Zhu et al.

Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9 Official journal of the JHL 2689-9620

https://doi.org/10.37188/lam.2023.009 www.light-am.com

Article Open Access

Metasurfaces designed by a bidirectional

deep neural network and iterative algorithm
for generating quantitative field distributions
Yang Zhu, Xiaofei Zang*, Haoxiang Chi, Yiwen Zhou, Yiming Zhu* and Songlin Zhuang

Abstract
Metasurfaces, which are the two-dimensional counterparts of metamaterials, have demonstrated unprecedented
capabilities to manipulate the wavefront of electromagnetic waves in a single flat device. Despite various advances
in this field, the unique functionalities achieved by metasurfaces have come at the cost of the structural complexity,
resulting in a time-consuming parameter sweep for the conventional metasurface design. Although artificial neural
networks provide a flexible platform for significantly improving the design process, the current metasurface
designs are restricted to generating qualitative field distributions. In this study, we demonstrate that by combining
a tandem neural network and an iterative algorithm, the previous restriction of the design of metasurfaces can be
overcome with quantitative field distributions. As proof-of-principle examples, metalenses predicted via the
designed network architecture that possess multiple focal points with identical/orthogonal polarisation states, as
well as accurate intensity ratios (quantitative field distributions), were numerically calculated and experimentally
demonstrated. The unique and robust approach for the metasurface design will enable the acceleration of the
development of devices with high-accuracy functionalities, which can be applied in imaging, detecting, and
sensing.
Keywords: Metasurfaces, Bidirectional deep neural network, Iterative algorithm, Focal points, Vortex

Introduction phase changes at planar meta-atom interfaces3−5. Therefore,

Metasurfaces, which consist of predesigned meta-atoms
with different shapes or in-plane orientations, have
demonstrated unprecedented capabilities in the local
manipulation of the amplitude, phase, and polarisation of
electromagnetic (EM) waves1,2. Unlike traditional bulky
counterparts that are often dependent on the phase
accumulation of light propagation, the fundamental
principle of metasurface-based devices relies on abrupt
Correspondence: Xiaofei Zang (xfzang@usst.edu.cn) or Yiming
(ymzhu@usst.edu.cn)
Terahertz Technology Innovation Research Institute, and Shanghai Key
Lab of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and
Technology, No. 516 JunGong Road, Shanghai, 200093, China
metasurfaces provide a robust platform for designing
ultracompact components, enabling tremendous advantages
in device miniaturisation and system integration. In
addition, owing to the ultra-flexibility of the metasurface
design, metasurface-based devices possess various unusual
functionalities that are extremely difficult or impossible to
achieve with natural materials. Empowered by
metasurfaces with a delicately designed structure and
multifunctional integration properties, a plethora of
Zhu applications including a beam deflector6−9, vortex
beams10−20, holograms21−28, metalenses29−37, wave plates38−42
and nonlinear photonics43,44 have been demonstrated.
Although metasurfaces have presented several advances in

© The Author(s) 2023

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104 | Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2

Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9
tailoring the wavefront of EM waves, the current
matasurface-based devices with sophisticated
functionalities have an increased structural complexity. The
conventional design approach relies on iterative numerical
full-wave simulations, such as the finite-difference time-
domain (FDTD) method, finite-element method (FEM),
and finite integration technique (FIT). Following a
comparison between the calculated result and target
response, structural parameters are numerically optimised
to update the design. Aiming to achieve extreme
performances, optimising multiple structural parameters
becomes computationally costly, which regularly requires
hundreds of thousands, or even millions of simulations to
obtain a reasonable design.
Artificial neural networks (ANNs)45−52, which is a data-
driven approach, can be trained to assist in the design
process with a high-efficiency. Owing to the unprecedented
capabilities in recognition, processing, and optimisation,
ANNs have gained considerable attention in several areas
including computer version53, image recognition54,
cloaking55, deep mapping56, among others. In
nanophotonics, ANNs can be applied for accurately
predicting the resonant spectra and inversely designing the
device structures (or vice versa). Differing from the
traditional design methods, ANNs enable the capability of
automatically learning the hidden relationship between the
neurons in different layers (the relationship between the
photonic structures and corresponding optical responses)
from the training data, which can assist in determining the
preconceived functionality, and therefore, significantly
accelerating and simplifying the design process. ANNs
applied in designing photonics devices are generally
divided into the following two categories: forward neural
networks and inverse neural networks. For the forward
neural networks, structural parameters, such as the
geometric parameters of length, width, and height, are
assigned as the input to predict the EM response of the
device. These type of ANNs can replace the conventional
EM simulations in the optimisation loop, leading to a
significantly reduced design time57,58. For the inverse neural
networks, the EM response is considered as the input for
generating the device structure. The structural design
accomplished by this type of ANN can be achieved in a
fraction of second without the process of numerical
optimisation59,60. Benefiting from the outstanding design
and optimisation capabilities, ANNs have been applied in
designing metasurfaces for various applications, such as
beam deflectors61−63, metalenses64−67, and functionality
multiplexing68. However, the current metasurface designs
assisted by the ANNs are restricted to generating
qualitative phenomena and field distributions, such as
Page 2 of 11
beam deflecting, focusing, and holography. A metasurface-
based device with quantitative wavefront-modulation
functionalities can enable practical applications such as
imaging, detecting, and sensing; therefore, the design of
metasurface-based devices (assisted by ANNs) with high-
accuracy functionalities is significantly desirable.
In this study, we conceptually propose a bidirectional
deep neural network combined with an iterative algorithm
to accurately design metasurface-based devices that can
manipulate incident terahertz (THz) waves with
quantitative field distributions. A bidirectional deep neural
network called the tandem neural network69−73, which
consists of an inverse design network and a forward-
modeling network, is designed to efficiently predict
structural parameters and avoid the non-uniqueness issues
encountered in the inverse process. In addition, an iterative
algorithm is introduced and assisted with the tandem neural
network to further optimise the metasurface design,
resulting in quantitative field distributions. As proof-of-
principle examples, metalenses generating two focal points
with identical/orthogonal polarisation states and accurate
intensity ratios are predicted by the network architecture
constructed in this study. The customised electric-field
intensity distributions and intensity ratios between these
two focal points are numerically simulated and
experimentally demonstrated based on designed
metasurface devices. Note, the approach of combining the
tandem neural network and iterative algorithm can
accurately design metasurface-based devices that can
manipulate the incident THz waves with quantitative field
distributions, which are different from the prediction of the
transmission spectra of the designed structures (or vice
versa) and qualitative field distributions in the previous
studies69−73. The unique design strategy and experimental
demonstration in this study will promote machine learning
in further designing ultracompact devices with high-
accuracy and quantitative functionalities.
Principle and design
Fig. 1a presents schematics of the designed multi-foci
metalenses that can generate polarisation-dependent
multiple focal points with a precise intensity ratio. Under
the illumination of the x-polarised THz waves (top
schematic in Fig. 1a), the metalens can focus the incident
THz waves onto the two x-polarised focal points with a
predesigned intensity ratio. For the incidence of THz
waves with polarisation along the diagonal direction
(bottom schematic in Fig. 1a), the other designed metalens
can generate two orthogonally-polarised focal points, that
is, one x-polarised focal point and one y-polarised focal
point, with an accurate intensity ratio. Fig. 1b, c present the
Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2 | 105
Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9
a b
45°
Fig. 1 Schematics and optical images of the polarisation-dependent multi-foci metalenses with a customisable intensity ratio. a Schematics of the
metalenses for generating identically (top image) or orthogonally (bottom image) polarised focal points with a customisable intensity ratio. The
optical images of metalenses for generating: identically b or orthogonally c polarised focal points with a customisable intensity ratio.
optical images of the fabricated samples where each
sample consists of 100 × 100 meta-atoms with different
sizes. The meta-atoms in each metalens are delicately
designed by our proposed network architecture to
accurately modulate the incident THz waves to generate
identically (Fig. 1b) or orthogonally (Fig. 1c) polarised
focal points with customisable intensity ratios.
To delicately design the metasurface device with
quantitative field distributions, a network architecture
consisting of a tandem neural network combined with an
iterative algorithm is proposed to predict and optimise the
required structure, as shown in Fig. 2a. The tandem neural
network shown in Fig. 2b contains the following two parts:
an inverse design network and forward-modeling network.
The inverse design network is trained to construct a
connection between the characteristics (amplitudes and
phases) of the focal points and structural parameters (width
and length) of meta-atoms. When the four parameters
(L1(1), L1(2), L1(3), L1(4)) are considered as the input,
which are two real and two imaginary parts corresponding
to the amplitudes and phases of the two focal points, the
output is indicated by O1 and O2, which are the length and
width of the silicon meta-atom. A single inverse design
network for predicting the structural parameters will
inevitably suffer from a severe non-uniqueness issue that is
defined as having several solutions62,64, that is, several
different geometric parameters of the device corresponding
to a similar EM response; thus, the neural network would
hardly converge. To effectively overcome this issue, a
pretrained forward neural network (PFNN) (right part in
Fig. 2b) is introduced and connected to the inverse neural
106 | Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2
Page 3 of 11
440 μm
c
440 μm
network. The PFNN is already independently trained and
obtains the structural parameters (generated from the
inverse neural network) as the input, and subsequently
outputs the amplitudes and phases illustrated by the four
parameters of L2(1), L2(2), L2(3), and L2(4). The weights in
the PFNN are fixed, while the weights in such a tandem
neural network are trained to further reduce the loss
function that is defined as the least-square errors between
the output (L2(1), L2(2), L2(3), L2(4)) and input (L1(1),
L1(2), L1(3), L1(4)) parameters, which is expressed as
∑N
Loss = 1/N (L1 (i) − L2 (i))2 (i = 1, 2, 3, 4). Although the
i=1
aforementioned bidirectional deep neural network enables
the functionality of predicting highly accurate metasurface
devices to generate a variety of qualitative field
distributions, stricter metasurface designs with quantitative
field distributions should be designed by further
introducing an iterative algorithm (Fig. 2c, d) to assist with
the structural optimisation. After numerical simulations
based on the structural parameters generated from the
tandem neural network, the intensity ratio (η) between the
left (IL-side) and right (IR-side) focal points is obtained.
Subsequently, the iterative algorithm shown in Fig. 2c (or
Fig. 2d) is designed to further optimise the ratio of the
amplitudes between the left (A/Ax) and right (B/By) focal
points with identically/orthogonally linearly-polarised (LP)
states. When the intensity ratio between these two focal
points is optimised and numerically simulated in the region
η0 − ∆η < η < η0 + ∆η (η0 is the target intensity ratio,
∆η = 0.005 is the tolerance level, and ξ = 0.05 (it is a
compensation coefficient, or defined as an iterative
Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9 Page 4 of 11

a
Update the
Iterative No IR−side Meeting Yes
parameter η= End
algorithm IL−side requirements?
A(Ax) B(By)

Numerical calculation
Start
A B Ax By Re_x Im_x
or PNN
φL−side φR−side φx φy Re_y Im_y

b e 103
Tandem_train Inverse_train
Predicting neural network (PNN) Pretrained forward neural network (PFNN) 102 Tandem_test Inverse_test
101
L1(1) O1(1) L2(1) 100

Loss
L1(2) L2(2) 10−1
L1(3) L2(3) 10−2
L1(4) L2(4)
O1(2)
10−3
…

10−4
Input1 Hidden layer1 Output1(input2) Hidden layer2 Output2 10−5
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Epoch
c d η=
IR−side
IL−side
I Iterative algorithm
η = R−side
IL−side
Iterative algorithm Yes
η0−Δη≤η≤η0+Δη Ax=Ax, By=By End
Yes
η0−Δη≤η≤η0+Δη A=A, B=B End No
Yes Ax=Ax
No η<η0−Δη
By=By+ξ(η−η0)

B=B+ξ(η0−η) No
A=A Ax=Ax+ξ(η0−η)
By=By

Fig. 2 Flow chart of the network architecture for designing metasurface devices with quantitative field distributions. a Sketch of a metasurface
design based on the tandem neural network and iterative algorithm. b Tandem neural network for predicting the structural parameters of
metasurface devices. c, d Detailed flow charts of the iterative algorithm to further assist in structural optimisation. e Loss function of the training
and test sets for the direct inverse network (cyan and blue curves) and tandem network (black and red curves).

coefficient, that can adjust the parameters “B”, “Ax”, or
“ By” to satisfy the condition of “ η0 − ∆η ⩽ η ⩽ η0 + ∆η”)),
the optimisation routine is finished, and the final structural
parameters are generated from the tandem neural network.
Further details regarding the designed method based on our
proposed algorithm can be found in the supplementary
materials of Section 1.
In this study, silicon meta-atoms with a variable width
(W) and length (L), but a fixed height of 500 μm (sitting on
the silicon substrate with a thickness of 500 μm) are
predicted and optimised to achieve the predesigned
functionalities. To establish such a tandem neural network,
various training instances were simulated in advance to
train both the inverse design network and forward-
modeling network. The period of the unit cell was 110 μm,
and the working frequency of the designed meta-atoms was
0.7 THz. The width of the meta-atoms ranged from 30 to
100 μm, while the parameter sweep of length was also
changed from 30 to 100 μm with a scanning step of 1 μm.
The finite difference time domain method was applied to
calculate 5041 samples, where 80% of instances were used
as the training set and the remaining 20% were assigned as
the test set. For the inverse design network, four units
(amplitude and phase of the meta-atoms) were obtained as
the input and directly output two units (width and length of
the met-atoms). It possessed three fully connected hidden
layers with 200, 500, and 100 neurons, respectively. The
forward-modeling network obtained two units (the output
of the inverse design network) as the input and predicted
the EM response (amplitude and phase) and also has three
hidden layers with 100, 500, and 100 neurons. By
combining the inverse network with the PFNN, the tandem
neural network with the loss rapidly decreased to ~10−5,
while a single inverse network had a loss of ~10−2 after
1500 iterations (see Fig. 2e). The required metalens with
10000 (100 × 100) meta-atoms can be predicted in 0.67 s
by our trained tandem neural network.

Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2 | 107

Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9
Results
To verify the protoptype, we first design and
experimentally demonstrate a metalens that can be
predicted by our proposed network architecture to generate
two focal points with identical polarisation states and a
customisable intensity ratio between them. To generate two
LP focal points, the metalens with the required phase
profile can be expressed as follows: φL-side = k( fL-side −
√ different intensities. The calculated intensity ratio in this
fL-side 2 + √
(x − xL-side )2 + (y − yL-side )2 ) and φR-side =
k( fR-side − fR-side + (x − xR-side ) + (y − yR-side ) ) . φL-side and
2 2 2 with the target value of IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.8, while the
φR-side are two phase profiles introduced in the metalens to
simultaneously focus the incident x-polarised THz waves
into two focal points located at the two positions of ( xL-side ,
yL-side, fL-side) and ( xR-side , yR-side, fR-side). A and B are the
amplitudes of these two focal points. The corresponding
parameters for focusing are theoretically designed as
follows: xL-side = −xR-side = −2 mm , yL-side = yR-side = 0 , and
fL-side = fR-side = 6 mm. The initial values for these two
parameters (A and B) are assigned as 1 (A=B=1).
Subsequently, the four parameters as the input of the
proposed network architecture are L1 (1) =
real(A exp(iφL-side )), L1 (2) = imaginary(A exp(iφL-side )),
L1 (3) = real(B exp(iφR-side )) , and L1 (4) =
imaginary(B exp(iφR-side )). The tandem neural network is
pretrained to initially predict the structural parameters,
while the iteration algorithm is designed to further optimise
the ratio between A and B to obtain the accurate device
geometry that enables a customisable intensity ratio
between two focal points. Fig. 3a1 presents the calculated
electric-field intensity distribution of the metalens designed
by our network architecture. Under the illumination of the
x-polarised THz waves, two focal points with identical
polarisation states are observed and symmetrically
distributed at (−2 mm, 0, 5.7 mm) and (2 mm, 0, 5.7 mm),
respectively. The target intensity ratio (at the focal plane)
between these two focal points is 1:1, and the predicted
metalens with the calculated intensity ratio (at the focal
plane of z = 5.7 mm) is also IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 1 (see
Fig. 3c1), which is accurately matched with the target
value. According to the predicted structural parameters, the
corresponding sample is fabricated with traditional
photolithography. Fig. 3b1 presents the measured electric-
field intensity of the designed metalens based on our near-
field scanning THz time-domain spectrum microscopy
system. For the incidence of the x-polarised THz waves,
two x-polarised focal points are generated. The measured
intensity ratio of the two focal points at the focal plane
(z = 5.7 mm) is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.992, as shown in
Fig. 3d1. The measured result sufficiently matches with the
numerical simulation except for a slight discrepancy, which
108 | Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2
Page 5 of 11
can be attributed to the error of the imperfect sample. To
further verify the versatility and high performance of our
network architecture, metalenses with an unequal intensity
ratio between two focal points are designed and
demonstrated. Fig. 3a2, b2 present the calculated and
measured electric-field distributions following the designed
metalens, which can generate two focal points with
case is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.799, which sufficiently agrees
measured intensity ratio is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.74. In
addition, the target intensity ratio between the two focal
points of IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.6 is also numerically and
experimentally demonstrated in Fig. 3a3−d3, where the
intensity ratios are IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.599 (Fig. 3b3) in
the simulation and IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.63 (Fig. 3d3) in the
experiment. The optical and SEM (scanning electron
microscope) images of the samples are shown in the
supplementary materials of Section 2 of Figs. S1 and S2.
The corresponding electric-field intensity distributions and
predicted amplitudes and phases (for the aforementioned
three cases) in the x-y plane are provided in the
supplementary materials of Section 3 of Figs. S3 and S4.
The ratios between parameters A and B and the
corresponding efficiencies (in the experiment) are
presented in supplementary of Tables 1 and 3, respectively.
In addition to the modulation of focal points with
identical polarisation states and a predesigned intensity
ratio, the proposed network architecture can also be
extended to design metalens that can generate two focal
points with orthogonal polarisation states and a
customisable intensity ratio; the polarisation of an incident
LP THz wave is along the diagonal direction. The phase
requirement (for the metalens) to simultaneously focus the
x- and y-polarised THz waves is governed by φ =
√ L-side ) + Ax exp(iφR-side
arg(By exp(iφ )), where φL-side =
k( fL-side − fL-side 2 +
√ (x − x L-side )2
+ (y − y L-side )2
) and
φR-side = k( fR-side − fR-side + (x − xR-side ) + (y − yR-side ) )
2 2 2
.
Here, φL-side (φR-side ) is the phase profile embedded in the
metalens to focus the incident y-polarised (x-polarised)
THz waves onto y-polarised (x-polarised) focal points. Ax
and By are the corresponding amplitudes for the x-polarised
and y-polarised focal points, respectively. The
corresponding parameters for the focal points are selected
as follows: xL-side = −xR-side = −1 mm , yL-side = yR-side = 0 ,
and fL-side = fR-side = 6 mm . As shown by Fig. 4a1, a2 for
the incident THz beams with polarisation along the x- and
y-directions, two focal points consisting one x-polarised
focal point (in the right side) and one y-polarised focal
point (in the left side) are observed. The calculated
Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9 Page 6 of 11

Simulation Experiment Simulation Experiment

a1 b1 Max c1 d1
1.0 1.0
7 7
|Ex|2 |Ex|2 0.8 0.8

Intensity (a.u.)

Intensity (a.u.)
6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)
0.6 0.6
5 5 0.4 0.4

4 4 0.2 0.2
0 0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm) x (mm)
a2 b2 Max c2 d2
1.0 1.0
7 |Ex| 2 7 |Ex| 2
0.8 0.8

Intensity (a.u.)

Intensity (a.u.)
6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.6 0.6
5 5 0.4 0.4

4 4 0.2 0.2
0 0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm) x (mm)
a3 b3 Max c3 d3
1.0 1.0
7 |Ex| 2 7 |Ex| 2
0.8 0.8

Intensity (a.u.)

Intensity (a.u.)
6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.6 0.6
5 5 0.4 0.4

4 4 0.2 0.2
0 0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm) x (mm)
Fig. 3 The calculated and measured electric-field intensity distributions based on the metalenses that can generate two focal points with identical
polarisation states and is designed by the proposed network architecture. The calculated a1, c1 and measured b1, d1 electric-intensity distributions
at the x-z plane (and z = 5.7 mm) for the target intensity ratio between these two focal points is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 1. The calculated a2, c2 and
measured b2, d2 electric-intensity distributions at the x-z plane (and z = 5.7 mm) for the target intensity ratio between these two focal points is
IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.8. The calculated a3, c3 and measured b3, d3 electric-intensity distributions at the x-z plane (and z = 5.7 mm) for the target
intensity ratio between these two focal points is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.6.

intensity ratio between these two focal points (see Fig. 4c1)
is IL-side : IR-side = 0.993 : 1 (the target value is IL-side :
IR-side = 1 : 1). The measured electric-field intensity
distributions are shown in Fig. 4b1, b2, and the
corresponding intensity ratio between these two focal
points is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 0.98 (see Fig. 4c2). For the case
with target intensity ratio of IL-side : IR-side = 0.8 : 1 (between
the y- and x-polarised focal points), the simulated and
measured electric-field intensity distributions are shown in
Fig. 4a3, a4 and Fig. 4b3, b4. The calculated and measured
intensity ratios in this case are IL-side : IR-side = 0.8 : 1, and
IL-side : IR-side = 0.78 : 1, respectively (see Fig. 4c3, c4). In
addition, for the case with the target intensity ratio of
IL-side : IR-side = 0.6 : 1, both the numerical and measured
results shown in Fig. 4a5, a6 and Fig. 4b5, b6 also
demonstrate two focal points with orthogonal polarisation
states and different intensity distributions. The simulated
and measured intensity ratios in the focal plane are IL-side :
IR-side = 0.6 : 1, and IL-side : IR-side = 0.55 : 1 (Fig. 4c5, c6),
respectively. The optical and SEM images of the fabricated
samples are shown in the supplementary materials of
Section 2 of Figs. S1 and S2. The corresponding electric-
field intensity distributions and predicted amplitudes and
phases (for the three aforementioned cases) in the x-y plane
are provided in the supplementary materials of Section 4 of
Figs. S5 and S6. The ratios between parameters Ax and By
and the corresponding efficiencies (in experiment) are
presented in supplementary of Tables 2 and 4, respectively.
Discussion and Conclusion
In addition to our proposed network architecture
allowing the design of metalens having quantitative field
distributions, it also enables the ability to design a
metasurface device to harness the THz waves with
qualitative field distributions without the assistant of an
iterative algorithm. As a proof-of-principle example, a
vortex generator that can generate position- and
polarisation-dependent converged vortices is designed by
the tandem neural network. The corresponding phase
profile encoded in the device is φ = arg(By exp(iφL-side )+
Ax exp(iφR-side )),
√ where φL-side = k( fL-side −
fL-side 2 + (x − xL-side )2 + (y − yL-side )2 ) + l1 θ and

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Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9 Page 7 of 11

a1 7 a2 7 Max c11.0
|Ex|2 |Ey|2
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z (mm) 6 6 |Ex|2

z (mm)
0.6
Simulation

5 5 0.4
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−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
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|Ex|2 |Ey|2
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Experiment

0.6
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Min x (mm)
x (mm) x (mm)

a3 7 a4 7 Max c31.0
|Ex|2 |Ey|2
0.8

Intensity (a.u.)
6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)
Simulation

0.6
5 5 0.4
0.2
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Min x (mm)
x (mm) x (mm)
b3 7 b4 7 Max c41.0
|Ex|2 |Ey|2
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6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)
Experiment

0.6
5 5 0.4
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0
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm)

a5 7 a6 7 Max c51.0
|Ex|2 |Ey|2
0.8
Intensity (a.u.)

6 6
z (mm)

z (mm)
Simulation

0.6
5 5 0.4
0.2
4 4
0
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm)

b5 7 b6 7 Max c61.0
|Ex|2 |Ey|2
0.8
Intensity (a.u.)

6 6
Experiment

z (mm)

z (mm)

0.6
5 5 0.4
0.2
4 4
0
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x (mm) x (mm) Min x (mm)

Fig. 4 The calculated and measured electric-field intensity distributions based on the metalenses that can generate two focal points with orthogonal
polarisation states and is designed by the proposed network architecture. The calculated a1, a2, c1 and measured b1, b2, c2 electric-intensity
distributions at the x-z plane (and z = 5.7 mm) for the target intensity ratio between these two focal points is IL-side : IR-side = 1 : 1. The calculated a3,
a4, c3 and measured b3, b4, c4 electric-intensity distributions at the x-z plane (and z = 5.7 mm) for the target intensity ratio between these two
focal points is IL-side : IR-side = 0.8 : 1. The calculated a5, a6, c5 and measured b5, b6, c6 electric-intensity distributions at the x-z plane (and
z = 5.7 mm) for the target intensity ratio between these two focal points is IL-side : IR-side = 0.6 : 1.

110 | Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2

Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9 Page 8 of 11

√
φR-side = k( fR-side − fR-side 2 +(x − xR-side )2 +(y − yR-side )2 )+l2 θ .
φL-side and φR-side are the phase profiles for converting the
incident LP THz waves into one y-polarised and one x-
polarised converged vortex in different positions. The
polarisation of an incident LP THz wave occurs diagonally.
The theoretically designed parameters for such a vortex
generator are l1 = l2 = −1, xL-side = −xR-side = −1 mm ,
yL-side = yR-side = 0 , fL-side = fR-side = 6 mm, and Ax = By = 1.
The structural parameters are predicted by the tandem
neural network according to the phase profile (φ);
subsequently, the geometry of the device is created for the
numerical simulation. Fig. 5a1, a2 present the electric-field
intensity distributions of the designed vortex generators
under the illumination of x- and y-polarised THz waves.
For the incidence of the x-polarised THz waves, a
converged vortex with polarisation along the x-axis is
observed at 1, 0, and 5.7 mm, whereas the other converged
vortex with polarisation along the y-axis is observed under
the illumination of the y-polarised THz waves and located
at –1 mm, 0, and 5.7 mm. The corresponding phase
distributions are shown in Fig. 5b1, b2; there is only one
phase jump from –π to π for each converged vortex, which
demonstrates that the topological charge of each converged
vortex is –1. The experimental demonstration of such a
designed vortex generator is shown in Fig. 5a3−b4. The x-
polarised (y-polarised) converged vortex is experimentally
observed when the sample is under the illumination of the
x-polarised (y-polarised) THz waves (Fig. 5a3, a4). The
corresponding phase distributions shown in Fig. 5b3, b4
also demonstrate that the topological charge of each
converged vortex in the experiment is -1. The optical and
SEM images of the fabricated samples are shown in the
supplementary materials of Section 2 of Figs. S1 and S2.
The corresponding electric-field intensity distributions in
the x-z plane, and the predicted amplitudes and phases for
the vortex generator are provided in the supplementary
materials of Section 5 of Figs. S7 and S8. In addition, the
simulated vortices with various topological charges and
orthogonal polarisation states are presented in the
supplementary materials of Section 6 of Figs. S9 and S10.
A critical advantage of our proposed algorithm is the
combination of the tandem neural network and iterative
algorithm to automatically and intelligently optimise the
ratio between A (Ax) and B (By), thus globally optimising
all the amplitudes and phases that can be applied to predict
the structural parameters for designing appropriate

a1 b1
0.75 0.75
|Ex| 2
y (mm)

y (mm)

0 Max 0 π

−0.75 −0.75
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
Simulation

x (mm) x (mm)

a2 b2
0.75 0.75
|Ey| 2
y (mm)

y (mm)

0 0
Min −π
−0.75 −0.75
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x (mm) x (mm)

a3 b3
0.75 0.75
|Ex| 2
y (mm)

y (mm)

0 Max 0 π

−0.75 −0.75
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
Experiment

x (mm) x (mm)

a4 b4
0.75 0.75
|Ey|2
y (mm)

y (mm)

0 0
Min −π
−0.75 −0.75
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x (mm) x (mm)

Fig. 5 The calculated and measured electric-field intensity and phase distributions based on the metasurface devices that can generate two
converged vortices with orthogonal polarisation states and are designed by the tandem neural network. The calculated electric-field a1, a2 and
phase b1, b2 distributions at the focal plane z = 5.6 mm. The measured electric-field a3, a4 and phase b3, b4 distributions at the focal plane
z = 5.6 mm.

Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2 | 111

Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9
metasurfaces. The detailed advantages of our proposed
algorithm are as follows: (1) In the traditionally forward
design, the ratio between A(Ax) and B(By) needs to be
manually altered, which is time-consuming and
unintelligent. However, the proposed iterative algorithm
can automatically optimise the ratio between A(Ax) and
B(By), and subsequently input the ratio into the tandem
neural network to predict the structural parameters. The
automatic optimisation of the ratio between A(Ax) and
B(By) based on the iterative algorithm is faster and more
intelligent than that of the manual method. (2) Designing a
meta-atom with a significantly small transmission
amplitude is highly complex, which is required in a
traditionally forward design. For example, it cannot obtain
a meta-atom with a transmission amplitude-requirement of
zero. Namely, the required amplitudes and phase are fixed
for each meta-atom in the traditionally forward design;
therefore, the meta-atoms with a transmission amplitude, or
amplitude and phase, cannot be obtained with certain
inexistent values, that is, near zero. In contrast, the tandem
neural network is not subjected to the amplitudes and phase
requirements in the traditionally forward design. The
tandem neural network enables the functionality for
automatically and globally optimising all the amplitudes
and phases to avoid sudden changes in the amplitude
requirement (or non-selectable meta-atoms simultaneously
matching the target amplitude and phase requirements in
the traditionally forward design). As shown in Fig. S4 (see
the supplementary materials of Section 3), when obtaining
the two x-polarised focal points with an intensity ratio of
1 : 1 (based on the tandem neural network), there is a slight
fluctuation in the transmission amplitudes for each meta-
atom, while the phase is varied in [–π, π]. Therefore, it is
easy to predict the structural parameters for designing
metasurfces with quantitative field distributions based on
our proposed tandem neural network combined with the
iterative algorithm.
Beam splitters, which are indispensable tools, are widely
used in various optical systems. For a utility THz system, it
not only is determined by the high-efficiency source and
detectors, but also depends on high-quality functional-
devices. The pursuit of flexible and ultra-compact THz
beam splitters is desirable for (THz) system integration and
device miniaturisation74. Therefore, seeking effective THz
beam splitters based on metasurfaces is a popular topic
owing to the lack of natural materials with the desired
properties75. Our designed metalenses predicted by a
bidirectional deep neural network and iterative algorithm
enable splitting the incident THz waves into two or more
focal points with arbitrary energy ratios, which can be
extended to design flexible and ultra-compact THz beam
112 | Light: Advanced Manufacturing | 2023 | Vol 4 | Issue 2
Page 9 of 11
splitters that can split the incident THz waves into multiple
beams with accurate energy ratios, leading to significant
applications in coherent THz measurement systems, such
as THz splitters with arbitrary energy ratios for controlling
the two-beam interference76. Such an approach not only
enables the split of the incident THz waves into multiple
beams with identical polarisation states, but also splits the
incident THz waves into multiple beams with orthogonal
polarisation states. Furthermore, our proposed method for
designing meta-devices can be extended to design other
ultra-compact THz components, such as THz filters,
couplers, modulators, and switches.
In conclusion, we proposed a network architecture that
consists of a tandem neural network and an iterative
algorithm to accurately predict metasurface-based devices
to manipulate THz waves with customisable/quantitative
intensity distributions. The tandem neural network
composed of an inverse design network, and a forward-
modeling network was trained to predict the device
geometry with a high-efficiency and to avoid non-
uniqueness issues; meanwhile, an iterative algorithm was
introduced and combined with the tandem neural network
to further optimise the structural parameters of the devices,
generating the quantitative electric-field distributions.
Various examples such as the metalens for generating two
focal points with identical/ orthogonal polarisation states
and accurate intensity ratios and vortex generators for
generating position- and polarisation-dependent converged
vortices were numerically and experimentally
demonstrated. The unique approach for predicting the
metasurface devices with quantitative field distributions
will introduce the design of ultracompact devices with
high-accuracy functionalities.
Materials and Methods
Sample fabrication The 1000 μm intrinsic silicon wafers
(<100>, Ω > 5000 ohm) were prepared for the fabrication
of metasurface devices with quantitative field distributions.
The silicon wafers were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath;
subsequently, the AZP4620 photoresist (with a thickness of
7～ 8 μm) was spun (with spin speed of 6000 RPM) onto
the silicon wafers. Then, the photoresist film was placed on
a hotplate and baked at 100 °C for approximately 1 min.
The resist film was exposed based on a mask aligner (IMP
SF-100). Following the development process, the resist
film with micro-pillars was baked at 100 °C for 2 min, and
then etched using the DRIE (Bosch) process for
approximately 95 min. Finally, the designed meta-atoms
with different shapes were obtained after removing the
photoresist by using acetone.
Near-field scanning THz time-domain spectrum
Zhu et al. Light: Advanced Manufacturing (2023)4:9
microscopy system (NSTM)—The NSTM was built based
on a traditional THz time-domain spectrum system (THz-
TDS). The traditional detector in the THz-TDS in our
NSTM was replaced as a THz tip that can be scanned in
three-dimensional space. The incident femtosecond laser
with a centre frequency of 780 nm was split into two parts:
one part of the femtosecond laser was impinged on the
photoconductive antenna to radiate the THz waves that
interacted with the fabricated samples, while the other part
of the femtosecond laser was coupled into a single-mode
fiber and shined onto the THz tip that was mounted on a
three-dimensional translation stage. The metasurface
devices were fixed after the photoconductive antenna, and
the THz tip was scanned inside the focusing region to
reveal the electric-field intensity and phase distributions of
the samples. The optical setup is shown in the
supplementary materials of Section 7 of Fig. S11.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported in part by the National Key Research and
Development Program of China (2017YFA0701005), National Natural
Science Foundation of China (62271320, 61871268), “Shuguang” Program
of Shanghai Education Commission (19SG44), and the 111 Project
(D18014).
Author contributions
X.Z. initiated the proposed idea. Y.Z. conducted the numerical
simulations. Y.Z. performed the measurements. All the authors discussed
and analysed the results.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflict of interest
Yiming Zhu is an Editor for the journal, and no other author has
reported any competing interests.
Supplementary information is available for this paper at https://doi.org/
10.37188/lam.2023.009.
Received: 28 September 2022 Revised: 21 February 2023 Accepted: 23
February 2023
Accepted article preview online: 24 February 2023
Published online: 28 March 2023
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