03

CURRENT ELECTRICTY
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 120

Chapter 03

Current Electricity
1. Electric Current 9. Current due to translatory motion of charge: If n
particle each having a charge q, pass through a given
“The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the
area in time t then
electric current and the time rate of flow of charge through
any cross-section of a conductor is the measure of current”.
i.e.,

net charge flown q dq

Electric current , I= = =
time taken t dt

1. Though the “electric current represents the direction of Fig. 3.3

flow of positive charge”.
2. Yet it is treated as a scalar quantity.
3. Current follows, the laws of scalar addition (added
algebraically) and not the laws of vector addition.
4. Because the angle between the wires carrying currents
does not affect the total current in the circuit.
5. Ampere of current means the flow of 6.25  1018
electrons/sec through any cross–section of the
conductor.
6. The conventional direction of current is taken to be the
direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is
opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge as
shown below.
If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit area,
the current associated with cross-sectional area A is i = nqA
If there are n particle per unit volume each having a
charge q and moving with velocity v, the current
thorough, cross section A is i = nqvA
10. Current due to rotatory motion of charge: If a point
charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v
(frequency , angular speed  and time period T) then
q qv q
corresponding current, i = qv = = =
T 2r 2

Fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.1
11. Current carriers: The charged particles whose flow
7. The net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero. in a definite direction constitutes the electric current
8. For a given conductor current does not change with are called current carriers. In different situation
change in cross-sectional area. In the following figure i1 current carriers are different.
= i2 = i3 (i) Solids: In solid conductors like metals current carriers
are free electrons.
(ii) Liquids: In liquids current carriers are positive and
negative ions.
(iii) Gases: In gases current carriers are positive ions and
free electrons.
Fig. 3.2
(iv) Semiconductor: In semiconductors current carriers
are holes and free electrons.

Current Electricity
120 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(v) The amount of charge flowing through a cross section (c) Current carriers in gases:
of a conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by : 1. Ordinarily, the gases are insulators of electricity.
tf
q =  I dt 2. They can be ionized by applying a high potential
ti
difference at low pressure
Graphs 3. Thus, positive ions and electrons are the current carriers
(i) Slope of Q vs t graph gives instantaneous current. in gases.

3. Drift Velocity
“If u1 , u2 , u3 , ...un are random thermal velocities of n free
electrons in the metal conductor, then the average thermal
velocity of electrons is
u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un
=0
Fig. 3.5 n
(ii) Area under the I vs t graph gives net charge flown. As a result, there will be no net flow of electrons of charge in
one particular direction in a metal conductor, hence no
current”.
“Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which
the free electrons get drifted towards the positive end of the
conductor under the influence of an external electric field ”.
4 –1
1. The drift velocity of electrons is of the order of 10 ms
2. If V is the potential difference applied across the ends
of the conductor of length l, the magnitude of electric
Fig. 3.6
field set up is

2. Current Carriers E=
Potential difference V
=
length
(a) Current carriers in solid conductors:
1. In solid conductors like metals, the valence electrons of
E
the atoms do not remain attached to individual atoms
but are free to move throughout the volume of the
conductor which are also known as free electrons. – +
2. Under the effect of an external electric field, the valence
electrons move in a definite direction causing electric
current in the conductors. Fig. 3.7
3. Thus, free electrons are the current carriers in solid 3. Each free electron in the conductor experiences a force,
conductors. F = −e E.
(b) Current carriers in liquids: 4. The acceleration of each electron is
1. In an electrolyte like CuSO4, NaCl etc., there are eE
positively and
negatively charged ions (like . a=−
m
Cu , SO4 , Na , Cl− ).
++ −− +
5. At any instant of time, the velocity acquired by electron
2. These are forced to move in definite directions under having thermal velocity u1 will be
the effect of an external electric field, causing electric v1 = u1 + a1
current.
3. Thus, in liquids, the current carriers are positively and
negatively charged ions.

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 121

where 1 is the time elapsed since it has suffered its last 13. In the absence of electric field, the paths of electrons
collision with ion/atom of the conductor. It is also between successive collisions are straight line while in
known as relaxation time. presence of electric field the paths are generally curved.
6. Similarly, the velocities acquired by other electrons in 14. Free electron density in a metal is given by
the conductor will be NA x d
n= where N A = Avogadro number, x =
v2 = u2 + a2 , v3 = u3 + a3 , ....., vn = un + an . A
7. The average velocity of all the free electrons in the number of free electrons per atom, d = density
conductor under the effect of external electric field is of metal and A = Atomic weight of metal.
the drift velocity vd of the free electrons.
3.1 Relaxation time (τ)
Thus,
The time interval between two successive collisions of
v + v + ... + v n electrons with the positive ions in the metallic lattice is
vd = 1 2
n defined as relaxation time

( u1 + a1 ) + ( u 2 + a2 ) + ... ( u n + an ) =

mean free path
=

=
n r.m.s. velocity of electrons v rms
 u + u 2 + ... + u n  ( 1 + 2 + ... + n ) = 0 + a = a
= 1 +a With rise in temperature vrms increases consequently 
 n  n

1 + 2 + ... + n decreases.
where,  = = average time that has
n
elapsed since each electron suffered its last collision
with the ion/atom of conductor and is called average 3.2 Mobility
relaxation time.
Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of
–14
8. Its value is the order of 10 second. vd m2
electron i.e.  = It’s unit is
9. Putting the value of a in the above relation, we have E volt − sec
−e E 1. Mobility of charge carrier (), responsible for current
vd = is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity of charge
m
per unit electric filed applied, i.e.,
eE
Average drift speed, v d =  drift velocity vd q E  / m q 
m = = = =
electric field E E m
The negative sign show that is opposite to the direction
of E . e e
2. Mobility of electron,  e =
me
10. If cross-section is constant, I  J i.e. for a given cross-
sectional area, greater the current density, larger will be 3. The total current in the conducting material is the sum
current. of the currents due to positive current carriers and
11. The drift velocity of electrons is small because of the negative current carriers.
frequent collisions suffered by electrons.
2 –1 –1 –1 –1
12. The small value of drift velocity produces a large 4. SI unit of mobility is m s V or ms N C
amount of electric current, due to the presence of
extremely large number of free electrons in a conductor.
The propagation of current is almost at the speed of light
and involves electromagnetic process. It is due to this
reason that the electric bulb glows immediately when
switch is turned on.

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122 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3.3 Relation between Current and Drift

Velocity
1. Consider a conductor (say a copper wire) of length l and
of uniform area of cross-section A
 Volume of the conductor = Al.
2. If n is the number density of electrons, i.e., the number
Fig. 3.9
of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor, then
total number of free electrons in the conductor = Aln. i.e., I  V or V  I or V = RI
3. Then total charge on all the free electrons in the or V = R = constant
conductor, I

q = A ne
4.1 Deduction of Ohm’s law
4. The electric field set up across the conductor is given by
eE
E = V/l (in magnitude) We know that v d = 
m
5. Due to this field, the free electrons present in the
conductor will begin to move with a drift velocity v d eV
But E = V/l vd = 
towards the left hand side as shown in figure m
Also, I = A n e vd

 eV   A n e  
2

I=Ane   =  V
m   m 
V m
or = = R = a constant for a given conductor for
I A n e2 
a given value of n, l and at a given temperature. It is
known as the electrical resistance of the conductor.
Thus, V = RI this is Ohm’s law.
1. Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substances, which
Fig. 3.8
obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic substance.
6. Time taken by the free electrons to cross the conductors,
t = l/vd 2. Graph between V and i for a metallic conductor is a
straight line as shown. At different temperatures V-i
q A ne
Hence, current, dI = = curves are different.
t
vd V V
T1

or I = An e vd 1 T2
2
 e E 
7. Putting the value of  vd =  , we have
 m  2
1

i i
Ane2 E
I= Fig. 3.10
m
(A) Slope of the line (B) Here tan 1 > tan 2

4. Ohm’s Law = tan  =

V
= R So, R1 > R2 i.e., T1 > T2
i
Ohm’s law states that “the current (I) flowing through a 3. The device or substances which don’t obey ohm’s law
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermionic valve,
(V) across the ends of the conductor”.

Current Electricity
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 123

transistors etc. are known as non-ohmic or non-linear 

conductors. For these V-i curve is not linear. From above; R  or R = .”
A A
V 1 Where  is constant of proportionality and is known as
Static resistance R st = = 1.
i tan  specific resistance or electrical resistivity of the
V 1 material of the conductor
Dynamic resistance R dyn = =
I tan  2. Specific resistance (or electrical resistivity) of the
material of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a
unit length with unit areas of cross section of the
material of the conductor.
(i) It’s S.I. unit is ohm - m and dimension is [ML3T–3A–2]
m
(ii) It is given by formula :  =
ne2 
(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It
is independent of shape and size of the body (i.e. l and
Fig. 3.11 A).
(iv) For different substances their resistivity is also different
5. Electrical Resistance e.g. silver = minimum = 1.6  10 – 8  -m and

The electrical resistance of a conductor is the obstruction

fused quartz = maximum  10 1 6  -m
posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current through ρinsulator >ρalloy >ρsemi-conductor > ρ conductor
(Maximum for fused quartz) (Minimum for silver)
it.
1. i.e., R = V/I (v) Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals t
volt = 0(1 + t) i.e. resistivity increases with
2. The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm or .
amp temperature.(where  is the temperature coefficient of
resistance.)
3. Dimensions of electric resistance
(vi) Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical
Pot. diff. work done/charge
= = stress.
current current (vii) Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals
2 −2 except iron, cobalt and nickel.
ML T / AT
= = M1L2 T−3 A−2 
A (viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium,
cadmium, sulphides is inversely proportional to
intensity of light falling upon them.
5.1 Electrical Resistivity or Specific V m m
Resistance 3. We have, R = = = 2 
I Ane  ne  A
2

comparing the above relation with the relation,

“The resistance of a conductor depends upon the
R = .
following factors : A
(i) Length (l) : The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly 4. We have, the resistivity of the material of a conductor,
proportional to its length (l), i.e., R  l
m
=
(ii) Area of cross-section (A): The resistance (R) of a ne2 
conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross-
section (A). of the conductor, i.e., R  1/A
(iii) The resistance of conductor also depends upon the
nature of material and temperature of the conductor.

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124 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

5.2 Conductivity 6. Current Density,

1
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity () i.e.  =
 Conductance and
Electrical Conductivity
with unit mho/m and dimensions
[M-1L-3T3 A2].
6.1 Relation between J, s and E
 eE  n Ae E
2
5.3 Conductance We know, I = n Aevd = nAe   =
m  m
1
Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. C = I ne2 E 1
R or = or J = E
A m 
1
It’s unit is or –1 or “Siemen”.
  J = E
1. Insulators: These are those materials whose electrical
5.4 Stretching of Wire conductivity is either very small or nil.
If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of Insulators do not conduct charges. When a small
cross-section decreases so resistance increases but volume potential difference is applied across the two ends of an
remain constant. insulator, the current through the insulator is zero.
Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length = Examples of insulators are glass, rubber, wood etc.
l1, area of cross–section = A1, radius = r1, diameter = d1, and 2. Conductors: These are those materials whose electrical
l1 conductivity is very high
resistance = R 1 = 
A1 Conductor conduct charges very easily. When a small
potential difference is applied across the two ends of
conductor, a strong current flow through the conductor.
For super-conductor, the value of electrical
conductivity is infinite and electrical resistivity is zero.
Fig. 3.12 Examples of conductors are all metals like copper,
Volume remains constant i.e., A1l1 = A2l2 silver, aluminium, tungsten etc.
After stretching length = l2, area of cross-section = A2, 3. Semiconductors: These are those material whose
l2 electrical conductivity lies in between that of insulators
radius = r2, diameter = d2 and resistance = R 2 =  and conductors.
A2
Semiconductors can conduct charges but not so easily
Ratio of resistances before and after stretching
2 2 4 4
as is in case of conductors. When a small potential
R1 l1 A 2  l1   A 2   r2   d 2  difference is applied across the ends of a
= × =  =  =  = 
R 2 l2 A1  l2   A1   r1   d1  semiconductor, a weak current flow through
2 semiconductor due to motion of electrons and holes.
R l 
(1) If length is given then R  l  1 =  1 
2
Examples of semiconductors are germanium, silicon
R 2  l2 
etc.
4
1 R r  The value of electrical resistance R increases with rise
(2) If radius is given then R  4  1 =  2  of temperature.
r R 2  r1 
Rt − R0 increase in resistance
= =
R 0  T original resistance × rise of temp.

Thus, temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as

the increase in resistance per unit original resistance per
degree celsius or kelvin rise of temperature.

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 125

For metals like silver, copper, etc., the value of  is

7. Colour Code for Carbon
1.
positive, therefore, resistance of a metal increases with
Resistors
–1 –1
rise in temperature. The unit of  is K or °C .
2. For insulators and semiconductors  is negative,
The colour code for carbon resistance is given in the
therefore, the resistance decreases with rise in
following table.
temperature.
Letter as
Colour No. an N Multipl Colour Toler
Aid to o. ier ance
6.2 Non-Ohmic Devices memory

Those devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called Black B 0 100 Gold 5%
non-ohmic devices. For example, vaccum tubes,
semiconductor diode, liquid electrolyte, transistor etc. Brown B 1 101 Silver 10%
For all non-ohmic devices (where there will be failure
Red R 2 102 No 20%
of Ohm’s law), V–I graph has one or more of the
following characteristics: colour
Orange O 3 103
1. The relation I and V is non-linear,
Yellow Y 4 104

Green G 5 105

Blue B 6 106

Violet V 7 107

Grey G 8 108

White W 9 109
Fig. 3.13
Gold 10-1

Silver 10-2

To remember the value of colour coding used for carbon

resistor, the following sentences are found to be of great help
(where bold letters stand for colours).
B B ROY Green, Britain Very Good Wife Gold Silver.
Way of finding the resistance of carbon resistor from its
colour coding.
In the system of colour coding, Strips of different colours are
given on the body of the resistor, figure. The colours on strips
are noted from left to right.

Fig. 3.14

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126 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

(i) Colour of the first strip A from the end indicates the 4. If Rs is the equivalent resistance of the given series
first significant figure of resistance in ohm. combination of resistances, then the potential difference
(ii) Colour of the second strip B indicate the second across A and B is,
significant figure of resistance in ohm. V = IRs.
(iii) The colour of the third strip C indicates the multiplier, We have
i.e., the number of zeros that will follow after the two
significant figure. IRs = I (R1 + R2 + R3) or Rs = R1 + R 2 + R3
(iv) The colour of fourth strip R indicates the tolerance
limit of the resistance value or percentage accuracy of
resistance. MEMORY NOTE:

8. Combination of Resistors
In a series resistance circuit, it should be noted that:
(i) the current is same in every resistor.
(ii) the current in the circuit is independent of the
8.1 Resistances in Series
relative positions of the various resistors in the
Resistors are said to be connected in series, if the same current series.
is flowing through each resistor when some potential
(iii) the voltage across any resistor is directly
difference is applied across the combination.
proportional to the resistance of the resistor.
(iv) the total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum
of the individual resistances, plus the internal
resistance of a cell if any.
(v) When the total resistance in the series circuit is
obviously more than the greatest resistances in the
circuit.

8.2 Resistances in Parallel

Fig. 3.15
Any number of resistors are said to be connected in parallel
1. Let V be the potential difference applied across A and
if potential difference across each of them is the same and is
B using the battery . In series combination, the same
equal to the applied potential difference.
current (say I) will be passing through each resistance.
2. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential difference across R1, R2
and R3 respectively. According to Ohm’s law
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
3. Here, V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I (R1 + R2 +
R3)

Fig. 3.17
Fig. 3.16 1. Let V be the potential difference applied across A and
B with the help of a battery of e.m.f. .

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 127

2. Let I be the main current in the circuit from battery. I (iii) total current through the parallel combination is the
divides itself into three unequal parts because the sum of the individual currents through the various
resistances of these branches are different and I1, I2, I3 resistors.
be the current through the resistances R1, R2 and R3
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance of the parallel
respectively. Then, combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
I = I1 + I2 + I3 of the individual resistances.
3. Here, potential difference across each resistor is V, (v) The total resistances are connected in series, the
therefore current through each resistance is same. When the
resistance are in parallel, the pot-diff. across each
V = I1R1 = I2 R2 = I3R3
resistance is the same and not the current.
V V V
or I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
9. CELL
R1 R2 R3
Putting values, we get
The device which converts chemical energy into electrical
V V V
I= + + energy is known as electric cell.
R1 R 2 R 3
Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current.
4. If Rp is the equivalent resistance of the given parallel
combination of resistance, then

Fig. 3.18
V = IRp or I = V/Rp Fig. 3.19

we have
1. Emf of cell (E) : The potential difference across the
V V V V or 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
= + + terminals of a cell when it is not supplying any current
Rp R1 R 2 R 3 R p R1 R 2 R 3
is called it’s emf.
Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of a number of 2 Potential difference (V) : The voltage across the
resistor connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to
reciprocals of the individual resistances. external resistance is called potential difference or
terminal voltage. Potential difference is equal to the
MEMORY NOTE: product of current and resistance of that given part i.e.
V = iR.
In a parallel resistance circuit, it should be noted that:
3 Internal resistance (r) : In case of a cell the opposition
(i) the potential difference across each resistor is the
of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called
same and is equal to the applied potential
internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance
difference.
of a cell depends on the distance between electrodes
(ii) the current through each resistor is inversely (r  d), area of electrodes [r  (1/A)] and nature,
proportional to the resistance of that resistor.
concentration (r  C) and temperature of electrolyte
[r  (1/ temp.)].

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128 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal

resistance.

9.1 Cell in Various Positions

1. Closed circuit: Cell supplies a constant current in the
circuit.
Fig. 3.22
(i) Current through the circuit i = 0
(ii) Potential difference between A and B, VAB = E
(iii) Potential difference between C and D, VCD = 0
3. Short circuit: If two terminals of cell are join together
by a thick conducting wire
Fig. 3.20
E
(i) Current given by the cell i = R=0
R+r
(ii) Potential difference across the resistance V
= iR
(iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir E, r
(iv) Equation of cell E = V + ir (E > V)
E  Fig. 3.23
(v) Internal resistance of the cell r =  − 1 .R
V  (i) Maximum current (called short circuit
(vi) Power dissipated in external resistance (load) E
2 current) flows momentarily isc =
V2  E  r
P = Vi = i 2 R = =  .R
R R+r
(ii) Potential difference V = 0
Power delivered will be maximum when R = r
E2 MEMORY NOTE:
so Pmax = .
4r
This statement is called “maximum power (i) It is important to note that during charging of a cell,
transfer theorem”. the positive electrode of the cell is connected to
positive terminal of battery charger and negative
electrode of the cell is connected to negative terminal
of battery charger. In this process, current flows from
positive electrode to negative electrode through the
cell. Refer figure

Charger
+ –
I I
Fig. 3.21
(vii) When the cell is being charged i.e. current is
given to the cell then E = V – ir and E < V.
 V =  + Ir
2. Open circuit: When no current is taken from the cell
it is said to be in open circuit. Hence, the terminal potential difference becomes
greater than the emf of the cell.
(ii) The difference of emf and terminal voltage is called
lost voltage as it is not indicated by a voltmeter. It is
equal to Ir.

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY 129

9.2 Distinction between E.M.F. and

Potential Difference
E.M.F. of a Cell Potential Difference

1 The emf of a cell is the 1 The potential

maximum potential difference Fig. 3.25
difference between the between the two (i) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq = nE
two electrodes of a cell points is the (ii) Equivalent internal resistance req = nr
when the cell is in the difference of nE
open circuit. potential between (iii) Main current = Current from each cell = i =
R + nr
those two points in
(iv) Potential difference across external resistance V = iR
a closed circuit.
V
(v) Potential difference across each cell V ' =
n
2 It is independent of the 2 It depends upon
(vi) Power dissipated in the external circuit
resistance of the circuit the resistance 2
 nE 
and depends upon the between the two =  .R
nature of electrodes points of the  R + nr 

and the nature of circuit and current (vii) Condition for maximum power R = nr and
electrolyte of the cell. flowing through  E2 
the circuit. Pmax = n  
 4r 
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr << R.
3 The term emf is used 3 The potential
for the source of difference is 2. Parallel grouping: In parallel grouping all anodes are
electric current. measured between connected at one point and all cathodes are connected
any two points of together at other point. If n identical cells are
the circuit. connected in parallel

E, r
4 It is a cause 4 It is an effect
E, r

E, r
9.3 Grouping of Cells
In series grouping of cells their emfs are additive or i
R
subtractive while their internal resistances are always
additive. If dissimilar plates of cells are connected together
their emfs are added to each other while if their similar plates Fig. 3.26
are connected together their emf’s are subtractive.
(i) Equivalent emf Eeq = E
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance Req = r/n
E
(iii) Main current i =
R+r/n
(iv) Potential difference across external resistance = p.d.
Fig. 3.24 across each cell = V = iR
1. Series grouping: In series grouping anode of one cell i
is connected to cathode of other cell and so on. If n (v) Current from each cell i ' =
n
identical cells are connected in series

Current Electricity
130 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

2
(vi) Power dissipated in the circuit P =  E 
 .R
 R + r / n  (viii) Total number of cell = mn

 E2 
(vii) Condition for max. power is R = r / n and Pmax = n  
 4r  MEMORY NOTE:
(viii) This type of combination is used when nr >> R
(i) If the two cells connected in parallel are of the same
Generalized Parallel Battery
emf  and same internal resistance r, then
r +  r r
E1 E 2 E eq = =, 1 1 1 2
= + = or req =
+ + ... n r+r req r r r 2
r r2 rn
E eq = 1 and 1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1 .
1 1 1 req r1 r2 rn
+ + ... (ii) If n identical cells are connected in parallel, then the
r1 r2 rn equivalent emf of all the cells is equal to the emf of
2. Mixed Grouping: If n identical cells are connected in one cell.
a row and such m rows are connected in parallel as 1 1 1
= + + ... + n terms =
n or r = r/n
eq
shown. req r r r

E, r E, r E, r
1
1 2 n
10. Kirchhoff’s Law
2

10.1 Kirchhoff’s first law or Kirchhoff’s

i
m junction law or Kirchhoff’s current
V law.
1. The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction
R
in a closed electric circuit is zero, i.e., I = 0
Fig. 3.27 2. Consider a junction O in the electrical circuit at which
the five conductors are meeting. Let I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 be
(i) Equivalent emf of the combination Eeq = nE the currents in these conductors in directions, shown in
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination figure,
nr
req = I3 I2
m
(iii) Main current flowing through the load
I1
nE mnE
i= = I4
nr mR + nr
R+ I5
m
(iv) Potential difference across load V = iR 3.28
V
(v) Potential difference across each cell V ' = 3. Let us adopt the following sign convention: the current
n
flowing in a conductor towards the junction is taken as
i positive and the current flowing away from the junction
(vi) Current from each cell i ' =
n is taken as negative.
nr 4. According to Kirchhoff’s first law, at junction O
(vii) Condition for maximum power R= and
m (–I1) + (–I2) + I3 + (–I4) + (–I5)= 0
2
E or –I1 – I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
Pmax = (mn)
4r

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY 131

or I = 0 1 − I3 R 2 − I1R1 = 0 ......(1)
or I3 – I5 = I1 + I2 + I4
 2 − I3 R 2 − I 2 R 3 = 0 ......(2)
5. Total current flowing towards the junction is equal to
total current flowing out of the junction.
1 − 2 + I2 R 3 − I1R1 = 0 ......(3)
6. Current cannot be stored at a junction. It means, no
point/junction in a circuit can act as a source or sink of Traverse a closed path of a circuit once completely in
charge. clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
7. Kirchhoff’s first law supports law of conservation of
charge. 10.3 Difference between Kirchhoff’s I
and II Laws
10.2 Kirchhoff’s Second law or
First Law Second Law
Kirchhoff’s loop law or Kirchhoff’s
voltage law. 1. This law supports 1. This law supports the
the law of law of conservation of
1. The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any
conservation of energy.
closed path of electric circuit (or closed loop) involving
charge.
resistors and cells in the loop is zero, i.e.,  V = 0.
2. In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the emfs and 2. According to this 2. According to this law
algebraic sum of the products of current and resistance law  I = 0
in the various arms of the loop is zero, i.e.,   = iR
 +  IR = 0.
3. This law can be 3. This law can be used
3. Kirchhoff’s second law supports the law of in closed circuit only.
used in open and
conservation of energy, i.e., the net change in the energy
closed circuits.
of a charge, after the charge completes a closed path
must be zero.
4. Kirchhoff’s second law follows from the fact that the
electrostatic force is a conservative force and work done
11. Heating Effect of Current
by it in any closed path is zero.
5. Consider a closed electrical circuit as shown in figure. When some potential difference V is applied across a
containing two cells of emfs. 1 and 2 and three resistors resistance R then the work done by the electric field on charge
q to flow through the circuit in time t will be
of resistances R1, R2 and R3.
V2 t
W = qV = Vit = i2Rt . = Joule
R

3.30
This work appears as thermal energy in the resistor.
Heat produced by the resistance R is
W Vit i 2 Rt V 2 t
H= = = = Cal. This relation is called
J 4  2 4  2 4  2R
Joules heating.
Fig. 3.29
We adopt the following sign convention:

Current Electricity
132 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Some important relations for solving objective questions are 3. Resistance of electrical appliance: If variation of
as follow: resistance with temperature is neglected then
Condition Graph resistance of any electrical appliance can be calculated
2
by rated power and rated voltage i.e. R = VR by
PR
If R and t are constant using e.g. Resistance of 100W, 220 volt bulb is
H  i2 and H  V2
220  220
R= = 484 
100
4. Power consumed (illumination) : An electrical
If i and t are constant appliance (Bulb, heater, …. etc.) consumes rated
(series grouping) H  R power (PR) only if applied voltage (VA) is equal to
rated voltage (VR) i.e. If VA = VR so Pconsumed = PR. If
VA2 VR2 so
VA < VR then Pconsumed = also we have R=
R PR
If V and t are constant
1  V2 
(Parallel grouping) H  Pconsumed (Brightness) =  A2  .PR
R  VR 
Pconsumed  (Brightness)
If V, i and R constant
e.g. If 100 W, 220 V bulb operates on 110 volt supply
then
2
 110 
Pconsumed =    100 = 25 W
11.1 Electric Power  220 

The rate at which electrical energy is dissipated into other NOTE:

forms of energy is called electrical power i.e.
W V2 If VA < VR then % drop in output power
P= = Vi = i 2 R =
t R (PR − Pconsumed )
= 100
1. Units: It’s S.I. unit is Joule/sec or Watt. Bigger S.I. PR
units are KW, MW and HP, remember 1 HP = 746
Watt For the series combination of bulbs, current through them
2. Rated values: On electrical appliances (Bulbs, Heater will be same so they will consume power in the ratio of
… etc.) resistance i.e., P  R {By P = i2R) while if they are
connected in parallel i.e. V is constant so power consumed
by them is in the reverse ratio of their resistance i.e.
40 W
1
P .
220 V
R

Fig. 3.31
5. Thickness of filament of bulb: We know that
Wattage, voltage, ……. etc. are printed called rated 2
values e.g. If suppose we have a bulb of 40 W, 220 V resistance of filament of bulb is given by R = VR ,
PR
then rated power (PR) = 40 W while rated voltage
(VR) = 220 V. It means that on operating the bulb at l
also R = , hence we can say that
220 volt, the power dissipated will be 40 W or in other A
words 40 J of electrical energy will be converted into 1
heat and light per second. A  PR  i.e. If rated power of a bulb is more,
( Thickness ) R

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 133

thickness of it’s filament is also more and it’s 11.3 Electricity Consumption
resistance will be less.
1 1. The price of electricity consumed is calculated on the
If applied voltage is constant then P(consumed)  basis of electrical energy and not on the basis of
R electrical power.
VA2
(By P = ). Hence if different bulbs (electrical 2. The unit Joule for energy is very small hence a big
R practical unit is considered known as kilowatt hour
appliance) operated at same voltage supply then (KWH) or board of trade unit (B.T.U.) or simple unit.
1 3. 1 KWH or 1 unit is the quantity of electrical energy
Pconsumed  PR  thickness 
R which dissipates in one hour in an electrical circuit
when the electrical power in the circuit is 1 KWH thus
NOTE:
1 KWH = 1000 W  3600 sec = 3.6  106 J.
25W 100W 1000W
220V 220V 220V 4. Important formulae to calculate the no. of consumed
Different bulbs
Total watt  Total hours
units is n =
1000

 Resistance R25 > R100 > R1000 11.4 Combination of Bulbs (or Electrical
 Thickness of filament t1000 > t100 > t40
Appliances)
 Brightness B1000 > B100 > B25
Bulbs (Heater etc.) Bulbs (Heater etc.)
are in series are in parallel

11.2 Electric Energy (1) Total power (1) Total power

consumed consumed
The total electric work done or energy supplied by the source
of emf in maintaining the current in an electric circuit for a 1 1 1 Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 ....
= + + ....
given time is called electric energy consumed in the circuit. Ptotal P1 P2 + Pn
Electric energy, W = VIt = P.t
P1 P2 P1
Electric energy = electric power × time
SI unit of electric energy is joule, where Supply P2
1 joule = 1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 second = 1 watt × 1 second Supply

The commercial unit of electric energy is called a kilowatt-

hour (kWh) or Board to Trade Unit (BOT) or UNIT of (2) If ‘n’ identical bulbs (2) If ‘n’ identical bulbs
Electricity, in brief, where are connected in are in parallel. Ptotal =
1 kWh = 1 kilo watt × 1 hour = 1000 watt × 1 hour series, nP
Thus 1 kilo watt hour is the total electric energy consumed P Pconsumed ( Brightness )
when an electrical appliance of power 1 kilo-watt works for Ptotal =
n
one hours. 1
6 Pconsumed ( Brightness )  PR  i 
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = (1000 W) × (60 × 60 s) = 3.6 × 10 J. R
Note that the number of units of electricity consumed = No.
1 i.e. in parallel
watt  hour V  R 
of kWh = Prated combination bulb of
1000 greater wattage will
i.e. in series give more bright light
Electric energy = VI t = I2 Rt = V 2 t / R combination bulb of and more current will
lesser wattage will pass through it.

Current Electricity
134 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

give more bright light 2. Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more accurate
and p.d. appeared will be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if
across it will be its resistance r is zero.
more. 3. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter: A
galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance (called shunt S) in parallel
12. Experiments to the galvanometer G as shown in figure.

12.1 Galvanometer S

It is an instrument used to detect small current passing i – ig

through it by showing deflection. Galvanometers are of i
G
different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving ig
magnet galvanometer, hot wire galvanometer. In dc circuit Ammeter
usually moving coil galvanometer is used.
Fig. 3.33
(i) Its symbol: ; where G is the total
GS
internal resistance of the galvanometer. 1. Equivalent resistance of the combination =
G +S
(ii) Full scale deflection current: The current required
for full scale deflection in a galvanometer is called full 2. G and S are parallel to each other hence both will have
scale deflection current and is represented by ig. equal potential difference i.e. ig G = (i − ig ) S ; which
(iii) Shunt: The small resistance connected in parallel to gives
galvanometer coil, in order to control current flowing Required shunt S = ig
G
through the galvanometer is known as shunt. (i – i g )

TABLE: Merits and demerits of shunt i

3. To pass nth part of main current (i.e. i g = ) through
n
Merits of shunt Demerits of shunt
G
To protect the galvanometer coil Shunt resistance the galvanometer, required shunt S = .
(n –1)
from burning. decreases the sensitivity
It can be used to convert any of galvanometer. 12.3 Voltmeter
galvanometer into ammeter of
It is a device used to measure potential difference and is
desired range.
always put in parallel with the ‘circuit element’ across which
potential difference is to be measured.
12.2 Ammeter
V
It is a device used to measure current and is always connected
in series with the ‘element’ through which current is to be
R
measured.
R –
+
V

i A
Fig. 3.34
(i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true
+ –
V value.
(ii) Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will
Fig. 3.32 be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its
1. The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual resistance is infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the
current in the circuit. circuit element for its operation.

Current Electricity
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 135

(iii) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: A Proof:

galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by Let I be the total current given out by the cell. On reaching
connecting a large resistance R in series with the the point A, it is divided into two parts :
galvanometer as shown in the figure.
I1 is flowing through P

G
R (I – I1) through R.
Vg= i G (V – Vg) At B, the current I1 is divided into two parts, Ig through the
ig galvanometer G and (I1 – Ig) through Q.

V A current (I – I1 + Ig) through S.

Applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit
Fig. 3.35 ABDA, we get
(a) Equivalent resistance of the combination = G + R
I1P + Ig G – (I – I1) R = 0 ...(1)
(b) According to ohm’s law Maximum reading of V
where G is the resistance of galvanometer.
which can be taken V = ig (G + R); which gives
Again applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit
V V  BCDB, we get
Required series resistance R = – G =  –1 G

ig  Vg  (I1 – Ig) Q – (I – I1 + Ig) S – IgG = 0 ...(2)
(c) If nth part of applied voltage appeared across The value of R is adjusted such that the galvanometer shows
V no deflection, i.e., Ig = 0. Now, the bridge is balanced. Putting
galvanometer (i.e. Vg = ) then required series Ig = 0 in (1) and (2) we have
n
resistance R = (n – 1) G. I1P – (I – I1) R = 0 or I1P = (I – I1) R ...(3)
and I1Q – (I – I1) S = 0 or I1Q = (I – I1) S ...(4)
12.4 Wheatstone Bridge Principle
P R
Dividing (3) by (4), we get =
Wheatstone Bridge Principle states that if four resistances P, Q S
Q, R and S are arranged to form a bridge as shown in figure,
Note that in Wheatstone bridge circuit, arms AB and BC
if galvanometer shows no deflection, the bridge is balanced.
having resistances P and Q form ratio arm. The arm AD,
P R having a resistance R, is a known variable resistance arm and
In that case =
Q S arm DC, having a resistance S is unknown resistance arm.
1. Balanced bridge: The bridge is said to be balanced
when deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current
flows through the galvanometer or in other words VB =
P R
VD. In the balanced condition = , on mutually
Q S
changing the position of cell and galvanometer this
condition will not change.
2. Unbalanced bridge: If the bridge is not balanced
current will flow from D to B if VD > VB i.e.(VA - VD) <
(VA - VB) which gives PS > RQ.
3. Applications of whetstone bridge: Meter bridge, post
office box and Carey Foster bridge are instruments
based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge and are
used to measure unknown resistance.

Fig. 3.36

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136 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

12.5 Slide Wire Bridge or Meter Bridge

1. A slide wire bridge is a practical form of Wheatstone 12.6 Potentiometer and its principle of
bridge.
working
2. It consists of a wire AC of constantan or manganin of 1 1. Potentiometer is an apparatus used for measuring the
metre length and of uniform area of cross-section. emf of a cells or potential difference between two points
3. A meter scale is also fitted on the wooden board parallel in an electrical circuit accurately.
to the length of the wire. 2. A potentiometer consists of a long uniform wire
4. Copper strip is fitted on the wooden board in order to generally made of manganin or constantan, stretched on
provide two gaps in strips. a wooden board.
5. Across one gap, a resistance box R and in another gap 3. Its ends are connected to the binding screws A and B. A
the unknown resistance S are connected. meter scale is fixed on the board parallel to the length
6. The positive pole of the battery E is connected to of the wire. The potentiometer is provided with a jockey
terminal A and the negative pole of the battery to J with the help of which, the contact can be made at any
terminal C through one way key K. point on the wire, figure. A battery  (called driving
cell), connected across A and B sends the current
7. The circuit is now exactly the same as that of the
through the wire which is kept constant by using a
Wheatstone bridge figure.
rheostat Rh.

Fig. 3.38
Fig. 3.37
Principle: The working of a potentiometer is based on
Adjust the position of jockey on the wire (say at B) the fact that the fall of potential across any portion of
where on pressing, galvanometer shows no deflection. the wire is directly proportional to the length of that
Note the length AB ( = l say) to the wire. Find the length portion provided the wire is of uniform area of cross-
BC ( = 100 – l) of the wire. section and a constant current is flowing through it.
P R Suppose A and  are respectively the area of cross-
According to Wheatstone bridge principle =
Q S section and specific resistance of the material of the
wire.
If r is the resistance per cm length of wire, then
Let V be the potential difference across the portion of
P = resistance of the length l of the wire AB = lr
the wire of length l whose resistance is R.
Q = resistance of the length (100 – l) of the wire BC =
If I is the current flowing through the wire, then from
(100 – l) r.
Ohm’s law; V = IR; As, R = l/A
r R  100 − 
 = or S =   R I
(100 − )r S  
 V = I = K ,  where K = 
A  A
Knowing l and R, we can calculate S.
or Vl (if I and A are constant)

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 137

i.e., potential difference across any portion of 3. If r is the resistance of potentiometer wire of length L,
potentiometer wire is directly proportional to length of then current through potentiometer wire is
the wire of that protion.

Here, V/l = K = is called potential gradient, i.e., the fall I=
R+r
of potential per unit length of wire.
Potential drop across potentiometer wire
Potential gradient of potentiometer wire, i.e., fall of
12.7 Determination of Potential potential per unit length is
Difference using Potentiometer
  r   r
K=  . V= 
A battery of emf  is connected between the end terminals A R+rL R+rL
and B of potentiometer wire with ammeter A1, resistance box
R and key K in series. This circuit is called an auxillary Hence, V can be calculated.
circuit. The ends of resistance R1 are connected to terminals
A and Jockey J through galvanometer G. A cell 1 and key K1 12.8 Comparison of emfs of two cells
are connected across R1 as shown in figure.
using Potentiometer
A battery of emf  is connected between the end terminals A
and B of potentiometer wire with rheostat Rh, ammeter A 1
and key K in series.
The positive terminals of both the cells are connected to
point A of the potentiometer. Their negative terminals are
connected to two terminals 1 and 2 of two ways key, while
its common terminal 3 is connected to jockey J through a
galvanometer G.
Insert the plug in the gap between the terminals 1 and 3 of
two way key so that the cell of emf 1 is in the circuit.
Fig. 3.39 Adjust the position of jockey on potentiometer wire, where
Working and Theory: Close key K and take out suitable if pressed, the galvanometer shows no deflection. Let it be
resistance R from resistance box so that the fall of potential when jockey be at J1. Note the length AJ1 (= l1 say) of the
across the potentiometer wire is greater than the potential wire.
difference to be measured. There is no current in arm AJ1. It means the potential of
1. It can be checked by pressing, firstly the jockey J on positive terminal of cell = potential of the point A, and the
potentiometer wire near end A and later on near end B, potential of negative terminal of cell = potential of the point
the deflections in galvanometer are in opposite J1.
directions.
2. Close key K1. The current flows through R1. A potential
difference is developed across R1. Adjust the position of
jockey on potentiometer wire where if pressed, the
galvanometer shows no deflection. Let it be when jockey
is at J. Note the length AJ (= l) of potentiometer wire.
This would happen when potential difference across R1
is equal to the fall of potential across the potentiometer
wire of length l. If K is the potential gradient of
potentiometer wire, then potential difference across R 1,
i.e., Fig. 3.40
V = Kl

Current Electricity
138 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Therefore, the e.m.f. of the cell ( = 1) is equal to potential

difference between the points A and J1 of the potentiometer
wire.
i.e., 1 = Kl1 ...(1)
where K is the potential gradient across the potentiometer
wire.
Now remove the plug from the gap between 1 and 3 and insert
in the gap between 2 and 3 of two way key so that cells of
emf 2 comes into the circuit. Again find the position of
jockey on potentiometer wire, where galvanometer shows no
deflection. Let it be at J2. Note the length of the wire AJ2
Fig. 3.41
( = l2 say). Then 2 = Kl2 ...(2)
Close key K and maintain suitable constant current in the
1 potentiometer wire with the help of rheostat Rh. Adjust the
Dividing (1) by (2), we get = 1
position of jockey on the potentiometer wire where if pressed,
2 2
the galvanometer show no deflection. Let it be when jockey
is as J1. Note the length AJ1 (= l1) of the potentiometer wire.
12.9 Precautions of experiment
Now emf of the cell,  = potential difference across the length
1. The current in the potentiometer wire from driving cell l1 of the potentiometer wire.
must be kept constant during experiment.
or  = Kl1 ...(1)
2. While adjusting the position of jockey on potentiometer
wire, the edge of jockey should not be rubbed on the where K is the potential gradient across the wire.
wire, otherwise area of cross-section of wire will not be Close key K1 and take out suitable resistance R from the
uniform and constant.
resistance box in the cell circuit. Again find the position of
3. The current in the potentiometer wire from driving cell the jockey on the potentiometer wire where galvanometer
should not be passed for long time as this would cause shows no deflection. Let it be at J2. Note the length of the wire
heating effect, resulting the change in resistance of wire. AJ2 ( = l2 say). As current is being drawn from the cell, its
MEMORY NOTE: terminal potential difference V is balanced and not emf .
Therefore, potential difference between two poles of the cell,
A balance point is obtained on the potentiometer wire if
V = potential difference across the length l2 of the
the fall of potential along the potentiometer wire, due to
potentiometer wire
driving cell is greater than the e.m.f. of the cells to be
balanced. i.e. V = Kl2 ...(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we have
12.10 Determination of Internal 
= 1
...(3)
Resistance of a Cell by V 2

Potentiometer We know that the internal resistance r of a cell of emf , when

a resistance R is connected in its circuit is given by
To find the internal resistance r of a cell of emf  using
−V  
potentiometer, set up the circuit as shown in figure. r=  R =  − 1 R ...(4)
V V 
Putting the value (3) in (4), we get

  −
r = 1
− 1 R = 1 2
R
 2  2

Thus, knowing the values of l1, l2 and R, the internal resistance

r of the cell can be determined.

Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 139

12.11 Sensitiveness of Potentiometer 13. Charging and Discharging of

Capacitor in Series RC circuit
The sensitiveness of potentiometer means the smallest
potential difference that can be measured with its help.
The sensitiveness of a potentiometer can be increased by As shown in the following figure (A) when switch S is closed,
decreasing its potential gradient. The same can be achieved. capacitor start charging. In this transient state potential
difference appears across capacitor as well as resistor. When
1. By increasing the length of potentiometer wire.
capacitor gets fully charged the entire potential difference
2. If the potentiometer wire is of fixed length, the potential appeared across the capacitor and nothing is left for the
gradient can be decreased by reducing the current in the resistor. [Shown in figure (B)]
potentiometer wire circuit with the help of rheostat and
(i) Charging: In transient state of charging charge on the
using a single cell.
 −t

capacitor at any instant Q = Q0 1 − e RC  and potential
12.12 Difference between Potentiometer  
difference across the capacitor at any instant
and Voltmeter  −t

V = V0 1 − e RC

 
(Here Q and V are the instantaneous values of charge and
Potentiometer Voltmeter potential difference while maximum charge on capacitor is
Q0 = CV0 )
It measures the emf 1. It measures the emf
1. of a cell very of a cell (ii) Discharging: After the completion of charging, if battery
accurately. approximately. is removed capacitor starts discharging. In transient state
charge on the capacitor at any instant Q = Q0 e− t / RC and
While measuring 2. While measuring
2. potential difference cross the capacitor at any instant
emf it does not draw emf, it draws some
V = V0 e− t /CR .
any current from the current from the
source of known source of emf.
emf.
While measuring 3 While measuring emf
3 emf, the resistance resistance of
of potentiometer voltmeter is high but
becomes infinite. finite. Fig. 3.42
Its sensitivity is 4. Its sensitivity is low.
4. high.

It is based on null 5. It is based on

5. deflection method. deflection
method.
It can be used for 6. It can be used only to
6. various purposes. measure emf or
Fig. 3.43
potential
difference. (iii) Time constant (): The quantity RC is called the time
constant as it has the dimension of time during charging if
t =  = RC , Q = Q0 (1 − e−1 ) = 0.63Q0 = 63% of Q0

( 1 = 0.37 ) or during discharging it is defined as the time

e
during which charge on a capacitor falls to 0.37 times (37%)
of the initial charge on the capacitor.

Current Electricity
140
NCERT Corner
Important Points to Remember
1. Current through a given area of a conductor is the net
charge passing per unit time through the area.
2. Motion of conduction electrons in electric field E is the
sum of (i) motion due to random collisions and (ii) that
due to E. The motion due to random collisions averages
to zero and does not contribute to v d.
3. Current is a scalar although we represent current with
an arrow. Currents do not obey the law of vector
addition. That current is a scalar also follows from it’s
definition. The current I through an area of cross-
section is given by the scalar product of two vectors:
9.
I = j. S, where j and S are vectors.
4. The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length l
and cross-sectional area A through the relation,
l
R=
A 10.
where ρ, called resistivity is a property of the material
and depends on temperature and pressure.
5. Electrical resistivity of substances varies over a very
wide range. Metals have low resistivity, in the range of
10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m. Insulators like glass and rubber
11.
have 1022 to 1024 times greater resistivity.
Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the middle
range of resistivity on a logarithmic scale.
6. In most substances, the carriers of current are
electrons; in some cases, for example, ionic crystals
and electrolytic liquids, positive and negative ions
carry the electric current.
7. Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing 12.
per second per unit area normal to the flow, j = nq v d
where n is the number density (number per unit
volume) of charge carriers each of charge q, and v d is
the drift velocity of the charge carriers. For electrons q
= – e. If j is normal to a cross-sectional area A and is
constant over the area, the magnitude of the current I
through the area is nevd A. 13.
8. Using E = V/l, I = nevd A, and Ohm’s law, one obtains
14.
Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
eE
=
ne2
d
m m
The proportionality between the force eE on the
electrons in a metal due to the external field E and the
drift velocity vd (not acceleration) can be understood,
if we assume that the electrons suffer collisions with
ions in the metal, which deflect them randomly. If such
collisions occur on an average at a time interval ,
vd = a = eEτ/m
where a is the acceleration of the electron. This gives
m
=
ne 2 
When a source of emf ε is connected to an external
resistance R, the voltage Vext across R is given by

Vext = IR = R
R+r
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series
is given by R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in
1 1 1 1
parallel is given by = + + ......
R R1 R 2 Rn
Kirchhoff’s Rules
(a) Junction Rule: At any junction of circuit elements,
the sum of currents entering the junction must equal
the sum of currents leaving it. Kirchhoff’s junction
rule is based on conservation of charge.
(b) Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in
potential around any closed loop must be zero.
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four
resistances – R1, R2, R3, R4 as shown in the text. The
null-point condition is given by
R1 R 3
= using which the value of one resistance can
R2 R4
be determined, knowing the other three resistances.
The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge
is not affected by the internal resistance of the cell.
If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistance
each having resistance R then the net resistance across
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 141

H G

E
F
D C

A B

(a) The longest diagonal (EC or AG) = 5 R

6
3
(b) The diagonal of face (e.g. AC, ED, ....) = R
4
7
(c) A side (e.g. AB, BC.....) = R
12
15. The potentiometer is a device to compare potential
differences. Since the method involves a condition of
no current flow, the device can be used to measure
potential difference; internal resistance of a cell and
compare emf’s of two sources.

Current Electricity
142 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Let the terminal voltage of the resistor be V.

Solved Example Using the ohm’s law,

Example - 1 V = IR
The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the  V = 0.5  17 = 8.5 V
internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω, what is the
maximum current that can be drawn from the battery? Thus, the resistance of the resistor is 17 and the
[NCERT] terminal voltage is 8.5 V.
Sol. In the above question it is given that :
Example - 3
Emf of the battery, E = 12V
(a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are combined
Internal resistance of the battery, r = 0.4  in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
Consider the maximum current drawn from the battery (b) If the combination is connected to a battery of
to be 1. emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
Therefore, using Ohm’s law,
[NCERT]
E = Ir
Sol. (a) In the above question it is given that three
E 12 resistors of resistances 1, 2 and 3 are
 =  =   = 30 A
r 0.4 combined in series.
The total resistance of a series combination of
Clearly, the maximum current drawn from the given resistors is the algebraic sum of individual
battery is 30 A resistances.
Hence the total resistance is given by:
Example - 2
Total Resistance = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is (b) Consider the current flowing through the circuit
connected to a resistor. If the current in the circuit is to be I.
0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is
the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is Emf of the battery, E = 12V
closed? [NCERT] Total resistance of the circuit, R = 6
Sol. In the above question it is given that : The relation for current using Ohm’s law is given
Emf of the battery, E = 10 V by:

Internal resistance of the battery, r = 3 E

I=
Current in the circuit, I = 0.5 A
R

Consider the resistance of the resistor to be R. 12

 I= = 2A
6
Therefore, using Ohm’s law,
E Consider potential drop across 1 resistor to be v1.
=
R+r Using Ohm’s law, the value of V1 can be obtained
E
R+r = as:
I
10 v1 = 2  1 = 2V ……(1)
R+r =
0.5
 R + r = 20 Consider potential drop across 2 resistor to be v2.

Again, using Ohm’s law, the value of v2 can be

 R = 20 – 3 = 17
obtained as:
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 143

v2 = 2  2 = 4V ……(2) Sol. Temperature, T1 = 27.5 oC.

Consider potential drop across 3 resistor to be V3. Resistance of the silver wire at T1 is R1 = 2.1 .

V3 = 2  3 = 6V ……(3) Temperature, T2 = 100 oC.

Clearly, the potential drops across 1, 2 and 3 Resistance of the silver wire at T2 is R2 = 2.7 .
resistors are 2V, 4V and 6V respectively.
Let the temperature coefficient of silver be . It is
Example - 4 known that temperature coefficient of a material
provides information on the nature of that material
At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a with respect to its change in resistance with
heating element is 100 Ω. What is the temperature temperature. Mathematically, it is related with
of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, temperature and resistance by the formula:
given that the temperature coefficient of the material
of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1. [NCERT] R 2 − R1
=
R1 (T2 − T1 )
Sol. In the above question it is given that at room
2.7 − 2.1
temperature (T = 27.0 C) , the resistance of the  = = 0.0039 o C−1
heating element is 100 (say R). 2.1(100 − 27.5)

Also, the heating element’s temperature coefficients Clearly, the temperature coefficient of silver is
is given to be  = 1.70  10-4 oC-1. 0.0039oC-1.

Now, it is said that the resistance of the heating Example - 6

element at an increased temperature (say T1) is 117 Determine the current in each branch of the network
(say R1). To compute this unknown increased shown in Fig. [NCERT]
temperature T1, the formula for temperature
coefficient of a material can be used. It is known that
temperature co-efficient of a material provides
information on the nature of that material with
respect to its change in resistance with temperature.
Mathematically,

R1 − R R1 − R
=  T1 – T =
R(T1 − T) R

Substituting the given values,

117 − 100
 T1 − 27 =
100 1.70 10 −4
 T1 − 27 = 1000
 T1 = 1027 o C

Clearly, it is at 1027 oC when the resistance of the

element is 117 .

Example - 5
Sol. Current flowing through various branches of the
A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C,
circuit is represented in the given figure.
and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver.

[NCERT]
144 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3I3 + 2I1 – I4 = 2
……(3)

From equations (1) and (2), we obtain

I3 = 2(2I3 + 4I4) + I4

I3 = 4I3 + 8I4 + I4

-3I3 = 9I4

-3I4 = +I3
……(4)

Putting equation (4) in equation (1), we obtain

I3 = 2I2 + I4

- 4I4 = 2I2
……(5)
Consider
It is evident from the given figure that,
1 = Current flowing through the outer circuit
I1 = I3 + I2
2 = Current flowing through AB
……(6)
3 = Current flowing through branch AD Putting equation (6) in equation (1), we obtain
2 - 4 = Current flowing through branch BC 3I2 + 2(I3 + I2) – I4 = 2
3 + 4 = Current flowing through branch CD 5I2 + 2I3 – I4 = 2 ……(7)
4 = Current flowing through branch BD Putting equations (4) and (5) in equation (7), we
obtain
For the closed circuit ABDA, potential is zero i.e.,
5(-2I4) + 2(-3I4) – I4 = 2
10I2 + 5I4 – 5I3 = 0
-10I4 – 6I4 – I4 = 2
2I2 + I4 – I3 = 0
17I4 = - 2
I3 = 2I2 + I4 …..(1)
2
For the closed circuit BCDB, potential is zero i.e., I4 = - A
17
5(2 - 4) – 10 (3 + I4) – 5I4 = 0
Equation (4) reduces to
5I2 + 5I4 – 10I3 – 10I4 – 5I4 = 0
I3 = -3(I4)
5I2 - 10I3 – 20I4 = 0
 2 6
I2 = 2I3 + 4I4 I3 = −3  −  = A
 17  17
…….(2) I 2 = −2(I 4 )
For the closed circuit BACFEA, potential is zero  2 4
I 2 = −2  −  = A
i.e.,  17  17

-10 + 10(1) + 10(I2) + 5 (2 – I4) = 0

10 = 15I2 + 10I1 – 5I4

CURRENT ELECTRICITY 145

4  2 6 If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance

I2 − I4 = −−  = point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the second
18  17  17
cell? [NCERT]
6  −2  4
I3 + I 4 = +  = A
17  17  17 Sol. In the above question it is given that:
I1 = I3 + I 2
Emf of the storage battery is E = 0.8V .
6 4 10
 I1 = + = A
17 17 17 Internal resistance of the battery is r = 0.5.

4 DC supply voltage is V = 120 V

Therefore, current in branch AB = A
17
Resistance of the resistor is R = 15.5
6 Consider effective voltage in the circuit to be V’,
Current in branch BC = A
17 which would be the difference in the supply voltage
and the emf of the battery.
−4
Current in branch CD = A
17 V’ = V – E

Current in branch AD =
6  V’ = 120 – 8 = 112 V
A
17
Now, current flowing in the circuit is  and the
 −2  resistance R is connected in series to the storage
Current in branch BD =  A battery
 17 
Therefore, using Ohm’s law
4 6 −4 6 −2 10
Total current = + + + + = A.
17 17 17 17 17 17 V'
I=
R+r
Example - 7
112
I= = 7A
A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal 15.5 + 0.5
resistance 0.5 Ω is being charged by a 120 V dc
supply using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the Thus, voltage across resistor R would be:
terminal voltage of the battery during charging? IR = 7  15.5 = 108.5V
What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the
charging circuit? [NCERT] DC supply voltage = Terminal voltage of battery +
Voltage drop across R
Sol. E = 8V, internal resistance R1 = 0.5 
Terminal voltage of battery = 120 – 108.5 = 11.5 V
V = 120V, resistance R2 = 15.5 
A series resistor in a charging circuit takes the
Effective volage V = V – E = 112V
responsibility for controlling the current drawn from
V the eternal source. Excluding this series resistor is
I= = 7A
R 1+ R 2 dangerous as the current flow would be extremely
high if so.
Voltage across R1 = IR1 = 3.5 V
Example - 9
Terminal voltage = 8 + 3.5 = 11.5 V
Determine the current drawn from a 12V supply
Series resistor in the charging circuit limits the current
with internal resistance 0.5Ω by the infinite
drawn from the external source.
network shown in Fig. Each resistor has 1Ω
Example - 8 resistance. [NCERT]
In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V
gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the wire.
146 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Sol. In the above question, it is provided that the

resistance of each resistor connected in the given
circuit is R = . Consider the equivalent resistance of
the given circuit to be R'.

Because the network is infinite, the equivalent Sol. In the potentiometer setup, it is provided that :
resistance is given by the relation,
Balance point of the cell in open circuit is I1 = 76.3
R' cm
R'= 2+
(R '+ 1)
An external resistance R of resistance 9.5  is
 (R ') 2 − 2R '− 2 = 0 connected to the circuit.
2  12 New balance point of the circuit is at a distance
 R'= = 1 3
2 12 = 64.8 cm.
As only positive value is acceptable,
Current flowing through the circuit = I.

 R’ = 1 + 3 In this potentiometer arrangement, the relationship

connecting internal resistance of the cell and the two
Internal resistance of the circuit r = 0.5. balance points of the bridge setup is :
Also, total resistance = 2.73 + 0.5 = 3.23 I −I 
r =  1 2 R
Now, with respect to Ohm’s law,  I2 

V 12  76.3 − 64.8 
I= = = 3.72A.  r=  9.5 = 1.68
R 3.23  64.8 

Clearly, the current drawn is 3.72 A. Clearly, the internal resistance of the cell is 1.68 .

Example - 11

Example - 10 The charge flowing in a conductor varies with time

1 1
Figure shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the as, q = at − bt 2 + ct 3 where a, b, c are positive
2 6
determination of internal resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The
constants. Then, find
balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a
resistor of 9.5 Ω is used in the external circuit of the cell, the (i) the initial current
balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the potentiometer (ii) the time after which the value of current reaches
wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell. a maximum value
[NCERT] (iii) the maximum or minimum value of current.
Sol. (i) Current,
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 147

dq d  1 1  1 or R2 = 5 × 9 = 45 .
i= =  at − bt 2 + ct 3  = a − bt + ct 2
dt dt  2 6  2
Example - 14
...(i)
When t = 0, i = a A copper wire is stretched to make it 0.2% longer.
What is the percentage change in its resistance?
(ii) For i to be maximum or minimum,
di b Sol. The mass m of the wire of length , area of cross
= 0 = −b + ct or t =
dt c section A and density d is given by
(iii) Putting this value of t in (i), we have m
2 2 2 2 m= A d or A=
b 1 b b b b d
i=a–b× + c  = a − + = a − .
c 2 c c 2c 2c The resistance R of the wire of resistivity  is given by
As this value of i is less than that at t = 0, it must
  2d
be R= = =k 2

minimum. So minimum value of current = a – A m

where k =  d/m is a constant of the wire.
2
b
2c dR 2 d
 = ;
Example - 12 R
The current in a wire varies with time according to dR 2  0.2
the relation: i = (4 + 2t2)A % increase in resistance = 100 = 100
R 100
(a) How many coulombs pass a cross–section of
= 0.4 %
the wire in the time interval between t = 5 and
t = 10 s? Example - 15
(b) What constant current could transport the
same charge in same time interval? The colour coded resistor is shown in figure. Compute
Sol. i(t) = 4 + 2 t2 the resistance in megaohm.
(a) q =  10 i  ( 4 + 2t ) dt
10
dt = 2
= 603.33 C
5 5

q 603.33
(b) ic = = = 120.67 A.
t 10 − 5

Example - 13

A wire of resistance 5  is drawn out so that its length

is increased by twice its original length. Calculate its
new resistance.
Sol. Here, R1 = 5; l1 = l say; A1 = A, say Sol. We know that number for brown colour is 1, for violet
R2 = ? ; l2 = 2l + l = 3l; A2 = ? colour is 7 and that of yellow is 4. For gold, accuracy is
5%.
If V is the volume of the wire of length l and area of
cross-section A, then  Resistance of resistor shown in figure.
= 17 × 10  ± 5%
4
V = Al or A = V/l
= 0.17 Megaohm ± 5%
   2
Now R = = = R  2

A V/ V Example - 16
[  and V are constants] The resistance of a tungsten filament at 150° C is
R 2 (3 )
2 2 133. What will be its resistance at 500°C ? The
R2
Hence, = 2
2
or = 2 =9 temperature coefficient of resistance of tungsten is
R1 1 5 –1
0.0045°C at 0°C.
148 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

–1
Sol. Here; R150 = 133 , R500 = ?,  = 0.0045°C
We know, Rt = R0 (1 + t)
 R150 = R0 (1 +  × 150)
or 133 = R0 (1 + 0.0045 × 150) ...(i)
And R500 = R0 (1 +  × 500)
or R500 = R0 (1 + 0.0045 × 500) ...(ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i) we get

R 500 1 + 0.0045  500 3.25

= =
133 1 + 0.0045 150 1.675
3.25
or R 500 = 133 = 258.1
1.675 1 1 1 1
= + +
R ( 4 + 4) ( 4 + 4) 4

Example - 17 1+1+ 2 4 1
= = = or R = 2
Six equal resistances each of 4 ohm are connected to
8 8 2
form a network as shown in figure. What is the Example - 18
resistance between A and B?
Find the resistance of the infinite network between
A and B in the figure.

Sol.

Sol. The upper five resistances between A and B will form a

balanced. Wheatstone bridge. Hence there will be no
current in arm CO. The equivalent circuit will be as
shown in figure. Here, resistances of arm ACB, AOB
and AB are all in parallel. The effective resistance R is
given by

Let R be the equivalent resistance of the network

between A and B. The circuit starts repeating again to
the right of first 3 resistances. Hence R is also the
resistance to the right of C and D.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 149

Sol. The two cells are equivalent to a single cell of emf

E = E2 – E1 = 40 V – 10V = 30 V
3R
 R AB = 2 +
R +3
3R
 R = 2+
R +3
 R2 – 2R – 6 = 0
 R = (1 + 7 ) .
Example - 19
Two bulbs are marked 220 V – 100 watt and 220 V –
50 watt respectively. They are connected in series to
220 V mains. Find the ratio of heats generated in them.
Sol. Here, P1 = 100 W, P2 = 50 W, V = 220 V
Let R1, R2 be the resistances of 100 watt bulb and 50
As E2 > E1, the net emf follows the direction of E2
2
watt bulb respectively. As R = v /P, therefore,
Current through each resistance (all are in series) is
R1 = (200) /100 = 484  and R2 = (220) /50 = 968 .
2 2
i = 30/18 = 5/3 A.
When bulbs are connected in series to mains, there will p.d. across cells :
be same current I in each bulb. Then p.d. across the terminals of cell E1 is
2 2 –1 2 2 –1
H1 = I R1 = I × 484 Js and H2 = I R2 = I × 968 Js = VA – VB = E1 + ir1 = 10 + 5/3 × 1 = 35/3 V.

H1 484 1 p.d. across the terminals of cell E2 is

 = =
H 2 968 2 = VC – VD = E2 – ir2 = 40 – 5/3 × 2 = 110/3 V.

Example - 20
In the circuit shown, the EMF of the cells are:
E1 = 10 V; E2 = 40 V; R = 15; internal resistances
are r1 = 1 ; r2 = 2. Calculate the current through R
and the potential difference across the terminals of
each cell.
Sol. The arrangement of the two batteries and the external
Example - 21
A battery of 6 V and internal resistance 0.5  is joined
in parallel with another of 10 V and internal resistance
1. The combination sends a current through an
external resistance of 12. Find the current through
each battery.
resistance is shown in figure. Let I1 and I2 be the circuit
given by the two batteries so that the current through the
external resistance is (I1 + I2) as shown in the figure.
150 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Example - 22

Four identical cells each of emf 2V, are joined in

parallel providing supply of current to external circuit
consisting of two 15  resistors joined in parallel. The
terminal voltage of the cells as read by an ideal
voltmeter is 1.6 V. Calculate the internal resistance of
each cell.

Sol. The four cells are connected in parallel to the parallel

combination of two 15  resistors as shown in figure.

Applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit

ARBE1A,
(I1 + I2) × 12 + I1 × 0.5 – 6 = 0
or 12.5 I1 + 12 I2 = 6 ...(i)
Applying Kirchhoff’s Second Law to the closed circuit
ARBE2 A, we get
(I1 + I2) × 12 + I2 × 1 – 10 = 0
or 12 I1 + 13 I2 = 10 ...(ii)
Multiplying (i) by 13 and (ii) by 12, we get
162.5 I1 + 156 I2 = 78. ...(iii)
144 I1 + 156 I2 = 120 ...(iv)
Subtracting (iv) from (iii), we get

42
18.5 I1 = – 42 or I1 = − = –2.27A
18.5
Negative sign shows that I1 actually flows in a direction
opposite to what is shown in figure. Substituting the Let r be the internal resistance of each cell. As cells are
value of I1 in (ii), we get in parallel, the effective emf of all the cells,  = emf of
42 one cell = 2V.
−12  + 13I2 = 10 or Terminal voltage, V = 1.6 V,
18.5 Total internal resistance r’ of four cells in parallel is
12  42 185 + 504 obtained from
13I2 = 10 + =
1 1 1 1 1 4 r
18.5 18.5 = + + + = or r  =
r r r r r r 4
689
or I2 = = 2.86A. 15 15
18.5 13 Total external resistance, R= = 7.5 
15 + 15
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 151

By formula E = I(R + r’) the network and the current along each edge of the
 r r cube.
2 = I  7.5 +  ..... (1) & 2 =1.6 + I
 4  4
I.r
 0.4 =
4
1.6
 I=
r

Putting I in ...(i), we get

1.6  r
2=  7.5 + 
r  4
r 7.5
or = or r = 7.5 
4 4

Example - 23

A cell of emf  and internal resistance r gives a current

of 0.5 A with an external resistance of 12  and a
current of 0.25 A with an external resistance of 25 .
Calculate (a) internal resistance of the cell and (b) emf
of the cell. Sol. The network is not reducible to a simple series and
parallel combinations of resistors. There is, however, a
Sol. Let R be external resistance in the series with the cell of
clear symmetry in the problem which we can exploit to
emf  and internal resistance r. The current in circuit is obtain the equivalent resistance of the network.

I= The paths AA’, AD and AB are obviously
R+r symmetrically placed in the network. Thus, the current
In first case , in each must be the same, say, I. Further, at the corners
I = 0.5 A, R = 12  A’, B and D, the incoming current I must split equally
into the two outgoing branches. In this manner, the

0.5 = or  = (12 + r) × 0.5 = 6.0 + 0.5 r ...(i)
current in all the 12 edges of the cube are easily written
12 + r down in terms of I, using Kirchhoff’s first rule and the
symmetry in the problem.
In second case,
Next take a closed loop, say ABCC’ EA, and apply
I = 0.25 A, R = 25 
Kirchhoff’s second rule :
 –IR – (1/2) IR – IR +  = 0
 0.25 = or  = (25 + r) × 0.25 = 6.25 + 0.25 r
25 + r where R is the resistance of each edge and  the emf of
...(ii) battery. Thus,
From (i) and (ii), 6.0 + 0.5 r = 6.25 + 0.25 r
5
or r = 1  = IR
2
From (i),  = 6.0 + 0.5 × 1 = 6.5 V
The equivalent resistance Req of the network is

Example - 24  5
R eq = = R
A battery of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is 3I 6
connected across the diagonally opposite corners of a For R = 1, Req = (5/6) and for  = 10 V, the total
cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of current (=3I) in the network is
resistance 1. Determine the equivalent resistance of
152 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3I = 10 V /(5/6)  = 12 A, i.e., I = 4A
The current flowing in each edge can now be read off
from the figure.

Example - 25

In the adjoining circuit, figure

Sol. Net resistance across the cell

20  5
= 10 +
20 + 5

R1 = 100 , R2 = R3 = 50 ,
R4 =75 ,  = 4.75 V.
Work out the equivalent resistance of the circuit and
the current in each resistor.
Sol. Here R2, R3 and R4 are connected in parallel. Their
effective resistance Rp will be given by

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
R p R 2 R 3 R 4 50 50 75

6 + 6 + 4 16 4
= = =
300 300 75 emf
current through the cell will be = i =
or Rp = 75/4 . net resistance

Total resistance of circuit = R1 + Rp = 100 + 75/4 = 50 25

i= = A.
475/4  20×5 7
10+
20+5
4.75
Current, i1 = = 0.04A; 25 100
475 / 4 Voltage across 5 = 50 – × 10 =
Pot drop across R1 = i1R1 = 0.04 × 100 = 4V
7 7

Pot. drop. across all other resistances = 4.75 – 4 V = 100 20

 I2 = = A
0.75 V 75 7
Current through R2 or R3, i2 = i3 = 0.75/50 = 0.015 A;
Current through R4, i4 = 0.75/75 = 0.01 A. Example - 27

Example - 26 A voltmeter has a resistance of 20000. When

connected in series with a large resistance R across
Calculate the current through the 5 resistance. The 110 V line, the meter reads 5 V. Find the resistance
cell has negligible internal resistance. R.
Sol. p.d. across voltmeter is 5 V.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 153

 2V 
V1 = IR1 =    R1
 2R1 + R 0 
Substituting for R1, we have a
2V R R
V1 =  0
 R0  R  R 0 + 2R
2  + R0
 R 0 + 2R 
2VR
V1 =
2R + R 0 + 2R
Rv 20000
 5= 110 = 110 2VR
R + Rv R + 20000 or V1 =
R 0 + 4R
 R = 420000 = 420 k 
Example - 29
Example - 28
In figure, the emf of the cell is 1.8 V and internal
A resistance of R  draws current from a
resistance is 2/3 , calculate the current in the 3
potentiometer. the potentiometer has a total resistance
resistance and the power dissipated in the whole
R0  (figure). A voltage V is supplied to the
circuit.
potentiometer. Derive an expression for the voltage
across R when the sliding contact is in the middle of
the potentiometer.

Sol. While the slide is in the middle of the potentiometer

only half of its resistance R0/2) will be between the
points A and B. Hence, the total resistance between A Sol. The equivalent circuit is shown in the figure
and B, say, R1, will be given by the following
expression:
1 1 1
= +
R1 R ( R 0 / 2 )
R0R
R1 =
R 0 + 2R
The total resistance between A and C will be sum of
resistance between A and B and B and C, i.e., R1 + R0/2
 The current flowing through the potentiometer will be

The voltage V1 taken from the potentiometer will be the Effective resistance Rp between A and B will be
product of current I and resistance R1. 42
1 1 1 1 1 31
= + + + = or Rp = 
R p 3 14 6 6 42 31
154 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

E 1.8
Current from the cell, I = = = 0.89 A
R p + r 42 + 2
31 3
Potential diff. between A and B, VA – VB = I Rp

42
= 0.89  = 1.21 V
31
1.21
Current in 3 resistance = = 0.4 A
3
Power dissipated in the whole circuit (including the
cell) is
 42 2 
2
P = I (R + r) = (0.89) 
2
+  = 1.6 watt
 31 3 
Example - 30
In the given circuit find the final current supplied by
the battery.

(a) 3/2A (b) 4/3A

(c) 2/3A (d) 1/3A
Ans. (c)
Sol. Finally it behaves as open circuit resistance wire Total
resistance R = 7.5 
5 2
I= I= = A
7.5 3