CHINESE GENERAL HOSPITAL COLLEGES — S.Y. 2022-2023 / HISTOLOGY 1.

1 Summer Class

EPITHELIAL – MUSCLE TISSUE

Transcribed by MILLEC CLOVEM FONTAMILLAS
Lecturer: CHARLES DENNIELLE SY

OUTLINE
4 MAJOR TISSUE TYPES D. Nervous Tissues
E. Muscular Tissue TYPES OF EPITHELIA
A. Epithelial Tissues ✓ Skeletal
✓ Simple • Covering or Lining Epithelia
✓ Smooth o SIMPLE: single layer
✓ Stratified ✓ Cardiac
B. Connective Tissues ▪ Squamous
C. Bone Tissues ▪ Cuboidal
▪ Columnar
o STRATIFIED: two or more layers
▪ Squamous
(non-keratinized/keratinized)
4 MAIN TYPES OF TISSUES ▪ Cuboidal
▪ Transitional/Urothelium
• Epithelial Cells ▪ Columnar
o Forms coverings of all internal and o PSEUDOSTRATIFIED: one layer with
external surfaces of the body/organ
different levels of nuclei
o When talking about epithelium, either
look at the luminal (inside) or the • Glandular Epithelia
external
o FUNCTIONS: POLARITY
▪ Covering, lining, ad protecting
• Basal Pole – region
surfaces
of the cell contacting
▪ Absorption (brush borders)
▪ Secretion (gland parenchyma) the ECM and
• Connective Tissues connective tissues
o Support and protection of tissues/organs • Apical Pole – facing
• Muscle Tissues the lumen or the
o Contraction and body movements space
• Nervous Tissues • Lateral Surface –
o Transmission of nerve impulses and regions that adjoin neighboring cells
action potential
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
EPITHELIAL CELLS
• Felt-like sheet of macromolecules that the basal
• Shapes and dimensions of epithelial cells are surface of all the epithelial cells rests upon
quite variable, ranging from tall columnar to o Semipermeable layer – used for filtration
cuboidal to low squamous cells. • Macromolecules in the basal lamina:
• Usually found adjacent to connective tissue o Type IV collagen
containing blood vessels from which nutrients o Laminin
and oxygen are transported. o Nidogen and Perlecan
• Lamina Propria • Functions:
o Connective tissue that underlies the o Filtration barrier
o Supports to epithelial cells
epithelium of GI, respiratory, and urinary
o Maintenance of polarity
tracts
o Signal transduction, endocytosis

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 1

INTRACELLULAR ADHESIONS o Increases cell surface area
• TIGHT JUNCTIONS E (OCCLUDING)
o “Zonula Occludens”
o Due to tight interactions between
claudin and occluding
o Serves as fences restricting movements
of membrane lipids and proteins at the
apical surface to the lateral and basal, and
vice versa
• ADHERENS JUNCTION
o “Zonula Adherens”
o Found below the zonula occludens
o Used for cell adhesion • STEREOCILIA
▪ Mediated by cadherin o Much less common
• DESMOSOMES o Best seen in the absorptive epithelial
o “Macula Adherens” cells of lining the male reproductive
o Disc-shaped structures at the surface of organ (epididymis)
one cell that are matched with identical o Increase the cell surface area
structures of and adjacent cell o Typically longer and less motile than
• GAP JUNCTIONS microvilli
o Mediate intercellular communication
o Rapid transmission of action potential
between cells
• HEMIDESMOSOMES
o binds epithelial cells to the underlying
basal lamina

• CILIA
o Long, highly motile apical structures
o Motile cilia are abundant in cuboidal or
columnar cells
o Each cilium has a core structure
consisting of:
• Nine peripheral microtubule
doublets arrayed around two
central microtubules
• 9+2 assembly also called an
axoneme
o Function:
• propulsive movement of
APICAL SPECIALIZATIONS
luminal contents
• MICROVILLI
o Used for specialized cells for absorption
o Small intestinal parenchymal cells
contain a densely packed microvilli
• Brushed or striated border
o Each microvillus contains bundled actin
filaments capped and bound to
surrounding plasma membrane by actin-
binding proteins

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 2

 • Lining of vessels. Serous lining of cavities

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

• Facilitates movement of viscera

• Active transport by pinocytosis
• Secretion of biologically active molecules

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (NON - KERATINIZED)

• Used for protection from friction, secretion, and

prevention of water loss

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

• Covering and secretion
• Found in the ovary and thyroid gland

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

• Aka UROTHELIUM
• Used for protection from water damage and
distension
• Found in the urine collecting sites (bladder,
ureter, renal calyses)
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
• Protection, lubrication, absorption, secretion
• Usually found in the GI Tract

COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIUM TYPES PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

• protection, secretion; cilia mediated transport of

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (KERATINIZED)
particles trapped in the mucus out of the air
• Used for protection from friction and prevention passages
of water loss • Aka ‘respiratory epithelium

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 3

 CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Provides a matrix that supports and physically
connects other tissues and cells together to form
the organs of the body
• Major constituents: Extracellular Matrix
(ECM)
o Combination of protein fibers (collagen
and elastic fibers) + ground substance
(glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans,
glycoproteins)
• All connective tissue originates from embryonic
mesenchyme, derived from the mesoderm
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM TYPES

GOBLET CELLS

• Unicellular gland
• Secretes lubricating
mucus

FIBROBLASTS
• Most common cell
in the CT proper
• Produces and
maintains most of
the tissue’s ECM
• Target of many
proteins called
growth factor
• Primarily involved
in wound healing

ADIPOCYTES
• specialized for cytoplasmic storage of lipid as
neural fats, or less commonly for production of
heat
• “energy storage”

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 4

MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTES
• Macrophages have highly developed phagocytic
ability
• Precursors – monocytes
• Play a role in immune defense and immune
regulation, as well as tissue removal/ renewal

LEUKOCYTES
• Other WBCs beside macrophages and plasma
cells
• Leave the blood vessels by migrating between
the endothelial cells (diapedesis)
• Most tissue leukocytes apoptose after a few
COLLAGEN hours or days

MAST CELLS
• Oval-shaped cells
filled with basophilic/
COLLAGEN
metachromatic
secretory granules • Most abundant protein in the CT
• Produce localized • Collagen TYPE I, II, and III
inflammatory response o Forms large fibrils
o TYPE I : most abundant and widely
• Secretes substances: distributed collagen, forms large,
o Heparin – anticoagulant eosinophilic bundles called collagen
o Histamine – anaphylactoid fibers
o Serine proteases – inflammatory agent
o Eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic
factor
o Cytokines
o Phospholipids – production of
prostaglandins, leukotrienes • TYPE IV Collagen
PLASMA CELLS o Network of sheet-forming collagen
o Found in the basement membrane
• Activated B Lymphocytes
RETICULAR FIBERS
• Secretes immunoglobulins
• Play a role in immune defense • Found in delicate connective tissues, notably in
• Nucleus is spherical but eccentrically placed the immune system
• Consists mainly of collagen TYPE III
• Argyrophilic- stains with silver stains (Gomori’s
methenamine silver stain)

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 5

 o Multiadhesive Glycoproteins
ELASTIC FIBERS
LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Thinner TYPE I collagen fibers
• Responsible for elastic recoil of tissues embedded • Contains cells, fibers,
with such fibers and ground substances in
o Lungs roughly equal parts
o Blood Vessels • Most numerous cells are
• involved in the pathophysiology of fibroblasts
COPD/Emphysema • Collagen predominates

DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Little ground substance

• Few cells
• Many fibers, arranged
randomly
GROUND SUBSTANCE
• Highly hydrated, transparent, complex mixture of
three kinds of macromolecules DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
o Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
▪ Long polymers of repeating • Parallel bundles of
disaccharide units, usually a collagens
hexosamine and uronic acid • Few fibroblasts
▪ Hyaluronic acid – largest and
mosy ubiquitous GAG
- forms viscous,
pericellular network, for
RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
lubrication of organs
and joints • Abundant in TYPE III
▪ Other GAG: collagen
- Dermatan sulfate • Found in RES
- Chondroitin sulfate
- Keratan sulfate
- Heparan sulfate
o Proteoglycans
▪ Consists of a core protein to ADIPOSE TISSUE
which are covalently attached
various numbers and • Fat-storing cells
combinations of sulfated GAGs • Two major types of adipose tissue:
o White Adipose Tissue
▪ Specialized for fat storage
o Brown Adipose Tissue
▪ Heat production

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 6

 CHONDROCYTES
• Chondroblasts
o Cells at the periphery of the cartilage
• Chondrocytes
o Cells that are actively secreting
collagens and other ECM components
and occupy separate lacunae
• Major regulator of hyaline cartilage growth is
the pituitary-derived hormone called GH or
somatotropin
PERICHONDRIUM
• Except in articular cartilage, all hyaline cartilage
is covered with a dense regular connective tissue
which is essential for growth and maintenance of
cartilage
• Consists of TYPE I collagen fibers

NOTE:

CARTILAGE P – Perichondrium
C – Chondrocytes
• Tough durable form of connective tissue M – Matrix

• Consists of cells called chondrocytes embedded

into the ECM
o Synthesized and maintain all ECM
components and are located in matrix
cavities called lacunae
• All types of cartilage lack vascular supply and
chondrocytes receive nutrients by diffusion from ELASTIC CARTILAGE
capillaries in surrounding connective tissue
• Essentially similar to
(perichondrium)
hyaline cartilage
HYALINE CARTILAGE • Constains abundant
network of elastic fibers
• The most common of the three types of cartilage • More flexible than
• Homogenous and semitransparent in the fresh hyaline cartilage
state • Can be found in the: (3
• Found in articular cartilage, respiratory tract, E’s)
joints o External ear
MATRIX o Eustachian Tube
o Epiglottis
• ~40 collagen embedded in a firm, hydrated gel
of proteoglycans and structural glycoproteins
• Most collagen are TYPE II collagen

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 7

 FIBROCARTILAGE • All bones are lined on their external and internal
surfaces by the connective tissues:
• found in the o Endosteum – internal surface
intervertebral discs o Periosteum – external surface
(annulus fibrosus)
and in the pubic OSTEOBLASTS
symphysis • Originate from mesenchymal stem cells
• Chondrocytes occur • Produces organic components of bone matrix
singly, producing • Synthesize hydroxyapatite – the organic
TYPE II collagen constituents of bone tissue
• Responsible for bone formation

OSTEOCYTES
• Differentiated osteoblasts surrounded within the
CARTILAGE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND lacunae
REPAIR • During the transition from osteoblasts to
osteocytes, the cells extend many long dendritic
processes, which also become surrounded by
calcifying matrix

OSTEOCLASTS
• Originates from bone marrow (derived from
monocytes)
• Responsible for bone resorption
• Acted upon by the hormone, PTH.
• In areas of bone undergoing resorption,
chondrogenesis
osteoclasts on the bone surface lies within
Cartilaginous structures grow by mitosis of existing enzymatically etched depressions or cavities in
chondroblasts in the lacunae (interstitial growth) of the matrix known as resorption lacunae (or
formation of new chondroblasts peripherally from Howship lacunae).
progenitor cells in the perichondrium (appositional
growth)

BONE TISSUE
NOTE:
BONE
OC – Osteocytes
• Specialized connective tissue composed of OCL – Osteoclasts
calcified extracellular matrix M – Matrix
OB – Osteoblasts
• Contains 3 major cell types:
o Osteocytes
▪ Found in cavities, main cell of
the bone tissue
o Osteoblasts
▪ Growing cells which synthesizes PERIOSTEUM & ENDOSTEUM
and secrete the organic
components of the matrix • PERIOSTEUM
o Osteoclasts o Organized in the same manner as the
▪ Giant, multinucleated cells perichondrium of cartilaginous tissue
involved in removing calcified o Bundles of periosteal collagen, called
bone matrix and remodeling perforating or Sharpey’s Fiber,
bone tissue

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 8

 penetrate the matrix and bind the
periosteum to the bone
o Inner layer is imbedded with
osteoprogenitor cells
• ENDOSTEUM
o Covers small trabeculae
o Also contains osteoprogenitor cells

WOVEN BONE
• Nonlamellar and characterized by random
disposition of type I collagen fibers
• First bone tissue to appear in embryonic
development
• Lower mineral content
• Has less strength than lamellar bone

OSTEOGENESIS – Bone Formation

INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION

LAMELLAR BONE
• Most bone in adults
• Type of bone arranged in multiple concentric
layers or lamellae
• Osteon (Haversian System)
o A complex of
concentric lamellae, ENDOCHONDRIAL OSSIFICATION
surrounding a
central canal
o Communicates
with other osteons
through transverse
perforating canals
(volkmann’s
canals)

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 9

BONE TURNOVER NERVOUS TISSUE
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
o Brain and Spinal Cord
o Nuclei – small aggregates of neurons
inside the CNS
• PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
o Cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves
o Carrying afferent and efferent signals
from the brain
o Ganglia – small aggregates of neurons
outside the CNS

NEURONS
• Functional unit of the nervous system
• Three main parts:
o Cell Body (Soma)
▪ Contains the nucleus and most of
the cell’s organelles
▪ Synthetic or trophic center for
the entire neuron
o Dendrites
▪ Numerous elongated processes
▪ Receive stimuli from other
JOINTS neurons at synapses
• Regions where adjacent bone articulate o Axons
• Type of joint determine the degree of movement ▪ Single long process ending at
between bones synapses
▪ Carry information away from the
• SYNARTHROSES – limited to no movement
soma
o Synostoses – bone linked to other bones,
no movement (sutures)
o Syndesmoses – dense connective tissue
only, transmit forces (interosseous
membrane)
o Symphyses – thick pad of fibrocartilage
(pubic symphysis)
• DIARTHROSES – free bone movement
o Synovial joints
▪ Sealed joint cavity
▪ Contains a clear viscous liquid NEURON CLASSIFICATION
called synovial fluid

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 10

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION ACTION POTENTIAL
• SENSORY (AFFERENT) NEURON
o Receives stimuli from receptors
throughout the body
• MOTOR (EFFERENT) NEURON
o Sends impulses to muscles or glands
o Can further divided into:
▪ Somatic – voluntary control
▪ Autonomic – involuntary control
• INTERNEURONS
o Form functional networks or circuits in
the CNS

CELL BODY (SOMA)

NOTE:
• EURONS
Contains the nucleus and
surrounding cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm often contains
numerous polyribosomes
and highly developed
RER
o Active
production of
both cytoskeletal SYNAPTIC COMMUNICATION
proteins and • SYNAPSES
neurotransmitters o Sites where nerve impulses are
o Regions with concentrated RER stain transmitted from one neuron to another
basophilic and are distinguished as o Convert an electrical signal from the
chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) presynaptic cell into a chemical signal
that affects the postsynaptic cell
DENDRITES o Components:
• Short, small EURONS ▪ Presynaptic axon terminal
processes (terminal bouton)
• Contains mitochondria
emerging and
and numerous synaptic
branching off the
vesicles
soma
▪ Postsynaptic cell membrane
• Carry impulses • Contains receptors for
toward the soma neurotransmitters, and ion
channels
AXONS ▪ Synaptic cleft
• EURONS
Most neurons only have one axon • Separates the presynaptic
& postsynaptic membrane
• Longer than dendrites
• Originates from a pyramid-shaped region of the
soma called the axon hillock
• Bidirectional transport of molecules
o Anterograde transport – via kinesin
(soma to synapses)
o Retrograde transport – via dynein
synapses to soma)

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 11

 EPSP vs IPSP • Has many functions but the most important is
maintenance of the blood-brain barrier
Excitatory Synapses
o Cause postsynaptic Na+ channels to open
o Initiates a depolarization wave in the postsynaptic
neuron or effector cell
▪ Ex: glutamate, dopamine
Inhibitory Synapses
o Opens Cl- or other anion channels
o Initiates hyperpolarization of the synaptic cell
▪ Ex: GABA

EPENDYMAL CELLS
• Columnar or cuboidal cells that line the fluid-
filled ventricles of the brain and the central canal
of the spinal cord
• Produces and circulates cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

GLIAL/ NEUROGLIA (SUPPORT) CELL

EURONS
OLIGODENDROCYTES
• Extends many processes, which wraps
repeatedly around a portion nearby CNS Axon
• Gives rise to the myelin sheath of a CNS Neuron
• Myelin Sheath
o Electrically insulates an axon and
facilitates rapid transmission of nerve
impulses

MICROGLIA
• Major mechanism of immune defense in CNS
• Migrate and scan the neuropil and remove
damaged structures
• Originate from circulating blood monocytes,
belonging to the same family as macrophages

ASTROCYTES
• Have a large number of long radiating,
branching processes
• Proximal regions are reinforced with bundles of
intermediate filaments made of glial fibrillary
acid protein (GFAP)

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 12

SCHWANN CELLS
• found only in the PNS
• Counterparts of oligodendrocytes of the CNS

CEREBELLAR CORTEX
• Coordinates muscular activity throughout the
body
• Organized with three layers: (outer to inner)
o Molecular layer
SATELLITE CELLS OF GANGLIA ▪ Neurophil and scattered
neuronal cell bodies
• Form myelin sheath in the PNS o Purkenji cell layer
• forms a thin, intimate glial layer around each ▪ Large neurons
neuronal cell body in the ganglia of PNS o Granular layer
• Support PNS neurons ▪ Small, densely packed neurons

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

SPINAL CORD
• EURONS
Major structures comprising the CNS are the:
• In cross sections, the white matter is peripheral
o Cerebrum
and the gray matter forms a deeper, H-shaped
o Cerebellum
mass
o Spinal Cord
• Near the middle of the cord, the gray matter
CEREBRAL CORTEX surrounds a small central canal

• Has 6 distinct layers of neurons with different

sizes and shapes
• Most conspicuous is the efferent pyramidal
neurons

NOTE:

P – Pyramidal Neurons
A – Astrocytes

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 13

 MENINGES SKELETAL MUSCLE
EURONS • aka “STRIATEDEURONS
MUSCLE”
• Consists of muscle fibers which are long,
cylindrical, multinucleated cells
• Small populations of reserve progenitor cells –
Satellite cells

ORGANIZATION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

• Epimysium
o External sheath
of dense irregular
CT
DURA MATER
• Perimysium
• most external of meninges o Thin CT Layer
• Consists of dense irregular connective tissue o Immediately
• Around the spinal cord, the dura mater is surrounds each
separated from the periosteum of the vertebrae by bundle of muscle
the epidural space fibers called a
fascicle
ARACHNOID MATER • Endomysium
• The middle mengingeal layer o Delicate layer of
• Has two components: reticular fibers
o A sheet of connective tissue in contact and scattered
with the dura mater fibroblast
o A system of loosely arranged trabeculae o Surrounds individual muscle fibers
composed of collagen and fibroblasts,
continuous with the underlying pia mater ORGANIZATION OF A MUSCLE FIBERS
• Subarachnoid space • Longitudinally sectioned skeletal muscle fibers
o CSF filled space in the trabeculae show striations of alternating light and dark bands
PIA MATER o Dark bands are called A Bands
o Light bands are called I bands
• The innermost meningeal layer o I band is seen bisected by a dark
• Consists of flattened cells closely applied to the transverse line, the Z disc/line/band
entire surface of the CNS tissue (Zwischenscheibe)
• Sarcomere
MUSCLE TISSUE o The repetitive functional subunit of the
• The fourth basic tissue type contractile apparatus extends form Z disc
to Z disc
• Possesses the universal property of contractility
• Three basic types of muscle tissue:
o Skeletal muscle
o Cardiac muscle
o Smooth muscle
• Specific terminologies
o Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of the muscle
cell
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum – smooth ER of
the muscle cell
o Sarcolemma – external lamina of the
muscle cell

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 14

MUSCLE FILAMENTS SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM AND
TRANSVERSE TUBULE
• MYOSIN
o Thick filaments • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
o Occupy the A band at the middle region o Surrounds myofibrils
of the sarcomere o Ca+2 sequestration
o Have globular projections that bind to the o Ca+2 is controlled by membrane
actin filaments depolarization (via voltage gated
• ACTIN channels) produced by a motor nerve
o Thin, helical filaments (acetylcholine)
o Have two tightly associated regulator • Transverse Tubule
proteins: o Tubular infoldings of the sarcolemma
▪ Tropomyosin – located at the o Encircle each myofibrils near the
groove between the two twisted aligned A- and I-Band boundaries
actin strand • Terminal Cisternae
▪ Troponin – complex of 3 o Expanded sarcoplasmic reticulum
subunits o Allows depolarization of the
- TnT – attaches sarcolemma in a T-tubule to affect the
tropomyosin sarcoplasmic reticulum and trigger
- TnC – binds Ca2+ release of calcium
- TnI – regulates actin-
myosin interactions
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MYOFIBRIL ORGANIZATION
• I BAND
o Consists of portions of thin filaments
which do not overlap with the thick
filaments
o Actin filaments are anchored to Z Discs
by a-actinin
o Titin
▪ Supports thick filaments and
connects them to the Z Discs
• A BAND
o Contains both the thick filaments and the
overlapping portions of thin filaments
o H Zone
▪ Only zone in the A Band without
thin filaments
o M line
▪ Bisects H zone
▪ Contains myosin-binding
protein – myomesin

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 15

SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS

CARDIAC MUSCLE

• EURONS
Uninucleated, striated muscle with specialized
gap junctions called intercalate discs

SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Aka “VISCERAL EURONS
MUSCLE”
• Specialized for slow, steady contractions under
the influence of autonomic nerves and various
hormones
• Major component of BV, GIT, Respiratory,
Urinary, and Reproductive Tracts

MILLEC CLOVEM T FONTAMILLAS | 2A BSMT 16