in Zambia.
15. In compounded with self as a prefix, but NOT in selfsame or selfless, nor in pronouns
compounded with self.
· Self-confidence, self-made, self-assured
· Myself, herself, themselves
16. In unusual words compounded with non.
· Non-contagious, non-interference
17. In compound words in which each component has equal value.
· Typist-bookkeeper, clerk-typist.
18. In compound adjectives which precede the noun they modify.
· Large-type dictionary, profit taking period
19. In a series of hyphenated words, the hyphen should be retained.
· Five- or ten-day period
· Pen- or pencil-written matter
· First-, second-, or third-class mail
· Long- and short-haul freight
20. Do not use a hyphen after words ending in ly, even though they precede the word modified.
· Heavily loaded truck, beautifully written letter
WORDS GROWN TOGETHER:
After long use, the hyphen is often discarded’
“… the conversion of a hyphenated word into an unhyphenated single one is desirable as soon
as the novelty of the combination has worn off, if there are no obstacles in the way of awkward
spelling, obscurity, or the like.” (Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage,)
Here is an example of words formerly hyphenated, which have grown together.
Airplane Businessman Deadline Headline Lineup Payroll

Airport Bylaw Downtown Headquarters Midweek Policyholder
Armchair Commonplace Fireproof Highlight Network Postgraduate
Background Countdown Footnote Inasmuch Nevertheless Postmark
Bedtime Counterclockwise Goodbye Insofar Newsreel Proofread
Bookkeeper Crosscut Goodwill Landmark Nonetheless Salesman
Broadcast Crossroad Handbook Layout Nowadays Scrapbook
Businesslike Crossword handwritten Letterhead Paymaster Setup
Shareholder Showdown Sidelight sidestep sometimes Southside
Stopover Streamline straightforward subtotal timekeeper Timesaver
Today Tomorrow Tonight Turnover typewritten Underline
Upturn Viewpoint waterfront Wintertime workmen workmanship
THE DASH
The dash is used:
1. To indicate an abrupt change in the sentence

2. To indicate an unfinished sentence

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3. To set off parenthetical expressions
PARENTHESES
Use parenthesis to indicate matter not necessary in the sentence.
· They (Mr Zulu and his secretary) attended the meeting.

· The illustration shows the costume of the times (page 238) and …
Do not place any punctuation before the first bracket. The punctuation which follows the second
bracket is that which would have occurred in the original sentence. If that material ends the
sentence, the period is placed outside the bracket.
If a complete sentence is contained in the bracketed material, the period is placed inside the
bracket.
· The illustration shows the costume of the times. (see page 238)
CAPITALIZATION
Use capital letters for the following:
1. All proper names of places and persons.

· Mazabuka, Doris, Chikubabe
2. The first word of every sentence.
3. The first word of every line of poetry (unless the author particularly requires a small letter).
4. The first word of every direct quotation
5. The first word and all nouns that appear in a salutation.
6. The first word only of a complimentary closing.
7. The days of the week, the months of the year, but not the seasons.
· Our full training programme starts on Monday, September 3.
8. Adjectives which are derived from proper names.
· Canadian, American, Zimbabwean, Zambian
9. The Principal words in the title of an address, article, book, or chapter.
· “The Effect of the Hydrogen Bomb on Human Life”
10. The names of churches, associations, clubs, and business firms.
· Lusaka Business and Technical College Ladies Club; The United Church of Zambia; Railway Systems of Zambia Limited
11. Business products
· White Spoon Sugar, Colgate Toothpaste
12. North, South, East, West when referring to a definite section of the country, or when
appended to a street name.
· He intends to come East for the final football game.
· King Street East, Simcoe Street North
· The wind is blowing from the west.
13. The Deity or references to the Deity, books and divisions of the Bible, holy days and creeds.
· God; His Holy Name; Psalms; All Saints’ Day; Apostles’ Creed
14. Specific but not general names
· The University of Zambia was founded in 196-.
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· Many universities have been founded.

· He invited the Director of LBTC.
· Most directors would not agree.
· The Province of Muchinga was founded in 2012.
· Muchinga became a province in 2012.
15. Both words in a compound title.
· Deputy Minister, Vice President, Assistant Principal
NOTE: The prefix ex should not be capitalized unless it begins the sentence.
· He is related to ex-Mayor Simutanda.

16. Specific subjects on a school curriculum
· Geometry 2, a course in geometry
17. Titles of respect, honour, or nobility.
· President Justine Time of Cape University
· Dr Justine Time, president of Cape University.

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4.4.1 WRITING DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS
Of all Business documents generated by organisations it is perhaps the Business Letter that is the
most used. It serves to communicate a wide range of communications.
Since letters are so widely used it is imperative that one

is able to write letters in correct English, in attractive
form and with proper punctuation. Letters which convey
accurately, concisely, and courteously the information
THE DIRECTOR
one intends. The letter is your personal representative. LBTC
PB 50020A RW
If its form and appearance are pleasing, the reader’s first LUSAKA
impression will be good, and you will have stimulated
him to react favourably towards you. If, on the other
hand, the form of the letter is faulty, the first response will be negative and this impression will be
very difficult to counteract. If there are errors in spelling, punctuation, capitalization or
paragraphing, a good impression is not created. Make sure the letters you write are straightforward,
easily understood, easily read, and convincing.
TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Letters of Inquiry and Request
These letters are usually of a very simple nature such as a request for a catalogue or a
pamphlet, or for information. They may request a favour of the recipient. They should contain
the question in a concise form but with sufficient detail to make the request clear. They should
end with some expression of appreciation.
SAMPLE 1
Letters of inquiry may also be sent out for personal reasons. A student may write a teacher for
information to help him in gathering material for an essay. A business man may write to
another firm for information as to how some phase of its business is conducted. In inquiries like
these, the writer should make the reason for his request very clear, and explain why he is
writing this particular person.
Dear Sir
Our class has been given an essay on the manufacture of some commodity made in our town. I have
chosen to write about the manufacture of paint.
I have seen paint in your store window and am proud to think that it is made right here in Chilenje.
Will you please send me any material that you have and will help me in writing my essay?
I will be most grateful for your assistance.
Yours Faithfully

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SAMPLE 2
In the letter below, written to a publisher, both the writer and the reader expect to benefit; hence
there is no unnecessary lengthy attempt at courtesy. Courtesy has been achieved without even the
usual “please” and “thank you.”
Dear Sir
Our College Board has set aside K150, 000 for the purchase of books for the college library.
Can you suggest a list of suitable titles which would provide a balanced selection of Engineering,
Business, and Hospitality subjects of interest to our students?
A prompt response will be appreciated.
Yours Faithfully
2. Replies to letters of inquiry and request

A letter of inquiry should be answered promptly whether or not the request is to be granted.
Requests should be granted cheerfully or not at all the answers to a request should be written in
a form in which the reader will be sure to understand. Replies should always show courtesy and
a desire to be of further assistance.
Thank you for your inquiry and for the We are sorry that we have not a list of
opportunity it has given us to be of suitable titles of books for college
service to you. students.
The enclosed list of titles has been On Inquiry we have learnt that UNZA
provided by our specialist. Press prepares a book list for college
students at all levels. They would be glad
These books are available at the present to supply you with a copy.
time at the prices indicated in the list.
We are happy to tell you that the 20% We wish to congratulate your College
discount we allow on orders of this kind Board on its move to purchase more and
will bring the entire cost within the latest books and hope that the students
amount you specified in your letter. will appreciate its generous and wise
decision.
3. Letters ordering goods

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In letters ordering goods or asking for quotations or anything it is very important to give all
details necessary to the identification of the goods by the supplier. Information provided should
include
» Quantity- length, weight, number etc
» Price, material weight, quality, and style
» Destination
» Desired date of receipt
» Method of payment
4. Letters acknowledging orders

Ordinarily, order letters do not require a response, and none is expected. The receipt of the
goods ordered is sufficient confirmation that the order was received.
But occasionally a reply is needed, as, for instance, when an order, cannot be filled, or when
delivery is deferred or when the order is from a new customer
The letter should express thanks or some expression of appreciation neatly phrased. This is
usually placed in the first or last sentence or paragraph. Reference is made to the order by
number, date, or goods. The delivery date should also be given.
5. Letters refusing goods

Sometimes orders may be returned on unfulfilled. Whatever the reason for refusal the letter
should contain appreciation for the order, an explanation for the refusal.
6. Letters of complaint or claim

Errors are bound to occur, no matter how careful we may be. Mistakes in arithmetic, descriptive
detail, and in ordinary routine matters are inexcusable. Sometimes, however, customers
themselves make it very difficult to interpret their orders because of poor handwriting, or the
omission of important details.
If a mistake has been made in the filling of the order, it is often wise to write in such a way as to
blame yourself rather than place entirely on the sender of the order.
Letters of complaint are not necessarily restricted to orders but may also be written in any other
situations where you feel you have been hard done by.
Never send an angry or sarcastic letter of any sort. The all important fact to be remembered in
setting forth a complaint is to be clear in stating the difficulty and to be courteous in requesting
the adjustment. An angry or sarcastic letter may merely cause amusement. Courtesy will bring
results.
A well-written complaint letter should:
» Be correctly addressed to the person or company responsible for the damage,
omission, etc.
» State precisely what is wrong
» Make tracing easy by referring to definite dates, invoice, numbers, etc.
» State what remedy or adjustment is desired.
» Be courteous even where firmness is required.
CANCELLATION OF ORDER TO SUPPLY HYDRAULIC JACK
I recently ordered a brand new 5 tonne hydraulic jack (item #5566) from your website on March 21. I received the order
on April 14. Unfortunately, when I opened it, I saw that the jack was used. It was dirty and was leaking oil. My order
number is AF26168156.
In order to fulfil a government building contract I was compelled to hire a jack from a competitor at an exorbitant rate.
To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for the jack. I have already
bought a new jack at a local store so sending another would result in me having two of the same jacks.
Thank you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many years and
PREPARED BYtime
this is the first MANDONDO NGOMA
I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at 0966- 325 387.
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When writing a complaint letter, you want to keep it short and to the point to help ensure that
your letter will be read in its entirety. If you write a seven page complaint letter, it's highly
unlikely that someone will sit down and read all seven pages.
A hard-copy complaint letter should be written in the business letter format, while an email
should be sent in the same format but without the heading (your return address, their address,
and the date).
Complaint Letter Writing

In the first paragraph you should identify what the issue is and any relevant information that
you believe is important. Be sure to include the following information if it's applicable to the
situation: the date/time of the issue, location, name of person on duty, name of product, what
the problem was, your account number, model number, price, warranty information and
reference number. Be sure to stick with the facts and avoid putting emotions into your letter.
The next paragraph should state what you would like done to resolve the situation. If you
received poor service, you could request an apology or a coupon. If a product malfunctioned,
you could request that you could exchange the product for a new one or request a refund.
The last paragraph should thank the reader for the time. You can also throw in some
compliments about something you liked about their company's product or service.
You should include your telephone number/e-mail address after your printed name so that they
can contact you ASAP if necessary.
Be sure to keep a copy of the letter for yourself and include photocopies of any relevant
documents and enclose them with your letter.
7. Adjustment letters
The Adjustment letter is written in response to a complaint letter. The importance of the
adjustment letter is evident. There is a strong temptation either to become angry with those
customers who are guilty of rudeness, sarcasm, and even dishonesty in making complaints, or to
toss the letters aside as being unworthy of attention. To neglect them altogether or to answer or
to answer such complaints in kind would be fatal for the business. Observation of the following
points would assist is responding to this difficult type of letter.
Recognise that your first duty is to help the customer/client out of trouble.
» You can use the opportunity to strengthen customer ties by writing a courteous,
generous letter of explanation or adjustment of difficulties.
» It is hard to get a customer and easy to lose him. You must serve more than justice. You
must work hard for the next order when you make an adjustment. Settle the trouble but
keep the customer.
» Make your adjustment policy generous but not extravagant and settle the difficulty with least
loss to your firm.

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» Avoid making dangerous promises. Do not say before investigating a claim “We will make
this right for you.” You may find the claim unjust. Say “We shall do our best to straighten out the
difficulty and ....”
» Do not exaggerate with such statements as “We assure you that this trouble will never occur
again.” Do not say “The Battery which you say arrived in poor condition...” or “The Battery which you
report is in a ...”
Adjustment letters may be in the case of:
§ Promising investigations
§ Granting Claim
§ Refusing Adjustment
§ Making settlement without loss to the firm
§ Anticipating trouble
§ Dishonest customer.
8. Apology letter
An apology letter shows that you are sorry and says that you value your relationship with the
other party. The sooner an apology letter is written and sent out the better it is for the
relationship. Depending on the nature of the letter, it can either be written in the friendly or the
business letter format.
Friendly/Personal Apology Letter

If this is a personal letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient.
Next you should admit your fault and take responsibility for your actions. Next you should
volunteer or ask if there is any way that you can help out to resolve the situation. Then you
should let the recipient that you will try to make sure that the situation will not happen again. To
close off the letter, you should apologize again. When writing a personal apology letter it should
come from the heart and be sincere.
Formal/Business Apology Letter

If this is a business letter you should start the letter by saying that you are sorry to the recipient.
Next you should give an explanation as to what went wrong. Then you should try to rectify the
problem. To close off the letter you should apologize again.
9. Letters of Application
A letter of application is a personal sales letter, in which you are trying to sell your services
to the prospective employer. The letter should be written withy a view to meeting the
employer’s needs. The objective of the letter should be to secure a personal interview and to
create in advance in the mind of the employer a favourable impression towards you.
A desire for services may be created by a statement of your qualifications which have a
direct bearing on the position being advertised. If an engineer wants you as an employee in his
office, he is not interested in the fact that you sang in a choir or have operated an elevator. He
wants to know where to know where you went to school, your course of study, your proficiency
in the skills he needs, your knowledge of English, your appearance, your ability to co-operate
with others.
If you have had practical experience, give the names of the firms for which you have worked
and the dates of your stay with them.
Most businessmen prefer not to employ people who lose time because of poor health. A
statement of your attendance at school or in your previous employment and a record of your

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punctuality will give a businessman significant information. Unless you have been asked to state
the salary you want, leave this for the interview.
There are no hard and fast rules that can be given regarding letters of application. Each must
be adapted to the circumstances, and it is in meeting these circumstances that the applicant’s
fitness for the position will be shown.
If asked to submit a handwritten letter, do so, but submit a typewritten data sheet. The hand
writing will be GLANCED AT but the letter will be READ.
Appearance of the Letter.

A good looking letter suggests a good applicant, just as a well dressed candidate suggests a good
applicant. Therefore write/type your letter clearly on good paper; have your information well
organised and attractively arranged; and have the letter correctly margined and spaced, faultless
in grammar, spelling and punctuation. Revise and rewrite it until it is satisfactory in every detail.
Make it distinctive in appearance. It must outstanding among its competitors
Writing the letter

A letter of application is a personal letter, and should reflect the personality of its author.
Nevertheless it should follow the pattern of any good sales letter.
Opening and closing paragraphs

Begin:
» Will you please consider my application for the position of...
» I submit the following information in applying for the position ...
» Attached is a data sheet outlining my qualifications which I submit in application for ...
Do not say:
» In answer to your advert ...
» I want to apply ...
» Having heard that you need ...
The Closing statement is the one by which you hope to obtain action. Since very few are
employed without a personal interview, it is your first desire to obtain permission to meet and
talk to your prospective employer. Make it easy for them to get in touch with you. Tell how and
when you may be reached.
» I should appreciate an interview at a time convenient to you. My telephone number is 0966 325 387.
» Pease let me know when I may see you to and give you further reasons why I believe I can be of
service to you. From 08:00hrs to 17:00hrs my telephone number is 0979 273 751.
10. Resignation letter

This letter is written whenever one wishes to leave employment. If done in good faith, its
primary purpose is to
· Tells employer that you are resigning
· States when you will be leaving (Gives notice)
· States reasons why you wish to leave
· Shows gratitude for opportunity for opportunity given to work at the
The list of types of letter you may write in the course of conducting your business is
inexhaustible. Some other letters you may consider are:
· Letters of recommendation
· Letters of Introduction
· Letters seeking and making appointments and reservations

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· Letters extending and accepting invitations.

· Letters accepting goods and remitting payment
· Letters of appreciation and thanks
· Collection letters
· Letters of congratulations and sympathy.
· Sales letters
· Follow up Letters
· Form Letters
STANDARD PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTER
Below are standard components that business letter hasl
1. Senders Address
The senders address is placed first before the Receivers address. The address should include the
complete name and address of the person to whom the letter is written, with a title of respect
when it applies. Note that an address can be a Physical address, postal address or a combination
of the two.
Mr Justine Time Mr Justine Time Mr Justine Time

Farm No. 56748 Libala University College Libala University College
Lusaka West P/B RW 57520 P/B RW 57520
LUSAKA Chilumbulu Road LUSAKA
Libala
LUSAKA
Capiltalise and/or underline the last place name in the address. Even in its most simplest form, it
should consist of three lines. It begins at the left margin.
2. Date
Write 5 October 2012. Do not use the form 5/10/12. Does the date mean October 5 or May 10?
Your intuition may tell you which is correct, but this is not reliable when reading old
correspondence.
3. Recipients Address
Employ the same rules as in the senders address. Except it is important here to be clear who the
addressee is in this case.
The Director AD
DRES
SEE
Lusaka Business and Technical College
P/B Rw 50020 A
Burma Road
Libala
LUSAKA
4. Attention line
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When you want to bring your letter to the attention of someone in the firm to which you are
writing, the name of that person may be written on the attention line. This line is placed just
before the salutation after the receivers address.
5. The Salutation
When Addressing one person the salutation most commonly used is Dear Mr Mwenda or Dear
Mrs Mwenda. This form expresses more cordiality than Dear Sir or Dear Madam. The use of a
persons name is flattering. Use the surname only; do not say Dear Mr Thomas Mwenda or Mrs
Patience Mwenda. However most writers prefer the more general Dear Sir.
A doctor is addressed Dear Dr. Mwenda. To be avoided are the expressions My Dear Mwenda,
Dear Mwenda or Mr Dear Mr Mwenda.
6. Subject reference line

The subject reference line helps the receiver to immediately know what the letter is about. It
helps in the direction to the right person upon arrival. The subject also helps in filing the letter. It
is written in capital letters and preferably underlined.
7. Main body
The body of the letter is the most important part. Traditionally the letter will be written in three
paragraphs:
In spite of our best efforts, it is not likely that we can ship your
student hostel water heaters of your March 28 order before INTRODUCTION
15the June.
We have had a very heavy demand this cold season for this MIDDLE PARAGRPH(S)
type of heaters and it has been difficult to get them turned out of
the factory in sufficient quantities.
This delay will not, we hope, inconvenience your students CONCLUSION

seriously.
· Paragraph 1: Introduction
This serves to introduce the content of the letter. It alerts/prepares the reader for the
coming message. A repetition of the subject theme may be unavoidable at this stage.
Further it may set the tone of the letter.
· Paragraph 2: Middle section
Details of the communication are given here. Sometimes this middle section may be
longer than one paragraph depending on the ideas being expressed.
· Paragraph 3: Conclusion
This draws the letter to a logical end. It may also give specific request, directives, thanks,
expectations, desires, instructions etc. An element of time boundedness may also be
introduced.
8. Complimentary/Courteous close

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The complimentary closing is as its name implies, the polite ending to the letter. There are may
acceptable forms of the complimentary closing. You must choose the form that matches the
salutation in formality. For the purpose of your exam your are advised to stick to “Yours
faithfully” and “Yours sincerely”.
SALUTATION COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE

Dear Sir
Dear Madam Yours faithfully
Dear Sir/Madam
Dear Mr Justine Time
Dear Mrs Melody Time Yours sincerely
9. Carbon copy Notification

This notifies the reader of other persons to who a copy of the letter has being given.

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Chikubabe Electrical Installations

Ltd
Umodzi Highway SE ND ERSA
DDR
ESS
. P.O. Box 56453
Chikubabe Electrical Installations Ltd CHIPATA
Umodzi Highway
P.O. Box 56453 1st June 2012 DA
TE
CHIPATA
21st June 2012 The Director
Lusaka Business and Technical
The Director College
Lusaka Business and Technical College P/B RW 50020A RECEIV ERSA
DDR
ESS
P/B RW 50020A Burma Road
Burma Road LUSAKA
LUSAKA
ATTENTION: THE PROCUREMENT OFFICER
ATTENTION: THE PROCUREMENT OFFICER
AT
TENT
ION L
INE
Dear Sir,
Dear Sir,
SA
LUTA
TIO
N
ANTICIPATED DELAY IN SHIPPING WATER
HEATERS ANTICIPATED DELAY IN SHIPPING WATER HEATERS
SUBJECT REFERENCE LINE
In spite of our best efforts, it is not likely that we can
ship your student hostel water heaters of your March
28 order before 15the June. In spite of our best efforts, it is not likely that we can ship your
student hostel water heaters of your March 28 order before
We have had a very heavy demand this cold season 15the for
June.
this type of heaters and it has been difficult to get them
turned out of the factory in sufficient quantities.We have had a very heavy demand this cold season for this
type of heaters and it has been difficult to get them turned out of
the factory in sufficient quantities.
This delay will not, we hope, inconvenience your MAINB ODY
students seriously.
This delay will not, we hope, inconvenience your students
seriously.
Yours faithfully
Yours faithfully CO
URT
EOUSC
LOS
E
JUSTINE TIME
GROUP GENERAL MANAGER
JUSTINE TIME
CC. Operations Manager GROUP GENERAL MANAGER CO
MPL
EMEN
TAR
YCL
OSE
Encl. 2
C.c. Operations Manager CO
PYC
IRC
ULA
TION
Encl. 2 EN
CLOS
URE

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Chikubabe Academy,
P.O. Box 273751,
LUSAKA
21st June, 2012.
LBTC,
Asia Hostel,
P/B Rw 50020A,
LUSAKA
Dear Ms Choomba,
INDENTED LETTER STYLE
I write in response to your query about letter writing styles. The

question you ask is very valid most and does indeed baffle many students.
The major characteristics of the indented style is that all elements of the
letter start on the same imaginary line on the inside right of the first
imaginary line right of the paper margin. Paragraphs are subsequently
separated by going to the lime immediately next an in inch or so inwards.
Note also that punctuation is employed in the addresses and closing
stages of the letter. Simply put, observe the layout of this letter very carefully
as the indented style has been employed.
I hope I have been of some assistance to you. Do not hesitate to contact
me should you require any further information.
Yours Sincerely,
HONEST MBUZI
COMMUNICATION CONSULTANT

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Chikubabe Academy
P.O. Box 273751
LUSAKA
21st June 2012
LBTC
Asia Hostel
P/B Rw 50020A
LUSAKA
Dear Ms Choomba
FULLY BLOCKED LETTER STYLE
I write in response to your query about letter writing styles. The question
you ask is very valid most and does indeed baffle many students.
The major characteristics of the fully blocked style is that all elements of the
letter start on the same imaginary line left of the paper margin. Paragraphs
are subsequently separated by
skipping a line as you proceed to the next paragraph.
Note also that open punctuation is employed in the addresses and closing
stages of the letter. Open punctuation means that no punctuation marks are
used. Simply put, observe the layout of this letter very carefully and employ
the same in your own letters.
I hope I have been of some assistance to you.
Yours Sincerely
HONEST MBUZI
COMMUNICATION CONSULTANT
THE LETTERHEAD
Most institution use specially printed paper for the letters. They will have on printed on them such components as the
institutions name, logo, mission statement and vision, physical and postal addresses, Telephone numbers, e-mail, websites,
filing references, etc.
Our Ref: .................. Your Ref: ...................
Tel: 2345672/8 P.O. Box 303030

Fax: 565764 Plot Number 5678
e-mail: mandondongoma@gmail.com Chilumbulu Road
Website: www.ekoaj.org.zm Lusaka

84
4.4.2 THE MEMORANDUM
Other names for The Memorandum are :

~ Memo or Memos (in the plural form)
~ Memoranda (plural form of Memorandum
~ Internal Memorandum
~ In the civil service (cabinet) a memo is known as a minute.
~
The third format, “Internal Memorandum” may to the uninitiated suggest that there is an External
Memorandum in existence. This is not the case. Some authors refer to it as an internal
memorandum because the Memo is meant to circulate within the same organisation. It is not to be
sent to external organisations.
Memorandum are the internal equivalent of letters and can be sent
electronically (by e-mail), in hard copy or handwritten. ..... (Nicky Santon,
Mastering Communication)
A memo is a written message from one person to another within the same
organisation.... (Shirley Taylor, Model Business Letters, E-mails and Other
Documents)
A memo is a document much like a letter that has been curtailed at the top
and bottom that is generated and transmitted within a particular institution...
The term is derived from the latin word “memorare” meaning to remember or a thing to be
remembered. The memos basic distinction is that it meant to be an internal document that
essentially serves as an aide to memory. It forms part of the intradepartmental correspondence.
PURPOSE
The memo serves to
» Communicate information
» Make enquiries
» Give instructions
» Submit reports
» Make requests
» Invite suggestions
» Inform Decisions
» Inform actions
» Request actions
» Request a decisions
» Put on record
The memo differs from a letter in tone and style. A letter is formal while the memo in more
conversational.

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STYLE
There are no fixed rules about language style. This depends very much on variables such as
Nature of message
Context of message
Status and personality of Receiver
Relationship between transmitter and receiver
COMPONENTS (LAYOUT) OF A MEMO
The major components of a memo are

Company name
Heading
Subject and Date
Message
COMPANY NAME
Merely portrays the institution/organisation/ group to which both Rx and Tx belong.
HEADING
This includes reference to Tx and Rx. Normally the official designation of both parties is used to
indicate the addressee and the addresser. There may be instances where the prefix Mr, Mrs, Dr, etc
may be used. This is rare and does not apply to the addresser.
REFERENCE
The reference number of a memo helps in filling and recording of documents. Cross referencing is
made much easier.
SUBJECT
This is a very important component. This should be brief and able to communicate the basic intent of
the message. Full sentences are not used. Used instead is “Sentential Shorthand” to send forth the
message. E.g. SUBJECT: CANCELLATION OF USER FEES
MESSAGE
The message is brief and is phrased in short and simple sentences. It follows the direct
organisational plan. However when a request has been made or bad news transmitted the
organisational plan is reversed,

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MEMORANDUM ORGANISATIONAL PLAN
DIRECT INDIRECT
The purpose is followed by necessary Details are presented prior to the
details to support the opening purpose. The reader is gradually and
sentences. This is followed by a request logically led to the conclusion.
for action or specifications of a deadline
for completion of the task.
In case a direct plan of organisation is followed, the reader would not read the entire memo. In the
reverse ordering, it is easier to maintain the goodwill of the reader and at the same time transmit
the information.
LIBALA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
MEMORANDUM
TO: THE DEAN OF STUDENTS

FROM: DEPUTY PRESIDENT
DATE: 20 SEPTEMBER 2012
SUBJECT: GRADUATION DATES
The senate has requested that the 12th Graduation ceremony be brought forward and be held before
the end of November 2012. This because Government has requested to use the college premises to
host some athletes and games for the Zone Six games to be held in Zambia in December.
I leave it up to you to propose an appropriate date and start preparations for the ceremony. Let me
have your response by 25 September.
GRANT SIMUKOKO
cc. All Deans of Schools
EXERCISE 1
You are Accounts Assistant at Chiparamba Electrical Company, a distributor of Irrigation equipment
with offices in Chipata. Your supervisor asked you write a memorandum asking all travelling sales
personnel to submit claim forms for travelling expenses for the last three months before 7th
November 2012. The claims should be written on official forms a/c (i) and (ii)
TASK: Prepare the memorandum
EXERCISE 2

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You are the production foreman for a large workshop. Lately you observed that workers had
developed a laissez-fire attitude towards safety at the workplace. This has contributed to numerous
cases of accidents in which many lost hours have been recorded. Consequently, production has
been affected.
Write a memorandum to the workers expressing your concern. Emphasise the importance of safety at
work and its consequences on production. Explain measures taken to curb accidents in the workshop
and warn any worker ignoring to adhere to these measures of dismissal from employment. Seek their
co-operation.
CHIPARAMBA ELECTRICAL COMPANY

MEMORANDUM
TO: All Travelling Sales Personnel

FROM: Accounts Assistant
DATE: 27 September 2012
SUBJECT: SUBMISSION OF CLAIM (TRAVELLING EXPENSES)

SUBMISSION OF TRAVEL EXPENSE FORMS
SUMISSION OF CLAIMS
The accounts department is in the process of clearing outstanding travel expenses claims.
You are therefore requested to submit all claims for the last three months. All claims must be written on
accounts forms a/c (i) and a/c (ii) and must be submitted by 27 November.
Late submissions may have their payments delayed indefinitely.
JAMES NALIBAWINO
C.c Senior Accountant

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CHIPARAMBA ELECTRICAL COMPANY

MEMORANDUM
TO: ALL TRAVELING SALES PERSONNEL

FROM: ACCOUNTS ASSISTANT
DATE: 27 SEPTEMBER 2012
SUBJECT: SUBMISSION OF CLAIM (TRAVELLING EXPENSES)

SUBMISSION OF TRAVEL EXPENSE FORMS
SUMISSION OF CLAIMS
Could you summit all travel claim forms for the last three months.
All claims must be written on accounts forms (I) and (II) and be submitted before 27 November.
Kindly comply to avoid delaying payment of your claim.
JAMES NALIBAWINO
C.c Senior Accountant
4.4.3 THE CIRCULAR
4.4.4 NOTICE WRITING SKILLS
4.4.5 SAFETY SLOGANS
4.4.6 NEWSLETTERS AND BULLETINS

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REFERENCES
1. D.T.E.V.T – Ministry of Education and Culture, Technical English for Zambia Students, Lusaka
2. Kelly R. A., The Use of English for Technical Students (1962), George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd, London
rd
3. Stanton N. Mastering Communication (1997) 3 ed.
4. Paton J. M. et al, Using Our Language – Grades 9 and 10 (1955), J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., Toronto
rd
5. Taylor S., Communication for Business (1993) 3 ed.
6. Waugh F. D. R. & Cameron J. L. , Modern Business Letters (1964) The Ryerson Press, Toronto
Woolcott L. A. & Unwin W. R. Mastering Business Com

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UNIT 4.5 REPORT WRITING
General Learning Outcome: Write reports
4.5.1 Describe a report
4.5.2 List types of report
4.5.3 Examine various report formats and layouts
4.5.4 Compose different types of report
4.4.0 INTRODUCTION TO REPORTS
REPORTS
DEFINITIONS
STYLE OF PRESENTATIONS
MEMORANDUM REPORT
SCHEMATIC REPORT
LETTER REPORT
DEFINITIONS OF REPORTS
Different authors define Reports differently. Common definitions are as follows:-

· It is a document that gives an account of what has been witnessed. This means that reports
are about true events as a result of research,
· A report is a document in which a given situation and problem is considered. It may state
facts, give analysis and opinions, report progress, draw conclusions and probably make
recommendations.
· A report is a document which examines a specific topic, in order to convey information,
report findings putting forward ideas and suggestions.
· A report is a presentation in summation of facts and figures either collated or delivered. It is
a logical and coherent structuring of information, ideas and concepts.(Asha Kaul, 2002)
A business report may be defined as ‘an orderly an objective presentation of information, that
helps in decision making and problem solving’.
Key words in the above definition are ‘orderly’, ‘objective’, ‘information’, ‘decision making’, and
‘problem solving’,
‘Orderly’: Meanig the reports should flow in a logical sequence, for example from a definition
of the problem, to analysis, to recommendations of solutions.

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‘Objective’: Meaning that a report is written avoiding use of the first person, so as to avoid bias.
The passive is used rather than the active voice, so as to less importance to the doer
of the action.
‘Information’: A report presents information or authentic facts and data. Subjective judgments and
recommendations should be based on data.
‘Decision making’ and ‘Problem solving: Unlike a scientific or academic report, a business report
should aid decision making and problem solving.
REPORT MEDIA
Reports can be
· Written
· Oral
· Electronic
PURPOSE OF REPORTS
It can be deduced from the definitions that Reports are documents that are very rich in information.
The purpose of a report is therefore to give and obtain information. They are used to a) inform b)
analyze or c) persuade.
4.5.2 TYPES OF REPORT
Reports may be classified based on several such as

· their use (progress reports and financial reports),
· their purpose (informational, analytical and persuasive),
· their frequency (annual, monthly, weekly and hourly),
· their length (short and long),
· whether they are internal to the business, or are used outside the business.
· whether they are oral or written,
· whether they are routine or special,
· whether they are informal or formal
· whether they are standardized (witness reports, confidential reports, accident reports) or
non-standardized
STYLES OF REPORT PRESENTATIONS
Reports, like any other information, can be presented in various forms. Some of the Common forms
are Memorandum, Letter and Schematic format.
MEMORANDUM REPORT
Informal reports can be presented in a memorandum form. In this type of presentation, the report
starts with like a memorandum. After the heading or subject, comes a short introduction (making it
clear the circumstances under which the memorandum has been written). Headings are used
including conclusions and recommendations. The final end is a memorandum.

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LETTER REPORT
Another for the report takes is the letter. Like the memorandum presentation, the first part starts as
a letter, this time without headings. The report ends in a letter form. The disadvantage of a letter is
that the reader it may find it difficult to see the connection between the various parts of the report.
It is also difficult to select parts for close study.
Letter form presentation is possible where:

a) The subject matter is simple and limited
b) Only one view point is involved
c) There is an obvious order of presentation, one that can easily fit in the formal business
letter.
THE SCHEMATIC REPORT
The schematic report also known as the main report is the official format of report presentation.
This presentation can outline a lot of information by following its rules and regulation.
It is has follows the following outline

1. TITLE
Gives an indication of what the report is a about. It provides a heading to the document. The
heading is written in Capitals, underlined and will generally reads REPORT ON………….
2. INTRODUCTION
Gives a background to the report necessary for the reader to understand why and what has
necessitated the report. It will mention who the report is intended for i.e. the person(s) who
commissioned the writer(s), when the report is required.
3. TERMS OF REFERENCE
Gives the specific tasks assigned to the writer. The specific instructions or things the writer
hopes to discover or do.
4. PROCEDURE (OR METHOD)
States how information/data was collected. Mentions all the information gathering techniques
used by the write.
5. FINDINGS
Cites the results obtained from the Procedure. Findings obtained from each procedure must be
shown these are facts based on the procedure.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Gives what can be deduced from the findings.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
This is what is proposed from the conclusions. Theses are based on the writer’s expert opinion
and are only given if they were included in the terms or reference.

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Below is a sample of a schematic report.
LIBALA BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
REPORT ON AUTOMOTIVE WORKSHOP BURGLARY
1. INTRODUCTION
On 25th January 2013 there was a burglary in the Automotive Workshop. The workshop lost valuable and
irreplaceable training equipment. Also stolen were motor parts of vehicles which had been brought for
repair. The Head of Department Engineering, Dr Waluzimba asked me to write a report over the matter.
2. TERMS OF REFERENCE
The terms of reference were
I) to determine the persons culpable
II) to propose how such can be prevented in the future.
III) to present a report by 15 April 2013
3. PROCEDURE
I) Questionnaire
A questionnaire was randomly administered to 150 members of the college community.,
II) Oral interviews
Held oral interviews with a cross section of
a) members of staff
b) the students
c) the guards
4. FINDINGS
I) Questionnaire
a) There is a general disregard for security in the college.
b) Any body can walk onto campus and access any service or inventory without being challenged.
II) Oral interviews
a) The course instructor, Dr Lukwesa locked the workshop before leaving.
b) The last students to leave the workshop were the five Hydraulics students.
c) The Hydraulics class rep confirmed the locking because he helped in locking the grill gates.
d) The guards did not see anybody going to the workshop.
e) Guards found a metal rod at the scene.
5. CONCLUSIONS
I) The security officers do not mount frequent scheduled and unscheduled patrols.
II) The burglary took place at night.
III) The burglary was most likely conducted by outsiders.
IV) Metal rods were used to force open the simple locks in use.

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6. RECOMMENDATIONS
To avoid thefts reoccurring I recommend that
I) students should use identity cards every they are on campus.

II) workshops must be out of bounds after 19:00hs
III) the security provider be replaced immediately
TITUS SHUMBAMI 27 MAY 2013
,,

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UNIT: 4.6 FOR HOLDING MEETINGS
General Learning Objective: Explain the significance for holding meetings
4.6.1 Explain the purpose for holding meetings
4.6.2 List types of meetings
4.6.3 Explain how to formulate a meeting agenda
4.6.4 Discuss how to prepare for meetings
4.6.5 State the procedures for participation in health safety committees
4.6.6 State procedures for organising safety forums
4.6.7 State procedures for conducting is pre-shift meetings
4.6.0 E
“A meeting is any focused conversation that has a specific agenda, especially but not only if it has
been set up in advance” (Deborah Tannen).
“A meeting is a formal gathering of at least three persons who assemble to discuss previously
specified items”.
4.6.1 PURPOSE FOR HOLDING MEETINGS
Numerous meetings take place in organisations. How many times have you been unable to reach
someone because they have been in a meeting? Infact some people may have even become
frustrated with you because you may appear to be perpetually attending one meeting or another.
Well, meetings are an indispensable means of communicating within organisations but if held poorly
they can also be very counter productive. They can inevitably lead to:
· Loss of business
· Squabbles
· Time wastage
· Financial drain
· Low morale
Consider for a moment the financial implications involved in inviting ten people to a meeting 2 hour long meeting.

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If the average salary is K3000, the meeting will gobble 20 man hours at a cost of K375.00 If refreshments are provided an
additional K75.00 may be added. Then there may be external customer who may be turned away because the electrician or
doctor or plumber or accountant e.t.c., are locked up in the meeting.
What about the internal customer who can’t get his purchase order signed or the driver who can’t pick up workers because
he can’t get fuel, etc.
A venue may require to be booked, stationery and transport may also be provided. If any are from out of town
accommodation and upkeep may need to be factored in also. The list of hidden cost just goes on and on.
Non the less meetings are an integral component of doing business. Meetings provide a valuable
platform for
· Sharing information
· Making suggestions and proposals
· Taking decisions
· Obtaining feedback.
· Sharing ideas
· Expressing views
· Offering solutions to problems
ADVANTAGES OF MEETINGS
· There is a flexibility of responses to the views of others and the possibility of discussion
leading towards a clear conclusion.
· Several points of view can be brought together and a conclusion evolved from them.
· Gives everyone involved to have a chance to air her/his views.
DISADVANTAGES OF MEETINGS
· Too many different views may cause confusion and uncertainty.

· At times large meetings do not yield much as many people are reluctant to speak before
multitudes.
4.6.2 TYPES OF MEETINGS
Question: List any three types of meetings. Most students will find such a type of question confusing
and conceivably rightly so. Perhaps this passage will clear the confusion for you.
Meetings can first be categorised by their formality i.e. Formal or Informal meeting. There after
these meeting will then have subcategories. These sub categories can further be classified according
function.
There are different types of meetings depending on the nature of the issue at hand. All these types
of meetings can be divided into two sections

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FORMAL MEETINGS
In a formal meeting normal procedures are strictly followed, e.g. Annual General Meeting
Committee Meeting
· Annual General Meeting: An annual General Meeting is held once a year to review the
organisation’s financial status and trading. At times new office bearers are elected. Reports
are also presented.
· Statutory Meeting: A statutory Meeting is called to order to present special reports and
company policies. This meeting is requires as by law.
· Board Meeting: It is held as often as required by the organisation and attended by all
directors and chaired by the Board Chairman.
· Committee Meeting: A committee is constituted in a very clear manner and conducts its
meeting in accordance with formal procedures.
· Subcommittee Meeting: This is occasionally appointed by a committee to deal with some
specific aspect of the committee’s work. The sub-committee reports back to time for an
Ordinary General Meeting, an Extraordinary Meeting is called where the special matter must
be clearly defined in the notice.
INFORMAL MEETING
In an informal meeting there are no laid down procedures followed. E.g. Emergency Meeting
· Departmental Meeting: It is usually called by the Head of Department or Manager, in order

to pass on or report on a specific project.
· Work Party Meeting: A work party meeting may be set up to work together on a specific
project or problem and come up with a decision for further action.
The success of a meeting depends on essential preparatory work. Part of this work involves making
sure that all documentation is in order. The role of a leader is to preside, maintain order and ensure
that the group contributes effectively and constructively. Well defined objectives of the meeting
should create a basis of control and the rest of members with a sense of direction. All members have
a role to play before, during and after the meeting.
CONSULTATIVE MEETING
The focus of this meeting is to obtain feedback from other members of the team on a given issues.
E.g. Management is considering changing suppliers. What may be some of the disadvantages of
doing so? Management will now use the input and outcome of the meeting to formulate policy.
DECISION MAKING MEETING
Management has noticed dubious suppliers of goods and services

and has decided to cancel supply contracts. Should it go ahead?
The recommendations of the meeting will be implemented.
PROBLEM SOLVING MEETING

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Supplies of goods and services appear to be overvaluing their

products. There is something wrong. What should be done.?
INFORMATIVE MEETING
Suppliers of goods and services have had their contracts cancelled. Management now wishes to
inform meeting members of the reasons culminating in this action.
4.6.3 MEETING AGENDA AND NOTICE

Essentially there are three documents associated with holding of
meetings
· Notice of Meeting:
Gives details of the type of meeting, place, day, date and time of the meeting. It may also
include some request, or additional information the author feels the members aught to be
advised.
· Meeting Agenda:
Gives a list of topics to be discussed at the meeting.
· Minutes:
Provide a written authoritative record of what took place at the meeting.
NOTICE OF MEETING
This serves to inform members of a meeting that is to take place. It is written by the Secretary. Effort
must be made to ensure that all concerned members are notified of the meeting in good time.
The notice shows

· The persons or group of persons that will/should attend
· Date of meeting
· Time of meeting
· Venue of meeting
It may also include an optional statement or comment that the convenor of the meeting feels that
members need to be made aware of.

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CHIKUBABE MILITARY ACADEMY
PRESS CLUB
31st January 2014
NOTICE OF MEETING
This serves to inform all Press Club members that the Monthly Prepublication
Meeting will be held on Thursday 27 February2014 at 18:00hrs in the Lecture Room.
Paxina Munjinta
SECRETARY
AGENDA
Generally speaking the agenda will not normally stand on its own as an independent document but
will be imbedded into the notice or be attached to a notice.
The agenda does have distinct sections:

· Opening Ordinary Business
· Special Business
· Final Ordinary Business
Some authors may refer to the sections as

· Traditional Items (Opening and Final Ordinary Business)
· New Business (Special Business)

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Opening prayer is not a must. Be careful, AGENDA

some people may be offended by it.
1. Opening Prayer
2. Chairpersons Opening Remarks
Items 2,3 ,4 and 5 are ordinary items
3. Apologies
(Traditional items) and must be included on
every agenda unless this were the very first
4. Minutes of last meeting
meeting then there would be no minutes to a) Reading of minutes
refer to at 4 and 5 b) Correction of minutes
c) Adoption of minutes
5. Matters arising from minutes
6. Adoption of Agenda:
(This item will not appear on every agenda but
some meetings may feel it important to obtain
Items 7, 8, and 9 are items of new business
members consensus before proceeding)
(Special business) specific to this meeting
only. 7. Tour of Post Newspapers
8. Training of typesetters
9. 10th Anniversary celebrations
Items 10, 11, 12 and 13 are again
traditional items (ordinary business). Be 10. Any other Business
yet again mindful of item 13. 11. Date of next meeting
12. Chairpersons Closing Remarks
13. Closing Prayer

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CHIKUBABE MILITARY ACADEMY
PRESS CLUB
31st January 2014
NOTICE OF MEETING
This serves to inform all Press Club members that the Monthly Prepublication Meeting will
be held on Thursday 27 February2014 at 18:00hrs in the Lecture Room.
AGENDA
1. Opening Prayer
2. Chairpersons Opening Remarks
3. Apologies
4. Minutes of last meeting
a) Reading of minutes
b) Correction of minutes
c) Adoption of minutes
5. Matters arising from minutes
6. Adoption of Agenda
7. Tour of Post Newspapers (Trywell Sakala)
8. Training of typesetters (Charity Habajene)
9. 10th Anniversary celebrations
10. Any other Business
11. Date of next meeting
12. Chairpersons Closing Remarks
13. Closing Prayer
Please come on time. Late comers will be charged.
PAXINA MUNJINTA
SECRETARY

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4.6.3.1 WRITING MINUTES
Minutes are a written record of what transpired at a meeting. An accurate written record is essential
not only for those that attended the meeting but also for those who were absent. Minutes should
be written in the past tense using third person and reported speech.
Types of meetings
Essentially there are three ways in which minutes may be recorded.
· Verbatim
· Resolution
· Narrative
VERBATIM MINUTES
It is essential to record everything that is being discussed. A word for word account is
recorded. These are primarily used in courts of law.
RESOLUTION MINUTES
Only the main conclusions (resolutions) that are reached are recorded. These are usually
used for minutes of AGMs and other statutory meetings. It is essential to note the exact
wording of the resolutions as they are passed.
NARRATIVE MINUTES
Narrative minutes are a concise summary of all the discussion that took place, reports
received, decisions made and action taken.
WRITING MINUTES
COMPONENTS OF MINUTES FOR A COMMITTEE MEETING
This should show the group that is meeting, the date, time and venue
1. TITLE
of the meeting.
This should list all the members present at the meeting. The names
are listed by the surname in alphabetical order. The name of the
person that chaired the meeting is placed first. Do not confuse the
meeting chairperson and the chairperson of the organisation. They
2. PRESENT may be the same person.
The secretary is placed last all the time.
If there are persons that hold senior offices they will also be treated
as ordinary members. You may however show their positions. Do not
be tempted to treat them special. Aside from the chair and
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Secretary all other names are arranged alphabetically.

This is an alphabetical list of all those who cannot make it to the
meeting and have given reasons why they are unable to come.
3. APOLOGIES
If none sent messages or are all present, this section is skipped
entirely
A list of members that are absent and have not indicated why.
Essentially, it’s a list of members that are AWOL (Absent Without
4. ABSENT Leave). If all members are present of if all absent members
indicated that they would not be coming, then this section is
omitted entirely.
OPTIONAL
This is optional because not all meetings start with a prayer. Zambia
5. OPENING PRAYER
is a Christian Nation but not all persons are Christians. Be mindful
that outside Zambia this could have consequences.
6. CHAIRMANS
A summary of the Chairpersons opening statements.
OPENNING REMARKS
This documents that minutes of the previous meeting were read,
7. READING OF MINUTES
corrected and adopted as a correct record of that meeting. It records
OF THE PREVIOUS
who proposed they be adopted and who seconded the proposal. If
MEETING
this was the very first meeting this section is omitted entirely.
This section records issues that were brought up as a consequence of
reading the minutes. Members may comment on specific items or
8. MATTERS ARISING
may ask for feedback/progress on assigned tasks etc. It serves to tie
FROM MINUTES
up any loose ends before any new business can be tackled. If there is
nothing that is brought up, this section is omitted entirely.
Discussions on the first item under new business can now be
9.
documented.
The second item under new business can now be documented. Then
10.
the third item and so on and so forth
This is the tall end of business. It documents any other issues
11. ANY OTHER BUSINESS
members may bring up as the meeting draws to a close. If there is
nothing that is brought up, this section is omitted entirely.
A brief statement indicating when/where the next scheduled
12. DATE OF NEXT
meeting will be held. If there is no date suggested, this section is
MEETING
omitted entirely.
13. CHAIRMANS CLOSING
A summary of the Chairpersons closing statements.
REMARKS
A space for both the Chairperson and Secretary is provided where
14. SIGNATURES
the two can sign after the minutes have been adopted.

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MINUTES OF THE CHIKUBABE MILITARY ACADEMY PRESS CLUB HELD ON THURSDY 27

FEBRUARY 2014 AT 18:00 IN THE LECTURE THEATRE
1. PRESENT
i. Mr Justine Time (Chairman)
ii. Ms Patience Chomba
iii. Mrs Charity Habajene
iv. Mr Konde Lombe
v. Mr David Mabeta
vi. Mrs Gladys Mulenga
vii. Mr Ephriam Mundia
viii. Mr Gregory Mweetwa
ix. Mr Twambo Phiri
x. Mr Trywell Sakala
xi. Mr Oliver Siyuba
xii. Ms Paxina Munjinta (Secretary)
2. APOLOGIES
i. Mr Isaac Kabwe Attending funeral
ii. Ms Patience Chomba Travelled
3. ABSENT
i. Mr Cosmas Mumba
4. OPENING PRAYER
The meeting opened with a prayer from Mrs Mulenga
5. CHAIRMANS OPENNING REMARKS

The Chairman welcomed everybody to the meeting and thanked them for heeding the call for to
be punctual. He implored members to contribute and speak candidly.
6. READING OF MINUTES OF THE PREVIOUS MEETING

The minutes were read and corrected. Mr Mundia proposed that they be adopted as correct. Ms
Chomba seconded.
7. MATTERS ARISING FROM MINUTES

a) Mrs Mulenga informed the house that a qualified safety officer had been recruited but
would be joining the institute in May.
b) The chair reported that 2 new printers had been purchased and were enroute from
Germany.
8. TOUR OF POST NEWSPAPERS

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Mr Sakala briefed the house on the tour of the Post Newspaper in Nairobi and thanked the
members for nominating him for the assignment. Following the presentation the house
unanimously resolved to
a) Formulate an editorial policy. (Mr Sakala was asked spearhead this initiative).
b) Employ a fulltime typesetter
c) Affiliate to the Post Newspaper
9. TRAINING OF TYPESETTERS
Mrs Charity Habajene made a presentation on the proposed course outline for the training of
typesetters. The house found it satisfactory and resolved that the training programme
commence right away.
10. TENTH BIRTHDAY ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATIONS

Following a lengthy discussions the following activities were chosen to commemorate the 10th
Birthday Anniversary of the Press Club.
a) A march past (Mr Mabeta)
b) An open discussion forum (Mr Justine Time)
c) A dinner dance (Mr Mweetwa and Ms Chomba)
The members nominated to spearhead the activities would work out the modalities and budgets
for their activities and report to the house at its next seating.
11. ANY OTHER BUSINESS

a) Mr Twambo wanted to know when the press cards for 2014 would be ready. Since no one
had and an idea, Mr Twambo was assigned the task of finding out from the Ministry of
Information.
b) Mrs Mulenga suggested that Mr Kabwe be given story on Human Trafficking. It was resolved
that a small cocktail party be held for him after the next meeting.
12. DATE OF NEXT MEETING

The next meeting will be held on Friday 28 March 2014
13. CHAIRMANS CLOSING REMARKS
The chairman thanked the members for their contributions and urged them to emulate the
award winning efforts of Mr Kabwe.
The meeting closed at 19:15hrs.
CHAIRPERSON SECRETARY

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4.6.4 PREPARING FOR MEETINGS
Effective meetings only happen when the expectations of all who attend are clear. If you are
responsible for running a meeting but you don't know what it is a meeting chairperson should do
before , during and after the meeting, then you are going to face challenges.
You may not be necessarily be the person running the meeting, but no matter what your role is you
must be clear on your responsibilities so that you can contribute as much as possible to the meeting
process.
Maybe you are responsible for taking minutes at a meeting but you have no idea what's expected of
you….somehow you've just ended up with this role and your responsibilities are totally unclear!
Effective meetings don't just happen by chance…they are meticulously planned and executed!
Pivotal to this process is ensuring everyone involved is crystal clear on what their role in the meeting
is and what the associated responsibilities for that role are.
Believe it or not, everyone invited to and attending a business meeting has a critical role to play in
terms of making a contribution to the overall meeting effectiveness and productive meeting
outcomes. If you are invited to attend a meeting as a participant, but do not have a particular
leadership role, don't think you can just sit back and relax and let everyone else do the work.
Meeting participants are critical to successful meeting outcomes and for this reason it is just as
important for participants to understand their roles and responsibilities in the meeting process as it
is for those running the meeting.
If running effective meetings is something you want to achieve in your business then you need to be
totally clear on the roles and responsibilities of EVERYONE involved in the meeting process. This will
ensure that all those participating in your meetings, in whatever capacity, will understand what is
expected of them personally and what is expected of everyone else involved.
Defining key meeting roles and responsibilities means expectations are clear and this means a
productive meeting environment and positive outcomes for your business.
1 - MEETING CHAIRPERSON
ROLES
· Meeting Planner
· Meeting Coordinator
· Meeting Manager
· Meeting facilitator
· Meeting leader
· Meeting contributor
RESPONSIBILITIES
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· Plan and coordinate the meeting in line with an agreed meeting process which includes
writing meeting objectives, negotiating meeting time and date with attendees, booking
venue, inviting attendees, inviting special guests, and planning catering if required
· Manage the meeting process by ensuring all meeting roles are assigned and expectations
clearly communicated, meeting protocols are negotiated and agreed to by the entire team,
everyone is able to attend as per agreed dates and times, and preparation of resources and
presentations required as per the meeting agenda is complete in time for the meeting date.
· Facilitate the meeting by taking the leadership role and directing the meeting process
through the agenda . Guide and lead discussions to ensure all participants are given the
opportunity for equal participation and wherever possible the agenda runs to the agreed
time frames. If required, ensure no one particular meeting participant dominates discussions
by enforcing meeting protocols such as honouring all participant's contributions.
· Contribute ideas and strategies to meeting discussions, brainstorming sessions and mini
workshops
2 - MEETING MINUTE TAKER
ROLES
· Agenda Coordinator
· Agenda Writer
· Meeting Note Taker
· Meeting Discussion Recorder
· Minute Writer
· Team Communications Facilitator
RESPONSIBILITIES
· Using an agreed agenda and minute taking template:

· Send proposed agenda to team so they have a baseline for planning the next meeting
agenda
· Invite agenda item submission from all meeting attendees prior to the meeting
· Write up agenda including all items carried forward from previous minutes and new items
received from the meeting attendees and meeting leader (chairperson). Send completed
agenda to all participants prior to the meeting taking place.
· During the meeting, record key points which come out of meeting discussions,
brainstorming sessions, strategic planning, feedback from mini workshops, agreements and
contracts, follow ups and progress checks. Do this by taking notes using the minute taking
template as a guide. Later fine tune the key points recorded during the meeting and produce
final minutes as a full record of the meeting.
· Write up minutes by recording key points within the minute taking template
· Disseminate minutes via Email to all participates to facilitate team communications and
making sure everyone is kept in the communication loop, even if they were not able to
attend the meeting.
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3 - TIME KEEPER
ROLES
· Meeting Time-Keeper
· Discussion Time Monitor
RESPONSIBILITIES
· Assist the meeting leader(chairperson) to monitor meeting time frames by keeping an eye
on the time allocated to agenda items (using the agenda as a guide) and making sure the
meeting is on track and within agreed times for each agenda item
· Inform the meeting when only 5 minutes remains on each agenda item
4 - MEETING PARTICIPANT
ROLES
· Agenda Contributor
· Discussion Contributor
· Brainstorming Contributor
· Special Project Participant
RESPONSIBILITIES
· Contribute items to meeting agenda

· Contribute during meetings in team discussions, brainstorming, strategic planning, and
special projects
· Undertake assigned special project tasks
· Read meeting minutes and project plans to keep up to date with important team and
business information, strategic planning and special project initiatives
4.6.5 PARTICIPATION PROCEDURES IN HEALTH SAFETY COMMITTEES
During the Meeting
The task of conducting and moderating a meeting rests with the chairperson. He or she must
therefore be well versed with procedures for opening the meeting, encouraging balanced
participation, solving problems, creativity, concluding the meeting and managing time efficiently.
OPENING THE MEETING
A good opening will ensure that the rest of the meeting will proceed smoothly. There are may ways
to do this but the safest way is to sum up what has been stated in the agenda – including the goals,
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background information and expectations of the participants. It is also good to provide an outline of
how the meeting will proceed as well as time budgeted.
Example: We will begin with a five minute presentation on the Tour of Post Newspapers by Mr
Trywell Sakala followed by a fifteen minute presentation by Ms Charity Habajene on the Training of
typesetters. The last one hour will be reserved for brainstorming among the group for creative ideas
th
on the 10 Anniversary celebrations
ENCOURAGING BALANCED PARTCIPATION
It is also important for the chairperson to encourage silent members to contribute to the meeting so
and to moderate the dominant members, so that they do not ‘hijack’ the meeting. There are several
ways to do this
· Encourage Participation in the Reverse Order of seniority- This entails getting the junior
members to speak first. If the senior members speak first, they feel suppressed or be afraid to
disagree with their superiors.
· Nominal Group Technique- Here the meeting members are encouraged to work and contribute
their ideas independently. It consists of various stages.
i) Each member is asked to write their idea on a piece of paper which is collected by the
chairperson or discussion leader.
ii) All the ideas are then written on the blackboard, so that everyone can see all the ideas
without knowing who contributed the idea. This makes the method unbiased.
iii) All the ideas are the discussed openly by all the participants. The purpose here is to
understand the ideas and not to judge them.
iv) The ideas are then ordered by the participants from the most to the least promising.
v) The ideas are the critically discussed and a decision is made collectively on the best idea.
· Encourage participation ion turns- The chairperson goes around in turns to make sure each
member contributes to the meeting. This is a good way to break the initial silence and start a
meeting.
· Use “Overhead Questions”- These are questions that are addressed to the entire group and may
be answered by anyone in the meeting.
Example Can anyone explain the reason for safety decline?
This method is good as long as all members participate equally.
· Use “Relay Questions”- This is almost the same as the overhead question. When a member asks
the chairperson a question, the chairperson refers it to the entire group, to encourage
participation.
Example- Charity has a suggestion. What do you think of it?
This type is particularly useful when the chairperson does not wish to an opinion that may
influence the group.
MANAGING TIME

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There is no prescribed length for a meeting duration. It all depends on the type of meeting and
purpose. For example a Problem solving meeting will take longer than Information sharing meetings.
KEEPING THE MEETING FOCUSSED
There is always a danger that the meeting will digress and waste time on irrelevant issues. It is the
Chairpersons’ responsibility to ensure that the meeting keeps its intended course. Some technique
to be used are
· Remind members of time constraints

· Summarize and move on
· Potstone discussion of irrelevant ideas
· Ensure convergence
· Sum up
CONCLUDING THE MEETING
The way a meeting is concluded is as important as the opening, since it will influence the follow-up
action taken on decisions made during the meeting. The chair person should know how and when to
close the meeting.
The meeting should normally be concluded at the scheduled closing time, unless important issues
still remain to be discussed and members are willing to extend the meeting. Sometimes meetings
may be concluded before theclosing time, when the key decision makers are not present, or when
important informationsuch as cost figures are not available.
There are different ways of concluding a meeting. One way is to signal and indicate how much time
is remaining, so that the group can wrap up the discussions. Another way is to summarize what has
been discussed and decided and to mention the follow-up action to be taken. The role and
responsibility of each member can also be mentioned, so that everyone is clear about what is to be
done after the meeting. An important point to be remembered is to retain the goodwill of the
participants, by thanking t hem for their contributions. Members who have made more significant
contributions should be acknowledged individually.
Example- I thank all of you for coming up with so many marvellous ideas for making the 10th
Anniversary celebrations a success. A special thanks to Mr Sikanyika for successfully negotiating
for the Amayenge Band and Mrs Chipimo for allowing us to use her premises.
KEEPING MINUTES OF THE MEETING
Since meeting are called to make important decisions, it is necessary to keep a record of what was
discussed and eventually agreed. There are several ways or formats in which minutes can be
recorded. The format discussed in the previous chapter is what is prescribed for you.
MEETING ETIQUETTE
The success of a meeting also depends on the members present i.e. the participants. A code of
conduct is in place for participants to use in order to foster harmony during the meeting.

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· Be brief and to the point

· Do not say something for the sake of it
· Contribute to add value
· Keep an open mind to facilitate convergence
· Do not interrupt
· Always address the chairperson
· Use tools and technology with care
After the Meeting

A meeting that proceeds smoothly will still not be successful, unless proper follow-up measures are
taken to ensure that the goals are fully accomplished. Follow up may involve the following steps-
· Plan for the next meeting: Very few meeting cover all items in the agenda convincingly. It is the
chairperson’s responsibility to make a note of the items that have not been discussed and to
schedule the next meeting, along with a fresh agenda.
· Check progress on follow-up actions: Members of the meeting may have been assigned
different responsibilities and deadlines for completion of tasks. Therefore, it is important to
monitor their progress every now and then, after the meeting is over, to ensure that deadlines
are met.
· Do your own groundwork: Apart from monitoring the progress of participants, it is also
important that you as the chairperson finish any pending work before the next meeting.
Common Mistakes Made at Meetings

· Lack of structure: A meeting should have a structure i.e. a sequence plan so that items are
tackled haphazardly
· No goals or agenda: A meeting without an agenda lacks direction. No one knows what issues are
to be discussed so they cannot prepare for such a meeting.
· No pre-meeting orientation: Members need to be briefed how to prepare for the meeting.
· Inadequate preparation: Some members consider meetings as time off from their normal duties
and do not take time to prepare.
· Not focussing on the subject: A common mistakes where members discuss issues not indicated
on the agenda.
· Meetings that last too long: The chairperson must endeavour to keep to time. Lengthy meeting
are a bore and most participants will lose concentration.
· Disorganised meetings: If there is no order the chairperson must restore order in the shortest
possible time.
· Inconclusive meetings: The Chair must not move to the next agenda item unless the current item
has been concluded with a clear understanding of the item.
· Ineffective leadership: The chair must provide leadership.
· Time wasted: Time must not be wasted on irrelevant issues or red herrings.
· Dominating the discussion: A few speakers may speak all the time, while others are silent.

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DURING THE MEETING
The task of conducting and moderating a meeting rests with the chairperson. He or she must
therefore be well versed with procedures for opening the meeting, encouraging balanced
participation, solving problems, creativity, concluding the meeting and managing time efficiently.
OPENING THE MEETING
A good opening will ensure that the rest of the meeting will proceed smoothly. There are may ways
to do this but the safest way is to sum up what has been stated in the agenda – including the goals,
background information and expectations of the participants. It is also good to provide an outline of
how the meeting will proceed as well as time budgeted.
Example: We will begin with a five minute presentation on the Tour of Post Newspapers by Mr
Trywell Sakala followed by a fifteen minute presentation by Ms Charity Habajene on the Training of
typesetters. The last one hour will be reserved for brainstorming among the group for creative ideas
th
on the 10 Anniversary celebrations
ENCOURAGING BALANCED PARTCIPATION
It is also important for the chairperson to encourage silent members to contribute to the meeting so
and to moderate the dominant members, so that they do not ‘hijack’ the meeting. There are several
ways to do this
· Encourage Participation in the Reverse Order of seniority- This entails getting the junior
members to speak first. If the senior members speak first, they feel suppressed or be afraid to
disagree with their superiors.
· Nominal Group Technique- Here the meeting members are encouraged to work and contribute
their ideas independently. It consists of various stages.
vi) Each member is asked to write their idea on a piece of paper which is collected by the
chairperson or discussion leader.
vii) All the ideas are then written on the blackboard, so that everyone can see all the ideas
without knowing who contributed the idea. This makes the method unbiased.
viii) All the ideas are the discussed openly by all the participants. The purpose here is to
understand the ideas and not to judge them.
ix) The ideas are then ordered by the participants from the most to the least promising.
x) The ideas are the critically discussed and a decision is made collectively on the best idea.
· Encourage participation ion turns- The chairperson goes around in turns to make sure each
member contributes to the meeting. This is a good way to break the initial silence and start a
meeting.
· Use “Overhead Questions”- These are questions that are addressed to the entire group and may
be answered by anyone in the meeting.
Example Can anyone explain the reason for safety decline?
This method is good as long as all members participate equally.

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113
· Use “Relay Questions”- This is almost the same as the overhead question. When a member asks
the chairperson a question, the chairperson refers it to the entire group, to encourage
participation.
Example- Charity has a suggestion. What do you think of it?
This type is particularly useful when the chairperson does not wish to an opinion that may
influence the group.
MANAGING TIME
There is no prescribed length for a meeting duration. It all depends on the type of meeting and
purpose. For example a Problem solving meeting will take longer than Information sharing meetings.
KEEPING THE MEETING FOCUSSED
There is always a danger that the meeting will digress and waste time on irrelevant issues. It is the
Chairpersons’ responsibility to ensure that the meeting keeps its intended course. Some technique
to be used are
· Remind members of time constraints

· Summarize and move on
· Potstone discussion of irrelevant ideas
· Ensure convergence
· Sum up
CONCLUDING THE MEETING
The way a meeting is concluded is as important as the opening, since it will influence the follow-up
action taken on decisions made during the meeting. The chair person should know how and when to
close the meeting.
The meeting should normally be concluded at the scheduled closing time, unless important issues
still remain to be discussed and members are willing to extend the meeting. Sometimes meetings
may be concluded before theclosing time, when the key decision makers are not present, or when
important informationsuch as cost figures are not available.
There are different ways of concluding a meeting. One way is to signal and indicate how much time
is remaining, so that the group can wrap up the discussions. Another way is to summarize what has
been discussed and decided and to mention the follow-up action to be taken. The role and
responsibility of each member can also be mentioned, so that everyone is clear about what is to be
done after the meeting. An important point to be remembered is to retain the goodwill of the
participants, by thanking t hem for their contributions. Members who have made more significant
contributions should be acknowledged individually.
Example- I thank all of you for coming up with so many marvellous ideas for making the 10th
Anniversary celebrations a success. A special thanks to Mr Sikanyika for successfully negotiating
for the Amayenge Band and Mrs Chipimo for allowing us to use her premises.

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KEEPING MINUTES OF THE MEETING
Since meeting are called to make important decisions, it is necessary to keep a record of what was
discussed and eventually agreed. There are several ways or formats in which minutes can be
recorded. The format discussed in the previous chapter is what is prescribed for you.
MEETING ETIQUETTE
The success of a meeting also depends on the members present i.e. the participants. A code of
conduct is in place for participants to use in order to foster harmony during the meeting.
· Be brief and to the point

· Do not say something for the sake of it
· Contribute to add value
· Keep an open mind to facilitate convergence
· Do not interrupt
· Always address the chairperson
· Use tools and technology with care
AFTER THE MEETING

A meeting that proceeds smoothly will still not be successful, unless proper follow-up measures are
taken to ensure that the goals are fully accomplished. Follow up may involve the following steps-
· Plan for the next meeting: Very few meeting cover all items in the agenda convincingly. It is the
chairperson’s responsibility to make a note of the items that have not been discussed and to
schedule the next meeting, along with a fresh agenda.
· Check progress on follow-up actions: Members of the meeting may have been assigned
different responsibilities and deadlines for completion of tasks. Therefore, it is important to
monitor their progress every now and then, after the meeting is over, to ensure that deadlines
are met.
· Do your own groundwork: Apart from monitoring the progress of participants, it is also
important that you as the chairperson finish any pending work before the next meeting.
COMMON MISTAKES MADE AT MEETINGS

· Lack of structure: A meeting should have a structure i.e. a sequence plan so that items are
tackled haphazardly
· No goals or agenda: A meeting without an agenda lacks direction. No one knows what issues are
to be discussed so they cannot prepare for such a meeting.
· No pre-meeting orientation: Members need to be briefed how to prepare for the meeting.
· Inadequate preparation: Some members consider meetings as time off from their normal duties
and do not take time to prepare.
· Not focussing on the subject: A common mistakes where members discuss issues not indicated
on the agenda.
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· Meetings that last too long: The chairperson must endeavour to keep to time. Lengthy meeting
are a bore and most participants will lose concentration.
· Disorganised meetings: If there is no order the chairperson must restore order in the shortest
possible time.
· Inconclusive meetings: The Chair must not move to the next agenda item unless the current
item has been concluded with a clear understanding of the item.
· Ineffective leadership: The chair must provide leadership.
· Time wasted: Time must not be wasted on irrelevant issues or red herrings.
· Dominating the discussion: A few speakers may speak all the time, while others are silent.
· No follow-up action: A meeting is of little value if nothing is done or implemented after the
meeting.
· Follow-up action: A meeting is of little value if nothing is done or implemented after the
meeting.
Glossary of Meeting Terminologies
Literally means "for this purpose". An adhoc committee is a

Ad hoc committee that is established for a particular purpose for a short
1 time and is disbanded thereafter.
2 Addendum An amendment which adds words to a motion.
All remarks must be addressed to the chairperson , members must
Addressing the chair not discuss matters between themselves at a meeting.
3
Subject to the articles, rules or constitution of an organisation, the
Chairperson with the consent of the members of a meeting,
Adjournment adjourn it in order to postpone further discussion, or because of
the shortage of time. Adequate notice of an adjourned meeting
must be given.
4
This is the period during a meeting when minutes of the previous
Adoption of minutes meeting are read, corrected and consented to as a correct record
of what transpired in the previous meeting.
5
A document that shows items to be discussed at a meeting
Agenda
6
A proposal to alter a motion by adding or deleting words. It must
Amendment be proposed, seconded and put to the meeting in the customary
7 way
This is a constitutional meeting held once a year normally to share
Annual General dividends, elect office bearers and chart the way forward. All
Meeting members of the organisation are invited
8
The tail end of business during a meeting that allows members to
Any other business bring forth any items that they would like to be discussed as long as
9 they have not been discussed in the current meeting.

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A record of people present at a meeting, usually provided by an

Attendance sheet attendance sheet which is passed round for signature by members.
10
A vote usually allowed to the Chairperson, except in the case of a
Casting Vote company meeting. A casting vote is used to break a deadlock when
there are an equal number of votes 'for' and 'against' a motion.
11
12 Chairman An official mandated to control and lead the meeting
This is the chairperson’s private agenda that helps him lead the
Chairman's Agenda meeting.
13
This implies that once a decision has been passed each member is
Collective obligated to stand by the decision and accept responsibility for it as
Responsibility though it were their own even though they may have divergent
personal views.
14
Rules and regulations that prescribe the governance of an
Constitution organisation
15
16 Convene To call up a meeting
17 Counter proposal An alternative proposal brought up for consideration.
A motion that has to be dropped either because there is no
Dropped Motion seconder or because the meeting wishes it to be abandoned
18
The voting, of say, a committee en bloc, that is, electing or re-
En block electing all members of a committee by the passing of one
19 resolution.
An individual that automatically becomes eligible to attend a
Ex Officio meeting by virtue of an office or position held.
20
21 In camera A meeting which is not open to the public.
22 Intra vires Within the powers of a person or a body concerned.
This is where the chairperson makes a ruling on a matter in effect
Kangaroo closure bringing about an abrupt suspension of further discussion on the
23 matter.
A letter or a document is said to 'lie on the table' when it is decided
Lie on the table at a meeting to take no action upon the business concerned.
24
A period when issues are brought up and discussed as a
Matters arising consequence of reading and adopting minutes. Matters arising
25 from minutes.
“A meeting is a formal gathering of at least three persons who
Meeting assemble to discuss previously specified items”.
26

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A motion must normally be written and handed to the chairperson

or secretary before the meeting. The mover of the motion speaks
on it and has the 'right of reply' at the close of the discussion. The
seconder may then speak to the motion only once. If there is no
seconder, a motion is dropped and cannot be introduced again.
When put to a meeting, the motion becomes 'the question', and
Motion when it is passed becomes 'the resolution'. A motion on a matter
which has not been included on the agenda can be moved only if
'leave of urgency' been agreed by the meeting or it has been
included under the customary item 'any other business'.
27
Also called verbatim minutes. These give a blow by blow account of
Narrative Minutes proceedings.
28
This means no one contradicting. i.e. there are no votes against the
Nem con (nemine motion, but some members have not voted at all.
contradicente)
29
30 Opposer One who is against a motion
This is a question regarding the procedure at a meeting or a query
relating to the standing orders or constitution raised by a member
Point of order during the meeting, e.g. absence of quorum.
31
Poll is the term given for the method of voting at an election, and
in a meeting this is usually takes the form of a secret vote by ballot
Poll paper. The way in which a poll is to be conducted is usually laid out
in a ballot paper.
32
33 Postponement The action taken to defer a meeting to a later date.
An idea that has been submitted for consideration but has not yet
Proposal been seconded.
34
A person allowed to attend a meeting on behalf of an absent
Proxy member.
35
When a member feels that sufficient discussion has taken place on
a motion, it may be moved 'that the question be now put'. If this is
carried, only the proposer of the motion being discussed may
Question be now put speak and a vote is taken. If the motion "question be now put' is
defeated, discussion may continue.
36
The prescribed minimum number of members that must be
Quorum present in order for a meeting to be legally convened.
37
This is what is agreed by the members during a meeting.
Resolution
38
These are minutes that only record the final outcome of
Resolution minutes discussions.
39
40 Rider

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An opportunity given to a sponsor of a motion to make his final

Right of reply remarks before it is put to a vote.
41
A meeting member responsible for keeping documentation and
Secretary writing of minutes
42
To adjourn a meeting without t setting a date for the next meeting.
Sine die
43
44 Standing committee A permanent committee
The rules and regulations that govern the procedure of a meeting.
Standing Orders
45
46 Status quo Maintaining things as they were. Without change
A group of people selected to discuss or decide on behalf of a
Sub-committee committee.
47
To save time the chairman may assume that a document has been
Taken as read read by members and proceeds to enter discussions. This is
48 especially true with long documents
49 Ultra vires Acting beyond ones powers or jurisdiction
This is where a resolution is passed with every voting for it
Unanimous
50
4.6.6 State procedures for organising safety forums
4.6.7 State procedures for conducting is pre-shift meetings

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UNIT: 4.7 INTERVIEW SKILLS
General Learning Outcome: Apply interview skills
4.7.1 State types of interviews
4.7.2 Describe the preparations required prior to an interview
4.7.3 Discuss the techniques required during an interview
4.7.4 Discuss how to close an interview
4.7.0 INTERVIEWS
A search for the synonym of the word interview reveals the following words as similar in meaning;
Meeting; Dialogue; Talk; Consultation; Conference; Discussion; Question; and Interrogate. An
interview will to some extent encompass some or all of these terms.
An interview is a structured friendly question and answer session in which both parties try to gain
some insight into the other.
There are different types of interviews each of the designed to serve a particular purpose.
· Job Interview
· Performance Interview
· Appraisal Interview
· Exit interview
4.7.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

There are different types of interviews each of the designed to serve a particular purpose.
· Job Interview
· Performance Interview
· Appraisal Interview
· Exit interview
Attending Interviews

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Interviews provide employers with an opportunity to find out about you and what you know. They
may involve one interviewer or several people, known as a panel interview.
Attending interviews is a process that involves three distinct stages i.e. what you need to do before
after and during the interview:
4.7.2 PREPARING FOR INTERVIEWS
Confirm the arrangements on email or otherwise and make sure you know exactly where you are
going and who you will be meeting.
Preparation
1. Be prepared
Prior to the interview take the time to plan ahead. Know what time you need to leave in
order to arrive cool, calm and collected. Know the route you are going to take and do your
research. Check you have a map or that you have the correct address.
2. Research the Company

Find out as much as possible about the organisation and their business. Use the internet,
your local library or your consultant to develop a clear picture of the company. Find out
about their sales, number of employees, primary competitors, new products, and their plans
for the future.
Read any information that the organisation publishes such as annual reports, newsletters
and brochures. Researching the organisation prior to the interview not only saves an
interviewer’s time in explaining basic company opportunities and information, but also
displays your initiative and interest in pursuing a career with the organisation.
3. Dress appropriately
Being well dressed, groomed and confident is your best and easiest opportunity to impress
someone. Never dress down regardless of how casual you perceive the circumstances to be.
Stick with conservative styles. Body language is a powerful tool!
4. Master your CV! Know every detail in it.

You will look very foolish if you forget what is in your CV if and when queried about in it.
5. Anticipate questions you might be asked.

Try to predict the questions you are likely to be asked and prepare how to answer the.
TOP 10 QUESTIONS
a) What is your greatest weakness?

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b) Tell me about an accomplishment you are most proud of.

c) What is your dream job?
d) Tell me how you handled a difficult situation.
e) Why should we hire you?
f) Why are you looking for a job?
g) Why are you interested in working for [insert company name here]?
h) How would you deal with an angry or irate customer?
i) Describe yourself.
j) Where do you see yourself in 5 years? 10 years?
6. Gather all necessary information and put it in a folder.

This shows you are organised and give you confidence because you will have all your
ammunition right there with you.
7. Have a good nights rest.

Arrive well rested emotionally and physically. Avoid bloodshot eyes if you can.
8. Get there early!

Whatever you do, arrive with at least 15 minutes to spare and in plenty of time. This will
help you to relax and “acclimatise”.
9. Call if arriving late.

If there is even a remote chance of being late, call so that your interviewer may know. This is
the best thing to do if perchance factors outside your control delay you.
4.7.3 INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES
At the Interview
1. Be calm
Being a bit nervous at an interview is normal. Just do your best to appear calm, friendly and
confident and consider the following tips:
2. Switch of your phone

It is a transgression for your phone to ring in the middle of an interview. Turn it off!!
3. The interview starts from the first moment of contact

Be aware of and avoid ‘small talk’
4. Introduce Yourself
When arriving at an interview, introduce yourself.
5. Shake hands
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Shake hands with the interviewer or each panel member when you enter the room if they
are in reaching distance. Do not go round the table!
6. lean forward
A forward leaning posture indicates attention.
7. Make eye contact

This is a matter of cultural norms but it is true that reasonable eye contact will work
positively because it is regarded as a show of confidence and honesty.
Consider the following-
· Staring eyes: Too much eye contact either shows superiority or lack of respect, a
threatening attitude or a wish to insult
· Too little eye contact: It has multiple interpretations. Dishonesty, impoliteness,
insincerity, and also shyness
· Withdrawal of eye contact: Considered a sign of submission
· Scarcely looking at a person when in proximity: An introvert shows this behaviour when
discussing intimate or difficult topics, or dislike for the other person.
8. Look interested
Create rapport by looking interested in the goings on in the interview room. This will bring
an air of enthusiasm.
9. Don't exaggerate.
Do not exaggerate your movements or abilities. Most people can see through play acting in a
flash.
10. Ask for clarification if unsure

If you are asked a question that you are not sure about, ask the interviewer to explain or
clarify the question. This shows that you are not afraid to ask questions to get things right
11. Take time to think

If you are not sure of how to answer a question, take a moment to think about it. Pausing is
perfectly OK and shows you don’t panic under pressure
12. Answer positively

Be sure in your responses and avoid using 'I might' or 'I guess'
13. Thank the interviewer(s)

When the interview is over, thank the interviewers for their time and shake hands again.
Remember - first impressions count!
BODY LANGUAGE
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From eye contact to posture to the way you fix your hair, avoid these 10 physical slip-ups in your
next job interview.
Bad Posture: Leaning back is lazy or arrogant, leaning forward is aggressive and slouching is just lazy.
Instead, experts say to aim for a neutral position, sitting tall as if a string were connecting
your head to the ceiling.
Breaking Eye Contact: "Hold eye contact one extra eyelash," says charisma coach Cynthia Burnham.
She says we tend to feel uncomfortable holding eye contact once a personal connection has
been created. Don't stare, but try to hold your interviewers gaze for one extra second before
breaking away. "Do this especially when shaking hands," she says.
Chopping and Pointing: Cynthia Burnham, a California-based charisma coach, says chopping or
pointing motions can "cut up" the space between you and your interviewer in an aggressive
way.
Crossed Arms "Arms crossed over your chest signal defensiveness and resistance," says Karen
Friedman, communications expert. "When they're open at your sides you appear more
approachable."
Excessive Nodding: "Sometimes we undermine how powerful or in focus we are by nodding like a
bobble-head doll," says Burnham, a habit that's particularly common in women. "Nod once
or twice with a smile of agreement. But find your still center and stay there."
Fidgeting: "Stop fidgeting!" says Amanda Augustine of The Ladders. "The nervous energy will
distract the interviewer. You want [him or her] focused on what you have to say, not the
coins jingling in your pocket or the hangnail on your finger."
Hands behind Back: It's important to appear approachable and open, so don't try to control
gestures or fidgeting by keeping your hands still. This is especially important when you begin
to speak, says Friedman. "Keeping your hands in your pockets or behind your back inhibits
movement and makes you appear stiff."
Mismatched Expressions: "If your tone isn't matching your facial expression you could find yourself
in hot water," says communications coach Matt Eventoff. "If someone asks what you're most
passionate about and your face is in deadpan while you answer, it's not going to translate
well."
Shifty Eyes: Friedman says distracted or upward eye movements can suggest someone is lying or not
sure of themselves. "It's important to look someone directly in the eye to convey confidence
and certainty."
Staring: "It's important to be confident and look the interviewer in the eye," says Amanda
Augustine, job search expert at The Ladders. "But then break away. Locking eyes with
someone for an extended period of time can be interpreted as aggressive, not to mention
creepy.

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4.7.4 AFTER THE INTERVIEW
Even if you think the interview has been a disaster, be polite as it may not have been as bad as you
think! If you miss out on one job, the employer could still be thinking of you for another more
suitable position in the future.
1. Write a thank you letter
2. Think about how it went at the interview.
3. Make some notes about what happened.
4. Think about how you can improve. For example, perhaps you were asked a really tough
question and want to have an answer ready if you are asked that question again.
5. Ask your interviewer for feedback, if you don't get the job.
Ask what you could improve on, as well as if they thought your work skills and experience were
lacking in any area. This will help you with future interviews.
FURTHER INTERVIEWING ADVICE
On the day:
1. Introductions
When the time comes to begin the interview, remember to start off on a positive note. A
firm handshake, a sincere smile, and a friendly greeting are all that’s needed to get things
going your way.
2. Keep it simple
3. Minimise miscommunication by following these suggestions:
· Think before you speak. Phrase what you say in short, simple sentences
· Answer one question at a time
· Do not volunteer information - provide just the information needed to answer the
question.
· Get to the point; remember 1-2 minutes at a time is the maximum time or any single
answer. .
· Stay positive – NEVER say or imply anything about a past employer that is less than
complimentary
4. Be curious and get involved
The most effective interviews are those where an active two-way conversation prevails. Not
the typical question and answer type. Begin early in the interview to interject your own
inquisitive and probing insight.
During the interview
5. Ask questions
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Anyone who has interviewed potential employees will agree that individuals who fail to ask
questions are rarely hired. By asking questions you effectively demonstrate your interest. In
addition, asking questions often leads to a more open conversation and a more relaxed
interview that is beneficial to both parties.
6. Other factors to consider

• Most companies will want to know what salary you expect. Do not be too specific,
try to talk in terms of a "salary range"
• Stay away from subjects such as religion and politics.
• Avoid trying to guess what the interviewer wants to hear. Be who you are and
answer questions honestly and directly
• Do not take notes during the interview. Try to get a business card from those you
speak with so that you have a record of their name, title, etc
Ending the interview

An interview is an opportunity for you to present your skills, interests, and abilities to a potential
employer. It is also an opportunity for the company to "sell" you on the advantages of working
with them. If you like what you have seen and want to be considered for an offer -TELL THEM OF
YOUR INTEREST!
Oops!
If you think you made a wrong step, don't panic. Wait until the end of the interview and then ask
your interviewer, "Are there any reservations that you have in my ability to do this job?" If
he/she says there is something missing that is technical, don't argue the point. Give them a quick
example of how you overcame not having certain technical skills in your previous positions and
move on. If there is any other issue, it may well be related to their perception of other areas of
your experience. If you can get a candid discussion going about how you have been perceived
you might be able to salvage the interview.
PRINCIPLES OF INTERVIEW COMMUNICATION SKILLS:
ATTENDING BEHAVIOUR
Attending behaviour is very important to effective interviewing. Attending involves the things we do
which communicate to clients that we are listening and ready to respond. It carries the message that
we are there with the client that the client is important to us and deserves our attention. Effective
attending behaviour also makes our listening more effective; it puts us in a position and a frame of
mind which increases our chances of hearing, seeing, and otherwise sensing what we need to pay
attention to in order to be most helpful. There are several things which we do to attend.
1. Distance.
Maintain an appropriate distance from your client. You need to be close enough to hear and be
heard, to communicate that you are involved, and to reach out to touch if necessary. At the same
time you do not want to invade the personal space which people need around them to be
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comfortable. There are many factors which influence how much space we need and how much
closeness we prefer. Big people, especially men, need more distance. There are sub-cultural and age
differences. There are infinite individual differences which mean that you need to be very sensitive
to the issue of distance when interviewing all the different people you will see. There is a general
rule that four and a half feet is a good starting point. If possible, give your client the opportunity to
move closer or farther away by providing a chair with casters or which moves easily, and respect
their decisions about distance when they make them.
2. Orientation.
One of the most important things we can do to attend is to sit or stand facing the client squarely.
Most interviews are conducted with both the worker and client sitting, and it is important to be
aware that the chair which you are using is oriented to face the client as much as possible. This
communicates that the client is the center of our attention. It lets those people whom we are
helping know that we are there for them.
3. Posture.
It is also important to have an open and relatively erect posture when interviewing. Make sure that
you are not crossing your arms and legs, especially your arms. A closed posture communicates that
you are not receptive to what the client has to say. Opening up communicates your willingness to
hear, that you are open to what the client has to say. This does not mean that you are sprawled-out;
it does mean that your arms are at your side and your feet are on the floor. You should be erect
enough to be alert, but not rigid. It is OK to have your back against the back of your chair, but you
should not be leaning back, and for most of us it is good to bend forward at times, especially when
we are listening to something that the client is saying which is especially important.
4. Eye-contact.
With most clients it is valuable to maintain frequent, but not constant, eye-contact. We want to pay
attention to what our client is saying but we do not want to get into a staring-match. Sometimes we
need to be especially sensitive to cultural differences regarding eye-contact; there is a wide variation
as to how much is accepted. We do not want people who are taught to avoid eye-contact to be put
in uncomfortable situations. The Cultural Diversity course which is required for a social work degree
is an excellent source of information about those kinds of differences. When we do use eye-contact
it is important to remember that it does not always, and usually should not, have to be eye-to-eye
contact. We can pay attention and show that we are listening by watching our client's mouth and
gestures. We need to be careful never to stare at parts of the body which make people feel
uncomfortable, but be do need to attend to body language.
5. Reduce mannerisms.
We need to minimize the things we do which can be distracting. Most everyone has nervous habits
or mannerisms which can be annoying, or at least irritating to someone who has important ideas to
communicate. Avoid stretching, fidgeting, scratching, or doing similar things. It is certainly natural to
change position during the course of an interview which may last as long as an hour, but movement
should not be distracting. One way to do this is to use the time when we are speaking rather than
listening to shift our weight or otherwise move. If you need to get up, invite the client to do the
same or offer an explanation.
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6. be comfortable.
Most of all it is important to communicate to your prospective employer that you are comfortable. If
you are comfortable it will increase their ability to be so. This advice may contradict some of the
above ideas, but it is should always be considered. Exceptions can be made in order to be
comfortable. For example, many women are taught to cross their legs or the ankles in order to sit
properly. I remember my grandmother reminding my sister how to 'sit like a lady.' Employers have
grandmothers too and we all need to respect what our bodies have learned over the years.
PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND ATTENDING
It is also true that the clothes you wear and the other things you do are as important to consider as
attending behaviour. You should be aware that employers will form impressions based on the way
we look, how we sound, and even how we smell. These types of cues are very important in our
culture. We communicate status and role distinctions by the way we dress and otherwise present
ourselves.
1. Clothing.
You should look professional but not overinvested in fashion or status. The clothing we wear should
communicate that we are competent but not trying to show off. Different outfits are appropriate for
different populations and work places. If you spend part of your time playing on the floor with
children, you need to wear clothes which permit that easily.
2. Jewellery.
Another way we modify our appearance is through the use of jewellery. Here again the most
important thing to think about is the impact which your use of jewellery will have on employers. It is
certainly appropriate to wear wedding rings and other things that have meaning, but it is not a good
idea to flash expensive pieces which are intended to impress people. We should impress employers
with our competence and concern, not with material things. Use your jewellery to make a statement
about who you are and make sure that statement is consistent with your professional
responsibilities.
3. Scent.
The principle is much the same here. You should be presentable but not overwhelming. We need to
be clean and certainly not offensive, but we don't need to smell like the perfume counter at the local
department store.
INTERVIEW DOs and DONTs
Interview DOs
7. Dress appropriately for the industry; err on the side of being conservative to show you take
the interview seriously. Your personal grooming and cleanliness should be impeccable.

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8. Know the exact time and location of your interview; know how long it takes to get there,
park, find a rest room to freshen up, etc.
9. Arrive early; 10 minutes prior to the interview start time [or earlier if the event or employer
instructs you to do so].
10. Treat other people you encounter with courtesy and respect. Their opinions of you might be
solicited during hiring decisions.
11. Offer a firm handshake, make eye contact, and have a friendly expression when you are
greeted by your interviewer.
12. Listen to be sure you understand your interviewer's name and the correct pronunciation.
13. Even when your interviewer gives you a first and last name, address your interviewer by title
(Ms., Mr., Dr.) and last name, until invited to do otherwise.
14. Maintain good eye contact during the interview.
15. Sit still in your seat; avoid fidgeting and slouching.
16. Respond to questions and back up your statements about yourself with specific examples
whenever possible.
17. Ask for clarification if you don't understand a question.
18. Be thorough in your responses, while being concise in your wording.
19. Be honest and be yourself — your best professional self. Dishonesty gets discovered and is
grounds for withdrawing job offers and for firing. You want a good match between yourself
and your employer. If you get hired by acting like someone other than yourself, you and your
employer will both be unhappy.
20. Treat the interview seriously and as though you are truly interested in the employer and the
opportunity presented.
21. Exhibit a positive attitude. The interviewer is evaluating you as a potential co-worker.
Behave like someone you would want to work with.
22. Have intelligent questions prepared to ask the interviewer. Having done your research about
the employer in advance, ask questions which you did not find answered in your research.
23. Evaluate the interviewer and the organization s/he represents. An interview is a two-way
street. Conduct yourself cordially and respectfully, while thinking critically about the way
you are treated and the values and priorities of the organization.
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24. Do expect to be treated appropriately. If you believe you were treated inappropriately or
asked questions that were inappropriate or made you uncomfortable, discuss this with a
Career Services advisor or the director.
25. Make sure you understand the employer's next step in the hiring process; know when and
from whom you should expect to hear next. Know what action you are expected to take
next, if any.
26. When the interviewer concludes the interview, offer a firm handshake and make eye
contact. Depart gracefully.
27. After the interview, make notes right away so you don't forget critical details.
28. Write a thank-you letter to your interviewer promptly.
Interview DON'Ts
1. Don't make excuses. Take responsibility for your decisions and your actions.
2. Don't make negative comments about previous employers or professors (or others).
3. Don't falsify application materials or answers to interview questions.
4. Don't treat the interview casually, as if you are just shopping around or doing the interview
for practice. This is an insult to the interviewer and to the organization.
5. Don't give the impression that you are only interested in an organization because of its
geographic location.
6. Don't give the impression you are only interested in salary; don't ask about salary and
benefits issues until the subject is brought up by your interviewer.
7. Don't act as though you would take any job or are desperate for employment.
8. Don't make the interviewer guess what type of work you are interested in; it is not the
interviewer's job to act as a career advisor to you.
9. Don't be unprepared for typical interview questions. You may not be asked all of them in
every interview, but being unprepared will not help you.
10. A job search can be hard work and involve frustrations; don't exhibit frustrations or a
negative attitude in an interview.

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11. Don't go to extremes with your posture; don't slouch, and don't sit rigidly on the edge of
your chair.
12. Don't assume that a female interviewer is "Mrs." or "Miss." Address her as "Ms." unless told
otherwise. (If she has a Ph.D. or other doctoral degree or medical degree, use "Dr. [last
name]" just as you would with a male interviewer. Marital status of anyone, male or female,
is irrelevant to the purpose of the interview.
13. Don't chew gum or smell like smoke.
14. Don't allow your cell phone to sound during the interview. (If it does, apologize quickly and
ignore it.) Don't take a cell phone call. Don't look at a text message.
15. Don't take your parents, your pet (an assistance animal is not a pet in this circumstance),
spouse, fiancé, friends or enemies to an interview. If you are not grown up and independent
enough to attend an interview alone, you're insufficiently grown up and independent for a
job. (They can certainly visit your new city, at their own expense, but cannot attend your
interview.)
QUICK TIPS ON INTERVIEWS...:
1. Show up on time and prepared to discuss the job, the organization and how you fit.
2. Dress appropriately and have impeccable grooming. An interview is a formal meeting.
3. Have an excellent handshake.
4. Be honest.
5. Focus on what you can do for the employer, not on what the employer can do for you.
6. Look, act and speak like an intelligent, thoughtful, pleasant person.
7. Be confident, but not arrogant. Don't assume you have the job in the bag just because you
were offered an interview or because people are nice to you.
8. Remember that listening is the most important communication skill.
9. Present your strengths. Don't apologize for what you don't have. If asked to discuss
weaknesses, be prepared.
10. Express thanks in person to everyone you meet, and afterward send thanks in writing.

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EMPLOYER'S INTERVIEW TIPS FOR STUDENTS
1. Show up on time and prepared to discuss the job, the organization and how you fit.
2. Dress appropriately and have impeccable grooming. An interview is a formal meeting.
3. Have an excellent handshake.
4. Be honest.
5. Focus on what you can do for the employer, not on what the employer can do for you.
6. Look, act and speak like an intelligent, thoughtful, pleasant person.
7. Be confident, but not arrogant. Don't assume you have the job in the bag just because you
were offered an interview or because people are nice to you.
8. Remember that listening is the most important communication skill.
9. Present your strengths. Don't apologize for what you don't have. If asked to discuss
weaknesses, be prepared.
10. Express thanks in person to everyone you meet, and afterward send thanks in writing.
TYPICAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Most Common Interview Questions

1. What are your strengths?
2. What are your weaknesses?
3. Why are you interested in working for [insert company name here]?
4. Where do you see yourself in 5 years? 10 years?
5. Why do you want to leave your current company?
6. Why was there a gap in your employment between [insert date] and [insert date]?
7. What can you offer us that someone else can not?
8. What are three things your former manager would like you to improve on?
9. Are you willing to relocate?
10. Are you willing to travel?
11. Tell me about an accomplishment you are most proud of.
12. Tell me about a time you made a mistake.
13. What is your dream job?
14. How did you hear about this position?
15. What would you look to accomplish in the first 30 days/60 days/90 days on the job?
16. Discuss your resume.
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17. Discuss your educational background.

18. Describe yourself.
19. Tell me how you handled a difficult situation.
20. Why should we hire you?
21. Why are you looking for a new job?
22. Would you work holidays/weekends?
23. How would you deal with an angry or irate customer?
24. What are your salary requirements? (Hint: if you’re not sure what’s a fair salary range and
compensation package, research the job title and/or company)
25. Give a time when you went above and beyond the requirements for a project.
26. Who are our competitors?
27. What was your biggest failure?
28. What motivates you?
29. What’s your availability?
30. Who’s your mentor?
31. Tell me about a time when you disagreed with your boss.
32. How do you handle pressure?
33. What is the name of our CEO?
34. What are your career goals?
35. What gets you up in the morning?
36. What would your direct reports say about you?
37. What were your bosses’ strengths/weaknesses?
38. If I called your boss right now and asked him what area you could improve on, what would
he say?
39. Are you a leader or a follower?
40. What was the last book you’ve read for fun?
41. What are your co-worker pet peeves?
42. What are your hobbies?
43. What is your favourite website?
44. What makes you uncomfortable?
45. What are some of your leadership experiences?
46. How would you fire someone?
47. What do you like the most and least about working in this industry?
48. Would you work 40+ hours a week?
49. What questions haven’t I asked you?
50. What questions do you have for me?
In addition to questions commonly asked during a job interview, many unexpected and downright
bizarre questions may also be asked.
ODD QUESTIONS
While we all know the interview process can seem like a bit of a stressful process, for some it can be
downright gruelling! We’ve culled through tens of thousands interview questions that job seekers
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from around the world have shared on Glass door over the past year and found some pretty off the
wall stuff. Here’s our take on the top 25 oddball interview questions of 2010:
1. “If you were shrunk to the size of a pencil and put in a blender, how would you get out?” – view
answers (Asked at Goldman Sachs).
2. “How many ridges [are there] around a quarter?” (Asked at Deloitte).
3. “What is the philosophy of Martial Arts?” (Asked at Aflac)
4. “Explain [to] me what has happened in this country during the last 10 years.” (Asked at Boston
Consulting).
5. “Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10. How weird you are.” (Asked at Capital One).
6. “How many basketball[s] can you fit in this room” (Asked at Google).
7. “Out of 25 horses, pick the fastest 3 horses. In each race, only 5 horses can run at the same time.
What is the minimum number of races required?” (Asked at Bloomberg LP).
8. “If you could be any superhero, who would it be?” (Asked at AT&T).
9. “You have a birthday cake and have exactly 3 slices to cut it into 8 equal pieces. How do you do
it?” (Asked at Blackrock).
10. “Given the numbers 1 to 1000, what is the minimum numbers guesses needed to find a specific
number if you are given the hint “higher” or “lower” for each guess you make.” (Asked at Face
book).
11. “If you had 5,623 participants in a tournament, how many games would need to be played to
determine the winner?” (Asked at Amazon).
12. “An apple costs 20 cents, an orange costs 40 cents, and a grapefruit costs 60 cents, how much is
a pear?”(Asked at Epic Systems).
13. “There are three boxes, one contains only apples, one contains only oranges, and one contains
both apples and oranges. The boxes have been incorrectly labelled such that no label identifies the
actual contents of the box it labels. Opening just one box, and without looking in the box, you take
out one piece of fruit. By looking at the fruit, how can you immediately label all of the boxes
correctly?” (Asked at Apple).
14. “How many traffic lights in Manhattan?” (Asked at Argus Information & Advisory Services).

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15. “You are in a dark room with no light. You need matching socks for your interview and you have
19 gray socks and 25 black socks. What are the chances you will get a matching pair? (Asked at Eze
Castle).
16. “What do wood and alcohol have in common?” (Asked at Guardsmark).
17. “How do you weigh an elephant without using a weigh machine?” (Asked at IBM).
18. “You have 8 pennies, 7 weigh the same, and one weighs less. You also have a judges scale. Find
the one that weighs less in less than 3 steps.” (Asked at Intel).
19. “Why do you think only a small percentage of the population makes over $150K?” (Asked at New
York Life).
20. “You are in charge of 20 people; organize them to figure out how many bicycles were sold in
your area last year.” (Asked at Schlumberger).
21. “How many bottles of beer are drank in the city over the week.” (Asked at The Nielsen
Company).
22. “What’s the square root of 2000?” (Asked at UBS).
23. “A train leaves San Antonio for Huston at 60mph. Another train leaves Huston for San Antonio at
80mph. Huston and San Antonio are 300 miles apart. If a bird leaves San Antonio at 100mph, and
turns around and flies back once it reaches the Huston train, and continues to fly between the two,
how far will it have flown when they collide.”- (Asked at USAA).
24. “How are M&M’s made?” (Asked at US Bank).
25. “What would you do if you just inherit a pizzeria from your uncle?” (Asked at Volkswagen).

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UNIT: 4.8 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

COMMUNICATION
General Learning Outcome: Discuss the impact if information technology in communication
4.8.1 Discuss the impact of IT in communication skills
4.8.2 Describe the use of IT in communication
4.8.3 Apply telephone skills in communication
4.8.4 Use Intra-net and Internet skills in communication
4.7.0 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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1

UNIT 4.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION

General learning outcomes: Define the basic concepts of communication.

4.1.1 THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can also be defined as …

Without communication, nothing could happen in an organization or in a classroom situation because

TYPES FORM METHOD

4.1.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2. Encoding the message:

4. Selecting the channel:

6. Decoding the message:

ELEMENTS OR FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SENDING A MESSAGE

4.1.3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

11. Body Language:

12. Sender breakdown:

13. Method breakdown :

14. Recipient breakdown:

15. Emotional Stress:

Other problems with communication could be:

~ Long chain of command.

~ Wrong methods of communication

Barriers to communication can be classified in six main categories

STRATEGIES TO MINIMIZE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

For communication to be effective apply the following guidelines:

EFFECTIVE COMMUNCATION (How can communication be improved?)

4.1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS DISCOURSE

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

o Communication acts as a link between management and employees of the organization.

C0MMUNICATION: Simple yet complex, easy to do and

What does communication accomplish?

The purpose of messages in Organizations:

Why do people talk to each other?

4.1.5 STRATEGIES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

THE THREE V’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Food for thought.

Some final thoughts to take away from this:

What are your favourite theories of effective communication?

Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is inescapable

Interpersonal communication is irreversible

Interpersonal communication is complicated

~ If communication can fail, it will.

CONTEX OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal communication is contextual. In other words, communication does not happen in

UNIT 4.2 THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

General learning outcomes: Define the types of communication.

4.2.1 THE THREE FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Written communication is essential or preferable in many different instances. The variety of

Advantages of written communication:

Disadvantages of written communication:

… the communication that involves cues, gestures, in short body

…as the communication of using signs and symbols and object

Non-verbal communication differs from verbal communication in many ways:

4.1.2 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION MODELS

Types of non-verbal communication:

Facial expression and eye behaviour:

Gestures and posters: