Kalat IntroPsychology 12e PPT CH07 GOLD

Introduction to Psychology,
12e
Chapter 7: Memory
James W. Kalat, Introduction to Psychology, 12th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated,
or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Icebreaker: Pair–Share
Move into groups of two or three and discuss the following:

1. Think back to the first day of classes. Write down what you remember.
Compare this with what your partner remembers.
2. Why do you think you remember some of those details, and not others? What
was it that caused you to remember that information?
3. What tools do you use to help you remember information from class? Why do
these tools work well for you, or perhaps, what tools are not working well for
you?
Chapter Objectives (1 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

07.01 Describe Ebbinghaus’s early research on memory.
07.02 Differentiate among ways of testing memory.
07.03 Explain ways to minimize errors in eyewitness testimony and suspect
lineups.
07.04 Distinguish types of memory and describe their main features.

07.05 Characterize the main features of working memory.
07.06 Explain why you remember some things better than others.
07.07 Discuss ways to organize and improve studying.
07.08 Give examples of mnemonic devices.
07.09 Discuss memory as a process of reconstruction.

07.10 Cite examples of hindsight bias.
07.11 Explain how interference increases forgetting.
07.12 Describe evidence that suggestions can lead to false memory reports.
07.13 Discuss what amnesia tells us about memory.
07.14 State a possible explanation for infant amnesia.
Unit 1
Types of Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory
Memory: The retention of information

Ebbinghaus pioneered the scientific study
of memory.
• Observed his own capacity for
memorizing lists of nonsense syllables.
• Measured how much longer it took to
memorize a longer list.
Methods of Testing Memory (1 of 2)
Explicit memory: Types of direct memory. Someone who states an answer

considers it product of memory.
• Free recall: To produce a response as you do on an essay or short-answer test.
• Cued recall: Requires improved accuracy. Receive hints about the material.
• Recognition: Someone chooses the correct item from among several options.
• Savings: Compares the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning.
Implicit memory: Indirect memory

• Experience influences what you say or do, even though you might not be aware
of the influence.
• Priming occurs when you see or hear a work that increased the change you will
use it yourself.
Procedural Memories Declarative Memories
• Memories of how to do something • Memories we can readily state in

words
• Habits of learning
• Formed all at once
• Develops gradually
• Formed in difference brain area than
• Good for something that is usually procedural memories
true or true only under certain
circumstances
Knowledge Check Activity 1
Your professor just handed out your final exam, and all of the questions are essay
questions. Which type of memory will you need to use to answer the questions?
a. Free recall
b. Recognition
c. Procedural
d. Declarative
Knowledge Check Activity 1: Answer
Your professor just handed out your final exam, and all of the questions are essay
questions. Which type of memory will you need to use to answer the questions?
a. Free recall
To recall something is to produce a response, as you do on essay tests or
short-answer tests. Most people will response with a brief synopsis,
although they could elaborate in detail to follow up questions.
Application: Suspect Lineups as
Recognition Memory
Suspect lineups are an example of the recognition method of testing memory.
• Witnesses sometimes choose the best available choice, which may not be
correct.
• Psychologists have recommended ways to decrease inaccurate identifications.
Children as Eyewitnesses
Several factors influence the accuracy of young children’s reports:

• Interview soon after the incident.
• Ask open-ended questions.
• Emphasize “I don’t know” is an acceptable answer.
• Be cautious about repeating questions.
• Minimize influence of others.
• Beware of physical representation.
• Make sure child understands the question.
The Information-Processing View of Memory
Human memory compared to a

computer:
• Information enters the system and is
processed, coded, and stored.
• Storage can be temporary or
permanent.
• The sensory store maintains an
iconic image for a fraction of a
second.
Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
Short-term memory: Temporary storage of recent events.

Long-term memory: A relatively permanent storage of events.
Two types of long-term memory:
1. Semantic memory: Memory of principles and facts.
2. Episodic memory: Memory for specific events in your life.
Source amnesia: Forgetting when, where, or how you learned something.
Games: Memory Processes
Break into groups of two.

a. One person should close their eyes, turn around to face something, then
quickly open and close their eyes.
b. Let the person describe what they saw in detail to the other team member.
Discuss the following:
a. How well did the first team member describe what they saw?
b. What type of memory process was used? Could they have combined more
than one?
Capacity of Short-Term and
Long-Term Memory
Short-term memory has a capacity of only a
few items.
• Chunking: Grouping items into
meaningful sequences or clusters to
expand length of storage.
• Trade-off between number of items stored
and the precision of storage.
Long-term memory has a larger capacity
than short-term memory.
Decay of Memories over Time
Short-term memories fade over

time if not rehearsed
• Brain representation decays
• One memory interferes with
another
Long-term memories last varying
periods, up to a lifetime.
• Not all are permanent
Working Memory
Consolidation: Converting a short-term memory into a long-term memory.

Working memory: A system for working with current information.
Executive functioning: The cognitive process that governs shifts of attention.
• The hallmark of good working memory is the ability to shift attention back and
forth among tasks as necessary.
• n-back task: Can help to improve other tasks as well.
Discussion Activity 1
As a class discuss the following:

a. Why is it important to develop your working memory?
b. What skills is a strong working memory correlated with?
c. What are some ways you activate your executive functioning while you are
studying? Does that help or hinder your study efforts? Why?
Unit 2
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Depth-of-Processing Principle
How easily you retrieve a memory depends on the associations you form.
• Superficial processing is simply repeating material to be remembered.
• Deeper processing is applying material to personal experiences, thinking of
examples that illustrate a point.
How well you remember something immediately after studying it does not predict
how well you will remember it later.
Think–Pair–Share Activity 1
Students pair up to discuss the following:

a. Are you a note taker? Why might you find it helpful to take notes during class?
Are there disadvantages?
b. Do students who take notes do better or worse on exams? Why?
c. Have you ever had an open book, or open-note exam? Did you do as well as
expected? Why or why not?
Student pairs then share their answers with the class.
Encoding Specificity
Retrieval cues: Serve as reminders to prompt your memory later.

Encoding specificity principle: The associations you form at the time of
learning will be the most effective retrieval cues later.
If you want to remember something at a particular time and place, study under the
same conditions where you will try to remember.
Based on the concept of encoding specificity, where would the best place to study
for an exam be?
a. Your bedroom
b. A coffee shop
c. Somewhere quiet
d. The school library
Based on the concept of encoding specificity, where would the best place to study
for an exam be?
d. The school library

If you want to remember something at a particular time and place, study
under the same conditions where you will try to remember. However, if you
want to remember something always, you should vary your study habits so
that your memory does not become specific to one setting. The school
library likely is the setting that most closely emulates the atmosphere in the
classroom where the exam will be given.
Organize Your Studying (1 of 2)
Studying All at Once or Spread Out

• Studying once is seldom effective, no matter how hard you study that one time.
• You generally overestimate how well you have learned something if you haven’t
waited long enough to see how much you will forget.
Advantages of Varied Study
• Varying the conditions of studying improves long-term memory.
• You need effort to refresh ideas, and that effort will strengthen the memory.
Organize Your Studying (2 of 2)
Taking Notes During Class

Taking notes in organized fashion during class focuses attention at the time and
provides material for review later.
What You Learn During Testing

You remember better if you test yourself.
Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonic device is any memory aid based on encoding items in a special way.
• Example: Remembering “BRISTLE” for a traditional wedding vow (“Better or
worse, Richer or poorer, In Sickness and health, To Love and to cherish”)
• Method of loci: Memorize a series of places, then use a vivid image to
associate each location with something you want to remember
Storage and Retrieval
Storage Retrieval
• Consolidation convers short-term • Something that you forget at first, you

memory into long-term memory. may recall later.
• Some memories are lost, others • Hypermnesia
gradually strengthen over time.
• Focusing on one aspect of a memory
weakens other aspects.
• Few memories are recalled intact.
• Reconstruction
As a class discuss the following:

a. If we are all attending the same event, why do each of us remember it
differently?
b. What can we do to help aid our memory? How do we fill in gaps?
c. What can we do to help ensure we remember things accurately so that we can
recall them in more detail when needed, such as for an exam?
Reconstruction
Inferences in List Memory Reconstructing Stories
• If people read or hear a list of related • If you are tested immediately, you
words and try to recall them, they remember the unusual and distinctive
often include related words that were events best.
not on the list.
• When memory of a story fades, we
• People remember the gist and rely on the gist, omit details that
reconstruct what must have been on seemed irrelevant, and add or
the list. change other facts to fit the story.
• The less certain your memory is, the
more you rely on your expectations.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to mold our recollection of the past to fit how events later turned
out.
Hindsight bias occurs for several reasons:
• We would like to think the world is an orderly, predictable place and that we are
smart enough to predict what will happen.
• We confuse the facts we know now with those we knew earlier.
• We focus on the facts we knew earlier that fit with the later outcome, and
disregard those that didn’t fit.
What happens when we try to describe events that happened long ago, and we
don’t remember perfectly?
a. We fill in the gaps with reasonable guesses

b. We leave out important detail
c. We describe only the most unusual or unlikely aspects of the event
d. We describe what we saw, but not what we heard
What happens when we try to describe events that happened long ago, and we
don’t remember perfectly?
a. We fill in the gaps with reasonable guesses

As we start forgetting the details, we begin reconstructing the events,
omitting the improbable events and including items that the story omitted.
The less certain our memory is, the more we rely on our expectations to fill
in the gaps.
Unit 3
Forgetting
Retrieval and Interference
Proactive interference is when

old materials increase forgetting
of new materials.
Retroactive interference is
when new materials increase
forgetting of old materials.
Interference is a major cause of
forgetting.
A Controversy: “Recovered Memories” or
“False Memories”? (1 of 2)
Some therapists have used hypnosis or suggestions to try to help people
remember painful experiences.
Recovered memories: Reports of long-lost memories, prompted by clinical
techniques.
Many researchers doubt the accuracy of those recovered memories.
A Controversy: “Recovered Memories” or
“False Memories”? (2 of 2)
Repression: Moving an unacceptable memory or impulse from the conscious
mind to the unconscious mind.
Dissociation: Memory that one has stored but cannot retrieve.
Whether someone remembers a traumatic experience depends on:
• The time and severity of the event.
• The reaction of other family members.
False memory: An inaccurate report that someone believes to be a memory.
As a class, discuss the following:

a. How accurate do you believe repressed memories are? Why?
b. We sometimes remember some forgotten aspect of our childhood,
remembered only when proper retrieval cues are presented. Are these
considered repressed memories? Why or why not?
c. Based on what you learned about hindsight bias, storage, and retrieval, what
are some of the potential issues with a repressed memory?
Amnesia after Damage to the Hippocampus
(1 of 2)
Amnesia: Loss of memory
• Results from many kinds of brain damage, including damage to the
hippocampus.
• Hippocampus: Large forebrain structure in the interior of the temporal lobe
• Anterograde amnesia: Inability to store new long-term memories
• Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memory for events that occurred before the
brain damage
Amnesia after Damage to the Hippocampus
(2 of 2)
Damage to the hippocampus results in difficulty storing new long-term declarative
memories, especially episodic memories.
• Can form normal short-term, procedural, and implicit memories.
• Hippocampus serves to bind together all the details and context of an event.
• In the absence of a healthy hippocampus or after the information in the
hippocampus weakens, one is left with only the “gist” of the event.
Amnesia after Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex
Damage to the prefrontal cortex also produces amnesia, due to:

• A stroke
• Head trauma
• Korsakoff’s syndrome: Caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1
(thiamine), usually as a result of chronic alcoholism.
• Confabulations: Attempts by amnesic patients to fill in the gaps in their
memory; questions about today are described using something from their past.
Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease: A condition occurring mostly in old age, characterized by

increasingly severe memory loss, confusion, depression, disordered thinking, and
impaired attention.
• People with Alzheimer’s disease have a variety of memory problems
• Procedural memory is more intact than explicit, declarative memory.
• Their problems stem largely from impairments of arousal and attention.
Early Childhood Amnesia
Early childhood (infantile) amnesia is

scarcity of early episodic memories.
Rapid formation of new hippocampal
neurons early in life promotes rapid
learning AND rapid forgetting.
Think–Pair–Share Activity 2
Students form groups of two or three, and discuss the following:

a. What are your earliest childhood memories? How old were you in the
memory?
b. Why do you think those memories stand out, and others from the same time
frame do not?
c. How accurate do you think the memory is, given what you learned in this
chapter?
Student pairs then discuss their answers with the class.
Self- Assessment
What is the importance of Ebbinghaus’s experimental study of memory?

Can you differentiate between implicit and explicit memory?
How do we use short-term and long-term memory, and move information from
one type of memory to our working memory?
Can you describe the process of encoding and how to improve the process?
Outline how we store and retrieve information.
Can you describe why we remember some things and not others?
How accurate are our memories?
Summary (1 of 3)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Describe Ebbinghaus’s early research on memory.
• Differentiate among ways of testing memory.
• Explain ways to minimize errors in eyewitness testimony and suspect lineups.
• Distinguish types of memory and describe their main features.
Summary (2 of 3)
• Characterize the main features of working memory.
• Explain why you remember some things better than others.
• Discuss ways to organize and improve studying.
• Give examples of mnemonic devices.
• Discuss memory as a process of reconstruction.
Summary (3 of 3)
• Cite examples of hindsight bias.
• Explain how interference increases forgetting.
• Describe evidence that suggestions can lead to false memory reports.
• Discuss what amnesia tells us about memory.
• State a possible explanation for infant amnesia.

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Introduction to Psychology,

Move into groups of two or three and discuss the following:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

Memory: The retention of information

Explicit memory: Types of direct memory. Someone who states an answer

Implicit memory: Indirect memory

Procedural Memories Declarative Memories

• Memories of how to do something • Memories we can readily state in

Several factors influence the accuracy of young children’s reports:

Human memory compared to a

Short-term memory: Temporary storage of recent events.

Break into groups of two.

Short-term memories fade over

Consolidation: Converting a short-term memory into a long-term memory.

As a class discuss the following:

Students pair up to discuss the following:

Retrieval cues: Serve as reminders to prompt your memory later.

d. The school library

Studying All at Once or Spread Out

Taking Notes During Class

What You Learn During Testing

• Consolidation convers short-term • Something that you forget at first, you

As a class discuss the following:

Inferences in List Memory Reconstructing Stories

a. We fill in the gaps with reasonable guesses

a. We fill in the gaps with reasonable guesses

Proactive interference is when

As a class, discuss the following:

Damage to the prefrontal cortex also produces amnesia, due to:

Alzheimer’s disease: A condition occurring mostly in old age, characterized by

Early childhood (infantile) amnesia is

Students form groups of two or three, and discuss the following:

What is the importance of Ebbinghaus’s experimental study of memory?

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