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honour of the Sovereign is, of course, well known. In ancient
illustrations we see the place of honour always placed aft.
Finally we must needs refer to the extraordinary longevity of the
Mediterranean galley. Adapted from the Egyptians by the Greeks
and afterwards the Romans, it flourished, especially in the Adriatic,
up to the sixteenth century in a modified form, and only the advent of
steam finally closed its career. Even now the gondola will be
recognised as bearing a family likeness, and the prow of the latter
still shows the survival of the spear-heads which were used in the
manœuvre of ramming.
These, then, are some of the characteristics that have been
persistent during the course of development of the sailing ship. Each
national design and each nation’s rig are the survival of all that has
been found to be the best for that particular locality. The more ships
a nation builds, the more they sail to other ports—seeing other kinds
of ships, comparing them with their own, and adopting whatever is
worth while—so much the faster does the ship improve. This,
indeed, has been the custom throughout the history of the English
nation. When she sent her ships to the Mediterranean at the time of
the Crusades, her sailors returned home with new ideas. Thus, the
ships in which Richard, with his large fleet, voyaged to Palestine in
1190 would be still of the Viking type. Only a hundred and thirty
years had elapsed since William the Conqueror landed in similar
boats, as we know from the Bayeux tapestry. When Richard was in
the Mediterranean he was joined by a number of galleys. It is not
assuming too much to say that an exchange of visits would be made
between the crews of the respective ships. The difference in ships
would most certainly be criticised, for of all people who inhabit this
planet, none are more critical of each other’s possessions than
sailormen. The Mediterranean inhabitants, having reached
civilisation earlier than the dwellers of Northern Europe, and having
had the advantage of living nearer, both historically and
geographically, to the first builders of ships, would no doubt have
been far in advance of the shipbuilders of Northern Europe.
Therefore, it is fairly certain that the English returned from the
Crusades knowing far more of maritime matters than when they had
set out. At any rate, it is significant that the illustrations of ships of
the date of 1238, or about fifty years after Richard set forth to the
East, show the Viking-like ship greatly modified. The beginnings of
the stern-castle and fore-castle and of fighting top are now seen. It
seems to me highly probable that the idea for these was obtained
from the galleys, still influenced in their architecture by the methods
of fighting adopted by the Greeks and the Romans.
The English nation, more than perhaps any other, has been
characterised not so much by her inventiveness as by her skill in
adapting other nations’ ideas. The present age of electricity and
other inventions illustrates the general truth of this statement. Thus,
her ships of to-day are the result of continually improving on the
designs of other nations. From Norway she got her first sailing ships;
from the Mediterranean she assuredly derived considerable
knowledge in maritime matters generally. Certainly from Spain she
learned much of the art of navigation, of rigging and of shipbuilding.
From the French, as we go down through time, she acquired a vast
increase of her knowledge of ship-designing and shipbuilding. Not
the least of this was the importance to a vessel of fine lines. The
Dutch taught us a good deal of seamanship and tactics, as we know
from Pepys’s Diary. Finally, about the year 1850, after the American
clippers had raced all our big ships of the mercantile marine off the
ocean, England learned to build clippers equally fast and superior in
strength, and so regained the sea-carrying trade she had lost. In
yacht designing also she has learned much from American
architects, as the Germans within the last few years have learned
from us.
Sailing ships are the links which bind country to country, continent
to continent. They have been at once the means of spreading
civilisation and war. It is a fact that the number of new ships to be
built increases proportionately as the trade of a country prospers,
and one of the first signs of bad trade is the decrease in the
shipbuilder’s orders. But, good trade or bad trade, peace or war,
there will always be a summons in the sea which cannot be resisted.
It summoned the Egyptians to sail to the land of Punt to fetch
incense and gold. It summoned the Phœnicians across the Bay of
Biscay to the tin mines of Cornwall. It called the Vikings to coast
along the Baltic shores for pillage and piracy. It called the
Elizabethans to set forth from Bristol and London in order to find new
trade routes, new markets for their goods, fresh sources of their
imports. It calls some for trade, some for piracy, some for mere
adventure, as in the case of the yachtsman of to-day. It seduces
ships from the safety of snug harbours only to be tossed about by
the billows of a trackless expanse. The sea ever has been, ever is,
and ever will be, uncertain, fickle, unkind. In spite of the fact that for
8000 years and more shipbuilders, designers, and seamen have by
experience and invention sought every possible means to overcome
its terrors and to tame its fury; in spite of the fact that these men
have never succeeded in getting the upper hand, yet the call of the
sea will ever be obeyed. When once she has fascinated you, when
once you have consented to her cry and got the salt into your veins,
you become as much the slave of the sea as any Roman underling
that pulled at the oar of an ancient galley. The sea calls you; you
hoist up your sails, and come.
CHAPTER II.
E A R LY E G Y P T I A N S H I P S F R O M A B O U T 6 0 0 0 B . C .
In Fig. 5, the look-out man with his pole is also seen forward; the
crew are gathered round the mast to haul at the halyards, and get in
the sheets and braces; for now that the sail does not reach right
down to the deck, sheets have become indispensable. It will also be
remarked that the boom has been introduced to make the sail set
better. The amount of sheer given to the boat is enormous, although
the curve-in of the top of the stern is exceedingly attractive.
Assuming that the dimensions of the model are proportionate she
must have had precious little grip of the water, and if, when on an
expedition to the land of Punt, the Egyptians ever encountered a
beam wind, their ships must have made a terrible lot of lee-way. For
even a light breeze, coming at right angles to those overhanging
bows with no great draught amidships, would drive her head right off
the wind. The steersman would naturally stand to leeward, to get a
pull on his steering-thong or lanyard in order to luff her up, and
prevent her sagging too much to leeward. At a later date, when, as
we shall see, an oar was used each side for steering in place of only
one at the extreme stern, the helmsman stood on the lee side and
worked the lee steering oar. By reason of its size, this would have
some of the effects of the leeboards on a Thames Barge or
Dutchman.
Although these two models are the finest tomb group that have yet
reached England, yet others have been found at Sakkara, and
elsewhere, sometimes with a hull painted yellow and a cabin with an
awning painted to imitate leather, in which the proprietor, more
carefully made and of better wood than his sailors, sat with his box
by his side. Another boat model was of light papyrus with flower-
shaped prow and stern. It was painted green, and carried a light
shelter under which the owner usually stood.[4]
These ships of the Twelfth Dynasty have an additional interest for
us, since they belong to the time when Egypt was enjoying the fullest
prosperity, and had reached its highest degree of civilisation in its
capital of Thebes. But it is in the illustrations of ships afforded by
excavations in connection with the Temple of Deir-el-Bahari that we
find the most detailed information. The south wall of the middle
terrace of this building is most informative, depicting as it does the
naval expedition to the land of Punt. In Egyptian history various
expeditions are mentioned to Punt. One occurred as early as the fifth
Dynasty, for it is recorded in a tomb of a dynasty later. During the
eleventh Dynasty, a similar expedition was made under Sankh-kara,
and Ramases III. also sent an expedition. These last two voyages
are said to have started from a harbour on the Red Sea which was
reached from Koptos, probably the modern Kosseir, and to have
returned there.
Although it is now thought by some Egyptologists that Queen
Hatshopsitu did not send an expedition to Punt, but that she was
only copying the expedition of the eleventh Dynasty, and that these
Punt reliefs are merely replicas of other reliefs still to be discovered
in the older temple, depicting an expedition under Nebkheruna, yet it
is a doubtful point and by no means settled by critics.
But supposing these are the ships of the Egyptian Queen of the
eighteenth Dynasty, they are seen with fifteen oarsmen a side, whilst
two look-out men are standing forward in a kind of open-work
forecastle. The general shape of the ship by now has become
considerably modified. Whilst there is still considerable overhang
both at bow and stern, yet she is long on the waterline. The bow
resembles nothing so much as that of a modern gondola. There is a
beautiful line sweeping up aft to a raised poop with an ornamentation
curving gracefully inboard to another open-work castle or cabin.
These illustrations of the eighteenth Dynasty show how thoroughly
the Egyptians had mastered the art of shipbuilding. When a ship is
sailing on the sea, she is thrown up by the motion of the waters till
she rests pivoted on the crest of a wave. The middle of the ship is
thus supported, but the bow and stern, not being waterborne, have a
tendency to droop while the centre of the ship tends to bulge up.
This is technically known among naval architects as “hogging.” In the
case of ships with an enormous overhang, unsupported by water,
such as was the case of the Egyptian ships and is now the fashion
with our modern yachts, this hogging would need to be guarded
against. Only recently the writer saw on the south coast a modern
yacht with no beam but considerable length and overhang. She had
been badly built and the “hogging” was very noticeable a little
forward of amidships. Her skipper gave her a very bad name
altogether.
In the Hatshopsitu ships we see the “hogging” strain guarded
against by a powerful truss of thick rope. This truss leads from
forward, sometimes being bound round—undergirding—the prow:
sometimes it is made fast inside, perhaps to the deck or to the floors.
It then leads aft, being stretched on forked posts until it reaches the
mast, where it is wound round in a sort of clove-hitch, and then
continues aft again being stretched on other forked posts until it is
finally girded round the counter. This truss was as large as a man’s
waist, and has been calculated by Commander T. M. Barber of the
United States’ Navy to have been able to withstand a strain of over
300 tons.[5]
The manner of steering from the centre of the stern with one oar
has given way to that of using an oar on each quarter. Each oar rests
on a forked post rising above the head of the steersman who works
the oar with a thong loop. As already pointed out, it is noticeable that
he uses the lee steering oar always. It is probable that going to the
land of Punt, the prevailing North wind favoured them. But returning,
if the wind was foul, they would have to row. Even had they
understood the art of tacking at this time they would have had some
difficulty. As far as one can gather from the look of a ship of this kind,
as soon as ever the lee oar was pushed over so that she came up
into the wind, she would get into stays and not pay off on to the other
tack except with the aid of the oarsmen.
In these Punt pictures, too, will be noticed the fact that the rowers
have their oars in thongs instead of the later invention—pins or
rowlocks. These ships were certainly decked, but that was probably
only down the centre, for though we see the ship crowded with all
sorts of merchandise, yet the rowers’ bodies are only visible from the
knees upwards. They were probably placed on a lower platform.
Just as in the course of time the double and treble mast gave way
to the single spar, and the deep, narrow sail to the broad, shallow
square-sail, so later, about the year 1250 b.c., we find that the boom
was discarded, and therefore at any rate, by now, sheets must have
been introduced. But before we pass from Hatshopsitu’s ships
(about 1600 b.c.) let us examine the sail of that time. So much
confusion exists in the mind of many who see occasional pictures of
these early vessels that it may be well to make an effort to clear this
matter up. The yard was of two pieces lashed together in the middle;
the same statement applies to the boom. Pulleys not being yet
invented, the two halyards that raised the yard, led through two
empty squares formed by a framework of wood acting as fair-leads.
These halyards led aft, and being belayed well abaft the mast were
used as powerful stays to the latter. Let it be understood at once that
the boom remained fixed, being lashed to the mast by thongs. From
the top of the mast below the yard depended a series of topping lifts
about seventeen in number. These coming out from the mast at
varying angles spread over the whole length of the boom, and took
the weight of the latter, supporting also the sail and yard when
lowered. Contrary to the subsequent practice of the Greeks and
Romans, the yard was the spar that was raised or lowered by the
halyards. Thus, when sail was struck the two halyards would be
slacked off, the yard would descend on to the boom, the sail would