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jessurement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1133
pe Wall of conduit with the velocity distribution as shown in Fig. 21.25(a), such a flow
called “laminar”.
On increasing the flow, a point is reached where the particles motion becomes more
sodom and complex and flow at higher rates is referred to as “turbulent” (The approximate
cgecity at which the change occurs is called the critical velocity). The corresponding time-
erage velocity distribution across a circular tube is shown in Fig. 21.25(6).
It has been observed that the critical velocity is a function of several factors that may
reput ina dimensionless form called the Reynolds number, Re, its vahie for a circular pipe
sgiven as
Re= uw (21.8)
where, p = Density of fluid, kg/m’,
V = Velocity flow, m/s,
D = Diameter of pipe, m, and
ht = Dynamic viscosity of fluid, Ns/m”.
When, Re < 2000 .... The flow is laminar (or viscous)
Re > 4000 .... The flow is turbulent
Re between 2000 and 4000 (transition zone) .... The flow is unpredictable
21.3.2. Flow Measurement Methods/Devices
‘The flow measurement devices are classified as follows :
1. Rate meters
2. Quantity meters.
1. Rate meters. They measure either the volumetric flow rate directly or use meters
that measure velocity and the volume flow rate can then be calculated with the help of
cross-section.
() Inferential type. Inferential methods imply that the flow is not directly measured but
is inferred from the measurement of other quavttities (e,g., pressure, temperature etc.).
(ii) Absolute or positive displacement type. These meters basically capture and release
a fixed volume of fluid by some type of pumping action. They normally count the
number of cycles that occur and indicate or register an integrated flow volume.
The flow is determined by the frequency of the cycle.
Examples :
(® Reciprocating piston meter.
(i) Nutating disc meter.
(iii) Rotary vane meter.
(iz) Lobed impeller flow meter ete.
Summarily, the rate meters include the following :
© Constant area-variable head meters :
— Venturi.
— Orifice plate.
— Flow nozzle.
— Pitot tubes. 1134 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
‘© Constant head-variable area meters
— Rotameter.
— Cylinder and piston arrangement,
© Variable head and variable area meters :
— Weirs.
— Flumes.
© Variable velocity meters :
— Current meters.
— Anemometer.
© Variable force meters:
— Vane.
The term obstruction meter applies to all the above mentioned devices.
Besides the above mentioned rate, meters following are some special meters :
— Electromagnetic flow meter ;
— Ultrasonic flow meter etc.
2. Quantity meters. These meters may be designed for the measurement of either
weight or volume. They may be absolute or displacement type. These are generally cited
as positive meters.
Examples :
() Weight meters :
— Weighters and traps.
(ii) Volumetric meters :
— Tank-rotating impeller piston pumps.
— Nutating piston pump for liquids.
— Bellows and liquid sealed drums for gases.
21.3.3. Variable Head Flow for Incompressible Fluids
When the fluid flows through the obstruction meters, such as venturimeter, orifice
meter and flow nozzle, the fluid accelérates and reduction in pressure takes place. The
pressure difference before and after the obstruction is measured by means of a differential
pressure sensor and is related to the rate of flow.
21.3.3.1. Venturimeter
A venturimeter is an instrument used to measure the rate of discharge in a pipeline and is
often fixed permanently at different sections of the pipeline to know the discharge there.
It is one of the most important practical applications of Bernoulli's theorem. It has
been named after the 15th century Italian engineer Venturi.
The Venturimeter may be used in any position, horizontal vertical or inclined. In
order to measure pressure differentials U-tube manometers are used.
The size of a venturimeter is expressed in terms of inlet and throat diameters. For example,
a 300 x 150 mm venturimeter fits in a 300 mm diameter pipe and has a throat diameter
of 150 mm.
A venturimeter consists of following three parts :
() A short converging part,
(ii) Throat, and
(iii) Diverging part,
Expression for rate of flow :
Fig, 21.26 shows a venturimeter fitted in horizontal pipe through which a fluid is
flowing, ssurement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1135
tT meee
Dia DB, > [AD
il3 3 {55h
inet [C2"Ver) | Divergent pa
(75D)
Throat
‘Throat ratio 22 varies from? to
D, a4
Fig, 21.26. Venturimeter.
Let, D, = Diameter at inlet or at section 1,
A, = Area at inlet ( £0t),
= Pressure at section 1, Nm’,
Specific weight of fluid at inlet, N/m?
= Velocity of fluid at section 1 and
Dz, Ay, Py w, and V, are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get
AM,
2
y= Bahay
wv, 2g w, 2
Here, 2, = 2 ... since the pipe is horizontal.
aA
w, 2g
fa
or, | Vas (21.9)
2g 2g
For incompressible fluid, p, =P; = p and w, = w, = w
Pi=P2 ~ Difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 is equal to h; called
w
pressure head or piezometer head.
It is measured by a differential manometer, pressure gauge or any other pressure
measuring device.
The continuity equation gives,
AV, = Ans
Aw
or, 7s
1 om
Substituting for V, in equation (21.9), we have
mom, Me. ARVE
yp” og AT 2g 1136 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
vg(,_ at) ve
n — . Gua]
8, 2) (21.10)
“i nm Ay
For a given venturimeter, A, and A, are constants and therefore,
= MPEq,-
My PnP)
feces
l= (4/4,
The value of M is always greater than unity.
Equation 21.10 has been derived on the basis that there are no losses. However, in
actual practice, this is not true and actual velocity is obtained from the theoretical by
multiplying the latter by a factor C,, called “coefficient of velocity”.
act = Cody" (es ~P2) QL.)
Now, Discharge = area x velocity
7 = Aca ]?8(p,-m) 21.12)
Sometimes, a factor, C, called “coefficient of contraction’ is taken into consideration for
finding out the actual discharge.
Qucws = CCM Aa & 0, ~p) 21.13)
. 2g
or Quest = CaM Aa J (Ps ~ Pa) (21.14)
where, C, = C, C, is called “coefficient of discharge”. For venturimeters, the factors C,
and M are applied separately but for nozzles and Orifice plates these factors are combined
into a single factor known as “flow coefficient” and designated as K.
B
KA, eo, Pa)
.» For nozzles and orifice plates ...(21.15)
In order to take into account the changes in flow rate on account of changes in temperature,
a factor E is used. Then the actual discharge is essentially obtained from the following
relation :
2g
Queuar = CUMEAn Er - Pa) (21.16)
where, E is the “thermal expansion correction factor”
— The value of C, is the less than unity (varies between 0.96 to 0.98). Due to variation
of C, venturimeters are not suitable for very low velocities.
where, is a constant called “velocity approach factor”
Q5ctva geanuromont of Non-Eloctrical Quantities 1137
Value of “h’ by differential U-tube manometer :
Case 1. Differential manometer containing a liquid heavier than the liquid flowing through
te pipe.
Let, Sp. gravily of heavier liquid,
p. gravity of liquid flowing through pipe, and
y = Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
om Su _
Then, ne yle1 (21.17)
Sp
Case I. Differential manometer containing a liquid lighter than the liquid through the pipe.
Let, S) = Sp. gravity of lighter liquid,
gravity of liquid flowing through pipe, and
= Difference of lighter liquid column in U-tube.
5
‘Then, he ofr-¥] (21.18)
i
Advantages :
(i) Low head loss (about 10% of differential pressure head)
(ii) Due to their extensive use over a long period in the past, their characteristics are
well established through practice and consequently their behaviour can be
predicted perfectly.
(iii) On account of low loss, they have a high coefficient of discharge (0.96 to 0.98)
and as such they can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters
of the order of a few meters.
Disadvantages :
(i) High cost.
(ii) Owing to their large size they are unsuitable for applications where there is a
limited space.
Uses : Venturimeters are used for measurement of flow of :
— Water
— Fluids used in industrial processes;
— Industrial wastes;
— Ga
— Slurries and dirty liquids;
— Suspended particles.
21.3.3.2. Orifice plate meter
An orifice plate is defined as plate in which an aperture has been cut. This device is
cheaper than venturimeter and is used for measuring the discharge of fluid through a
pipe. It also works on the same principle of a venturimeter. It is more frequently used
than all other primary elements combined together.
‘The orifice plates are of the following four types :
1. Concentric;
2. Eccentric; 1138 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
3. Segmental;
4. Quadrant types.
Fig. 21.27. Concentration orifice plate with Fig, 21.28, Eccentric orifice plate.
45° bevelled edges.
— 7 4
Fig. 21.29. Segmental orifice plate. Fig, 21.30. Quadrant edge orifice plate.
1. The “concentric plate" has a circular hole located in the centre (Fig. 21.27).
.. The “eccentric plate” has a circular hole located below its centre (Fig. 21.28).
. The “segmental plate” has a hole that is only partly circular located below its centre
(Fig 21.29).
4, The “quadrant edge orifice plate” is so constructed that the edge is rounded so as
to form a quarter circle (Fig. 21.30).
Uses : The type of the orifice plate used depends upon the characteristics of the fluid
that is to be metered; the eccentric and segmental types are used for fluids containing solids.
Orifice plates are made from steel, stainless steel, monel, phosphor bronze and other such
‘materials, that can withstand the corrosive effect of the fluid.
— Its thickness is only sufficient to withstand the buckling forces caused by the
pressure differential.
— The circular holes are carefully made with 90% square sharp edge.
The orifice plates can also be classified according to the disposition of pressure taps
(upstream and downstream) to measure the differential pressure across it. Following
types of pressure taps are generally employed. "4, Commer spo.
(i Single tapings (Individual tapes)
(ii) Annual slits, opening into the annular chambers of piezoelectric zings.
2. Vena contract taps.
3. Flange taps
An orifice meter used for flow measurements in a pipe is shown in Fig. 21.31. It
sts of a flat circular plate having a circular sharp edged hole (called orifice) concentric
th pipe. The diameter of the orifice may very from 0.4 to 0.8 times the diameter of the
jpe but its value is generally chosen as 0.5. A differential manometer is connected at
ction (1) which is at a distance to 15 to 2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the
jifice plate, and at section (2) which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the
rifice from the orifice plate on the downstream side.
The jet coming out of the orifice plate gradually expands from vena contracta to fill
he pipe: Fig. 21.31 shows the location of vena contracta point. A part of the KE. of the
et is converted into eddy currents causing dissipation of energy and loss of head.
Flat circular plate
Upstream Downstream
=> >
Flow in —> =e ee ot
Differential
‘manometer
Fig. 21.31. Orifice meter.
Let, ‘A, = Area of pipe at section (1),
V, = Velocity at section (1)
, = Pressure at section (1), and
p ‘
Ay, V2 and p, are corresponding values at section (2),
Applying Bernoulli's equation at section (1) and (2) we get,
v2
ve _ my Bae
Pas +4 = a2 2
since the pipe
8
2
2 CMY =ECp, ~ p) 2.19)
animes {22 (7, ~
of | para wy (Pt ~ Pa)
js horizontal.
Here 2, = 2x 2 1140 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
As the jet comes out of the orifice, it contracts to a minimum area Ay at the vena
contracta. Area at the vena contracta, A, = CyA,.
G ag.
Vy « (py = vol. 21
‘actualy Jrearar TC AyAy Ve (Pi ~ Pa) (21,20)
Actual flow rate, Qyerat = AnVajectuay ® CApVaracun)
. Ay fiw ary
= OC, ae [== (Py ~ Pa) (21.3
Cy Wrcavay vy Ph Pr : (21.21)
= CyMEAy 28, =) ea(21.22)
KEAy PE (py - pa wa(21.23)
C
/here, K = CM = eat (21.24)
: : Vi-(CAg/A?
where K is called the “orifice flow constant”.
Advantages :
(#) Low initial cost.
(ii) Easy to install.
(iif) Simple and less expensive maintenance as compared with a venturimeter.
(iv) Requires less space as compared to a venturimeter.
(0) The behaviour is predictable and the results are reproducible with good accuracy.
(vi) Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes (1.25 cm to 150 cm)
Disadvantages :
(i) Low coefficient of discharge (about 0.6 as compared to almost unity for
venturimeters), consequently their sensitivity is much lower than that of
venturimeter.
(ii) Poor pressure recovery. The overall pressure loss varies form 40 to 90% of the
differential pressure.
(ii) Susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from erosion, corrosion, and sealing.
(iv) Since the flat orifices tend to clog, they are not suitable for measurement of
slurries or entrained particles.
(0) Owing to the lower physical strength of the orifices, they are likely to be damaged
by pressure transients.
Difference between a venturimeter and an orificemeter :
© A venturimeter is a device which is inserted into pipeline to measure incompressible
fluid flow rates. It consists of a convergent section which reduces the diameter to between
one half to one-fourth of the pipe diameters. This is followed by a divergent section. The
pressure difference between the position just before the venturi and at the throat of the
venturi is measured by a differental manometer. The working of the venturi is based on the
Bernoulli's principle, that is when the velocity head increases in an accelerated flow, there is a
corresponding reduction in the piezometric head.
" asurement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1141
© The orificemeter is an opening, usually round, located in the side wall of the tank
reservoir for measuring the flow of a liquid. The main feature of the orifice meter is
st most of the potential energy of the liquid is converted into kinetic energy of the free jet issuing
ough the orifice.
The main points of difference between a venturimeter and orificemeter are :
1. The venturimeter can be used for measuring the flow rates of all incompressibly flows
(gases with low pressure variations, as well as liquids), whereas orifice meters
are generally used for measuring the flow rates of liquids.
2. Venturimeter is installed in pipeline only, and the accelerated flow through the
apparatus of subsequently decelerated to the original velocity at the outlet of the
venturimeter. The flow continues through the pipeline. In the orifice meter the
entire potential energy of the fluid converted to kinetic energy, and the jet discharges
freely into the open atmosphere.
3, In venturimeter, the flow velocity is measured by noting the pressure difference between
the inlet and the throat of the venturimeter, whereas in the orificemeter the discharge
velocity measured by using, pitot tube or by trajectory method.
21.3.3.3. Flow nozzles
In engineering practice, the nozzles are used for the creation of jets and streams for
{I purposes as well as for fluid metering. When placed in or at the end of a pipeline as
yetering devices, they are called as “Flow nozzles”.
In fact, a flow nozzle is nothing else but a venturimeter without it diverging cones. It
iffers from an orifice meter in the sense that it is made curved so that jet contraction is
ot so large as in an orifice-meter.
WZZEZZTEET A
i 7
Section-11 4 { Section-2
JK» 94
Fig. 21.32. Flow measurement through the use of a nozzle.
Fig. 21.32 shows flow measurement by the use of a nozzle. The flow nozzle comprises
smooth, gradual contraction to throat followed by a free, uncontrolled expansion back 1142 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
to the original pipe flow area. In a nozzle the flow is guided smoothly to the section of
minimum area. The equation for discharge through a nozzle is given by
Qaetua = KEA2 8p, -P2) (21.25)
where, i ee re ee (21.26)
Vi-(n/Ay? 1-2, /D,)*
Since the device contains no provision for an orderly transformation of velocity
pressure into static pressure, the nozzle has a pressure loss of from 80 to 90 per cent of
the differential pressure obtained.
The discharge coefficient of a flow nozzle is dependent upon the following factors :
( The smoothness of approach to tangency.
(ii) The length of cylindrical portion of the nozzle.
(iii) The location of the pressure taps. The pipe wall taps located at one pipe diameter
upstream and half pipe downstream from the inlet face of the nozzle give best
result.
The flow nozzles are usually made of gunmetal, stainless steel or monel metal.
Advantages :
(i) They have higher coefficient of discharge than that of orifice meters.
(i Cheaper and easier to install.
(iii) Physical length is less compared to venturimeter.
(fo) Quite useful for measurement of flow of fluids containing solids that settle.
(o) Widely used for high pressure/temperature steam flow.
(vi) Being more rugged and more resistant to erosion than sharp edged orifice, they
can be used for flow measurements at high velocities.
Disadvantages :
() Owing to poor pressure recovery, they are not useful for applications where
pressure heads are small or where pressure recovery is a must.
(i) As compared to orificemeter, it is expensive and difficult to install.
(iii) Limited moderate pipe sizes, not available above 120 cm.
(jv) Higher maintenance.
21.3.4, Pitot Tubes
In kinematics and dynamics of fluid flow, flow velocity constitutes an important
parameter and as such its measurement is quite essential. Velocity measurements are made
{or the following purposes :
(i) To determine the rate of flow (volumetric)
(ii) To locate separation points from a knowledge of velocity distribution.
(iil) To forecast the weather from wind velocity measurements.
© Instruments like the “pitot tube" and “hot wire anemometers” measure the “local
velocity” at point in the channel or ducts through which the fluid is flowing.
© Instruments like the cup and vane anemometers, the current and turbine meters measure
the “average velocity” of flow.
Description of pitot tubes:
The velocity distribution across a section can be obtained with the help of a pitot-tube,
which is one of the most accurate devices for velocity measurement yrement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1143
Fig, 21.33. Pitot tube.
It consists of a glass tube in the form of a 90° bend of short length open at both its
ds. It is placed in the flow with its bent leg directed upstream so that a stagnation point
created immediately in front of the opening (Fig. 21.33). The kinetic energy at this point
ts converted into pressure energy causing the liquid to rise in the vertical limb, to a
eight equal to the stagnation pressure.
Applying Bemnaulli’s between stagnation point (5) and a point (P) in the undistributed
‘ow at the same horizontal plane we get,
Ven Be
23° w
v
or, A+ Re
or, V = 2gh,—h,) or J2gah (21.27)
where, p, = Pressure at point ‘P’ i.e, static pressure,
V = Velocity at point ‘P’ ice,, free flow velocity.
p, = Stagnation pressure at point ‘S’, and
Ah = Dynamic pressure
= Difference between stagnation pressure head (h,) and static
pressure head (h,)
The height of liquid rise in the pitot tube indicates the stagnation pressure head. The
static pressure head may be measured separately with a plezometer (Pig. 21.34).
Both the static pressure as well as stagnation pressure can be measured in a device
known as Pitot-static tube (Big, 21.34).
It consists of two concentric pitot-tubes with an annular space in between as shown.
in the figure, The outer tube has additional two or more holes drilled perpendicular to
the direction of flow and thus the liquid level in it gives the static head, while the inner
lube works as normal pitot-tube, If a differential manometer is connected to the tubes of
4 pitot static tube it will measure the dynamic pressure head, If y is manometer difference.
then At Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
‘Stagnation
pressure tube
‘Static
pressure tube
Manometer
liquid
Fig, 21.34. Pitot-static tube.
Seoe4
Ah= IS (21.28)
where, S, = Specific gravity of manometric liquid, and
S = Specific gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe
When a pitot-tube is placed in the fluid stream the flow along its outer surface gets
accelerated and causes the static pressure to decrease. Also, the stem, which is
perpendicular to the flow direction, tends to produce an excess pressure head. In order
to take these effects into account equation (21.27) is modified to give the actual velocity
as:
1.29)
V = C\2gah
where, C = A corrective coefficient which takes into account the effect of stem and
bent leg.
The most commonly used form of Pitot-static tube known as Prandle-Pitot tube is so
designed that the effect of stem and bent leg cancel each other ie., C = 1.
Advantages :
() Negligible loss of head when pitot tube is inserted in the pipe.
(ii) Less costly as compared to venturimeter or orificemeter.
(iii) Easy to install and remove from the pipeline.
Disadvantages :
() Poor accuracy.
(ii) Unsuitable for dirty or sticky. liquids.
(iii) Requires high flow velocities of about 15 m/s to produce measurable heads.
(iv) Sensitive to upstream disturbance, to Reynolds number changes and to dimensions
errors.
(x) Cannot be used for industrial applications which require an instant readout.
Annubar tube :
© An Annubar tube is a commercial version of pitot tube and is applicable to liquid, steam
and gas flow measurements. Its simple and unique design is based upon the
fundamental Bernoulli's equation for flow balance. ~“uval Quantities: ni
e It consists of a small Pair of pressure sensing probes mounted perpendicularly
into the flow stream in much the same manner as a pitot tube, with one probe
facing the flow to sense the velocity pressure and a second probe behind the first
with its opening facing downstream sensing downstream pressure. The probe
which faces upstream has four sensing parts, each one representing an annubar
segment of line. An equalising line inserted into the plenum of the upstream
probe senses the average of four pressures representing the four line segments,
thus providing an average pressure for the entire body of flowing liquid. The
downstream pressure bar has one orifice which is positioned at the centre of flow
stream to measure downstream pressure.
Advantages :
() Can measure pressures from - 75 mm mercury to 15 MN/m’.
(i) Can measure all normal rates of flow for gas stream, or liquid for the pipe for
which it is designed and installed in,
(ii) The entire element can be reversed in direction (on pipe sizes over 25 mm diameter)
to detect reverse flows or act as an off position without a system shut down.
(iv) Can measure a wide range of flow rates without deviating from a square root
output signal which is compatible with all standard makes of flow instrumentation
and control.
(v) Relatively less expensive as a flow detector.
(vi) Relatively simple to install and light in weight.
(vii) Reliable for flow measurements through pipes or circular ducts from 12.5 mm to
225 mm in diameter.
(vii) The flow resisitive effect of this meter is almost negligible.
(ix) These units are available as complete systems with elements, including, recording
and control instrumenation.
21.3.5. Weirs and Flumes
These devices are commonly used for open channel measurements.
Weir : A weir is essentially a dam with a notched opening at the top through which
the liquids flows.
The weir make use of rectangular, V and tapezoidal notches. The rate of flow is simply
measured by measuring the head of water above the lowest point of the weir opening
through which the liquid flows. This height is measured by means of a float installed in
abox called stilling well, which is a part of the total structure. The float is so placed that
's not disturbed by the velocity of flow or by turbulence of stream.
© The discharge through a rectangular notch,
3
3 cal2gtD? (21.30)
a
"
te i Hee Lend
where, C, = Coefficient of discharge (it varies with the Fig, 21,35, Rectangular
dimensions of the weir and is usually less RoWRiaaSe
than 0.7),
Length of weir, and
H = Height of water above sill of the notch/wear.
The rectangular notch is the most’ commonly used notch on account of its simplicity,
case of construction and accuracy. 1146 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentati,
© The discharge through a V-notch,
5
Qs cy Pg tang (21.31)
where, © = angle of notch.
Cj varies with @ and H, kinetnatic viscosity and surface
tension of liquids; typical values are 0.58 to 07.
— The V-notch offers the widest range for a single size, the :
small‘opening at the lower end can accommodate small"! aise ruang ae,
flows while the top portion for large flows, However, :
because ofits shape it gives the highest loss of head.
© The discharge through a trapezoidal notch (combination of the rectangular and
triangular notches),
2 3 5
Q= 3c L2g(Hy? +3 cg (i? tang +=(21.32)
Flume : A “flume” is an open channel whose sides are arranged
sharply to form a throat, followed by a fairly long expansion section.
Stilling wells are provided for measuring the head at both entrance
and throat as shown in Fig. 21.38. In this case, mare
Fig, 21.37. Tapezoidal
Qaetuat = Teas ams (21.33) notch/wear.
C = Venturi flume coefficient (0.95 to 1), and
h=h-h
fe \
When, ht, maximum value of flow occurs.
_3
Then, Qmax = 1.7b_(H)? (21.34)
‘niet Throat
— Sy
Elevation
, »,
Stiling wells
Plan
Fig. 21.38. Venturi flume.
The flumes given better accuracies than weirs since the loss of head in improved versions
1
of flumes is about 4 th that of weirs. Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities: 147
© Although the weirs and flumes have not previously found application tn process
industries, their use is increasing with the increasing demand for water pollution control
‘These measurements are a must when large volumes of water are handled tn waste treatment
facilities.
21.3.6. Variable Head Meters for Compressible Fluids
In the equations derived so far we have assumed that the density remains constant,
Let us now consider the flow of compressible fluids in which density is not,constant but
changes with pressure. In order to account for changes in density with pressure, a factor
Y, called “expansion factor” is introduced. This factor is so chosen that the mass flow
rate calculated for incompressible fluids when multiplied by this factor gives the flow
rate for compressible fluids.
The volumetric flow rate for a compressible fluid for venturies (eqn. 21.16) is given by
2
Quaust = CaMEAa I (, ~ pa)
. CoM ay Pe - Po) (21.35)
The mass flow rate considering the density at the inlet is,
2
m= C,MEA,Y, Pt -pr) (21.36)
Ve:
The expansion factor Y can be taken as unity for liquids and for atmospheric air in
Pi~ Po
the range ( } less than 0.1 cm of water.
The value of Y can be calculated theoretically for an adiabatic flow process. The following
assumptions are made :
(i) The flow is steady and hence the mass entering is equal to mass leaving or
my = my.
(i) There is no heat transfer.
(iii) The pipeline is horizontal (ie., 2, = 2,)
The results obtained form the energy equation are :
Velocity at exit,
=]
27 1-(2)
(ni Pi} Lp
77
TE)
Ay) (pr
where, = Ratio of specific heats.
The mass flow rate,
Myers = CaAcl PoVe
vy, 148
Flactrical & llectronic Manstirements and Instrumentation
= Curt py (1.37)
Example 21.4. The flow of cooling water is a manufacturing process 1s measured by a
horizontal venturimeter with 200 mm inlet and 100 mm throat, ‘The U-tube mercury manometer
connected between inlet and throat of venturi shows a differential pressure of 220 mm of mercury,
Calculate the water flow rate if coefficient of discharge ia 0,98, specific gravity of mercury 13.6,
and density of water 1000 kg/m’,
Solution, Given: Dy = 200 mm = 0.2 m; D, = 100 mm = 0.1 m
ht = 220 mm, Cy = 0.98; Sp. gF. of mercury = 13.6;
Prater = 1000 kg/m’
Water flow rate, Qyeyat
Differential pressure head,
1 Pa) = gh (Pexg ~ Prater)
= 981 x 220 x 10° (13.6 ~ 1) x 1000
= 27.193 x 10° N/m?
Velocity approach factor,
M=
*
(where, A, = pt and A, =
. 1 1
7 a
Hay eG
Dy 200
‘The actual discharge through a venturimeter is given by,
2,
CMA, = \ (P1-P2) wa(21.14)
(assuming thermal expansion factor E = 1)
2x
= 1.0328
Queruat
0.98 1.0328 x01)?
= 0.0586 m'/s. (Ans.)
Example 21.5. The following data relate to an inclined venturimeter :
Diameter of the pipeline = 400 mm
Inclination of the pipeline with horizontal = 30°
Throat diameter = 200 mm
The distance between the mouth and throat of the meter = 600 mm Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1149
Sp. gravity of oil flowing through the pipeline = 0.7,
Sp. gravity of heavy liquid (U-tube) = 13.6
Reading of the differential manometer = 50 mm
The coefficient of the meter = 0.98
Determine the rate of flow in the pipeline. (Punjab University)
Solution. Diameter at inlet, D, = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Area of inlet,A = poe = 0.1257 m?
Throat diameter, D, = 200 mm = 0.2 m
«Area of throal,Ay = Fx (02)? = 0.0314 m?
Reading of the differential manometer (U-tube),
y = 50 mm = 0.05 m on
Difference of pressure head h is given by
(sp.
Sut
fe
where, S,, = Sp. of gravity of heavy liquid (ie.,
mercury) in U-tube = 13.6, and
5, = Sp. gravity of liquid (ce, oil) flowing through the pipe = 0.7.
13.6 |
07
Now, applying Bernoulli's equation at sections ‘1’ and ‘2’, we get
Pyne 2 Bane
Brett = Bonet fd)
2 ya
Pay z, \-( 2 W_W Lg
or (Bhvn)-(2+n) othe
But, (t+n)-(B+2) =h
w w
or, (2-2) + =m) =h
ww
It may be noted that differential gauge reading will include in itself the difference of pressure
hand the difference of datum head.
Thus eqn. (i) reduces to :
Fig. 21.38.
he 0.05 1) = 0:92 m of oil
2 yp
nei _Me 29 ni)
2g 2g
Applying continuity at sections ‘1’ and ‘2’ we get
Ay Vy = Ay Vp
x
= «0.2?
- 4% _ 4”
or, y= Bt = Foxy, =
fxoa? 4 1180 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Substituting the value of V, and ht in equation (if) we get
2 ya
om+—z__ 9
16x2g 2g
vat 1 15
shl1-—] = 0.92 Vix =0.92
ca 2g is) oe tag
0,92 x 2x 9.81 x 16
on = SO = 1925 oF Vy
4.38 m/s
Rate of flow of oil,
Q = A,Vy = 0.0314 x 4.38 = 0.1375 m'/s (Ans.)
Example 21.6. Water flows at the rate of 0.015 m/s through a 100 mm diameter orifice used
in a 200 mm pipe, What is the difference in pressure head between upstream section, and vena
contracta section. Take coefficient of contraction and discharge as 0.60 each,
Solution. Given : Q = 0.015 m/s; D, 01m
D, = 200 mm = 0.
0.1? = 0.007854 m?
f
1
&
0
Ay=
D? = £x0.2? = 0.03141 m*
®
4
x
A =
7 4
Difference in pressure head :
The flow rate through an orificemeter is given by
By
Q= KEA, JE (p,-m) -fEgn. (21.23)]
Here, K=CM Ce = = 8 = 0.6069
1 -| Co4o 1-(06 9.007854 y
A 0.03141
‘Assuming E (thermal expansion factor) as 1 and substituting the various values, we
get,
0.015 = 0.6069 x 0.007854
0.00021317 /(P: - P2)
(p, ~ p2) = 4951.5 N/m’ or 0.5047 m of water (Ans.)
Example 21.7. A venturi tube of throat diameter 60 mm has a discharge coefficient of 0.97
and with a flow rate of 1.2m’, the pressure diferental is 15.5 N/m’. Determine the flow rate
when an orifice of 60 mm is used in the same pipe. The discharge coefficient of orifice is 0.6 and
pressure differential in same.
Solution. Let the measurements through venturimeter and orifice are denoted by
subscripts v and o respectvely.
Then, Q = CMA,
P2) Measurement of Non-Electrical Quantities
1151
2,
and, Qe = CoA, | (p, ~ po)
©. Discharge through the orifice,
Q
0.97
Sx0, = 28 12 = 0.742 m'/s (Ans.)
Example 21.8. A sub-marine fitted with a pitot tube moves horizontally in sea. Its axis is
12 m below the surface of water. The pitot tube fixed in front of the sub-marine, and along its axis
is connected to the two limbs of a U-tube containing mercury, the reading of which is found to
be 200 mm. Find the speed of the sub-marine.
Take the specific gravity of sea water = 1.025 times fresh water.
Solution. Reading of the manometer, y = 200 mm = 0.2 m of mercury
Sp. gravity of mercury, Sy = 13.6
Sp. gravity of sea water, S, = 1.025
Sit
To find the head, (h) using the relation : h = 2-1}, we have
+. Velocity of the sub-marine,
V = Jog = J2x981x245
= 6.93 m/s or 24.9 knvh (Ans.)
21.3.7, Rotameter and Elbow Meter
21,3.7.1. Rotameter
A rotameter is a constant-pressure drop, variable
area flow meter.
Construction. Refer to Fig. 21.39. It consists of
a tapered metering glass tube, inside of which is
located a rotor or active element (float) of the meter.
The tube is provided with inlet and outlet
connections. The specific gravity of the float or bob
material is higher than that of the fluid to be metered.
On a part of the float spherical slots are cut which
cause it (float) to rotate slowly about the axis of the
tube and keep it centered. Owing to this spinning
accumulation of any sediment on the top or sides
of float is checked. However, the stability of the
bob may also be ensured by using a guide along
which the float-would slide.
Working. When the rate of flow increases the
float rises in the tube and consequently there is an
increase in the annular area between the float and
the tube. Thus, the float rides higher or lower
depending on the rate of flow.
7
the float
Transparent
tapered glass
metering tube
Float or bob
Fig. 21.39, Rotameter, 1182 Electrical & Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The discharge through a rotameter is given by
1
,-Pp
Q= CoA 0 Ed (21.38)
Py
where, Q = Volume flow rate,
C, = Coefficient of discharge,
= Annular area between float and tube,
Volume of float,
Density of float material,
Density of fluid, and
A; = Maximum cross-sectional area of fluid.
As the flow area A,,,, is a function of height of float in the tube, the flow rate scale
can be engraved on the tube corresponding to a particular float.
Advantages :
1. Simpler in operation.
. Handling and installation easy.
. Wide variety of corrosive fluids can be handled.
. Low cost relatively.
. Possibility of convenient and visible flow comparisons by mounting several
rotameters side by side.
6.. Easily equipped with data transmission and recording devices.
7. Rotameters are immune from viscosity effects upto a certain range:
8.
9.
gen
. They are particularly useful for measurement of low flow rates.
. They can be used for measuring liquids, gases and vapours.
Limitations +
1. Mounted vertically, limited to small pipe sizes and capacities.
2. Less accurate, compared to venturimeter and orificemeter.
3. Glass tube subject to breakage.
21.3.7.2. Elbow meter
When liquid flows around a pipe bend there is an increase in pressure with radius,
ise, the pressure at the outer wall of the bend is more than that at the inner wall. This difference
of pressure which exists between the outside and inside of the bend is used for measurement of
discharge in a pipeline.
As shown in Fig. 21.40, the pipe bend is provided with two pressure tapings, one
éachi at the inner and outer walls of the bend. These tappings are connected to the links
of U-tube manometer.
‘As per literature, the following relation between velocity and pressure difference is
available :
Kee (Pose, (Pa
2g (2 7 ly i
where, K = constant (depends upon the shape and size of the band),
ranges from 13 to 3.2, and —rrectrical Quantities ues
Flexible,
tubing
U-tube manometer-
Horizontal
datum
Fig. 21.40. Elbow meter.
V = Velocity of flow,
Suffices o and i represent the conditions at the outer and inner walls of the pipe bend.
a v= dami[Bes }B5)
Discharge, Q
AV = GAYE. [2+2,} (B+) (21.39)
where, C= K = Coefficient of discharge, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe.
C4 varies between 0.56 and 0.88.
The following empirical relation has been suggested :
Gy =
«AB
where, Radius of the pipe bend, and
and D = Diameter of the pipe.
@ An elbow meter can be conveniently used for the measurement of discharge in
pipes which are fitted with elbows and bends.
© Its accuracy, with proper calibration, approaches that of a venturimeter or nozzle.
21.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
These meters are particularly suitable for the flow measurements of slurries, sludge and
any electrically conducting fluid.
© Flow of an electrically conducting fluid may be determined by measuring the e.m.f.
developed between a pair of electrodes set in opposite sides of an insulating conduit due
ey us Electrical & Electronic Measuratnienits and Instrumantation
to the movement of the liquid through a magnetic field established transversely of the
conduit and perpendicular to both the flow and the line joititig the electrodes (See Fig
21.41), By using ant alternating field the efferts of electrode polurization may be eliminated. Nutt
measurement of the generated voltage renders the apparatus independent of the resistance of the
liquid
ing [Electrodes
Insulating Electrodes
conduit
Insulating
‘conduit
Fluid flow
Milivoltmeter or
potentiometer
Fig, 21.41, Electromagnetic flow meter.
Theory : Refer to Fig, 21.41.
Consider the flow of a conductive liquid through a non-metallic insulating pipe
located in the air gap of a permenant magnet (or an electromagnet which may be either
A.C. or D.C,) fluid motion relative to the field generates an induced e.mf. ie., the value of
which as per Faraday's law is given as :
e = Blu x 10° volts (21.40)
where, B = Magnetic flux density (in V-s/cm’)
1 = Length of the conductor (in cm) and
v = Velocity of the conductor (in cm/s).
‘The effective length of the conductor corresponds to the inner diameter of the pipe and
the velocity of the conductor is proportional to the mean flow velocity. The volume flow
rate is give by,
Q= feo, the eqn. (21.40) then gets modified
4Q :
as follows : = Bxdx42 x10 (+ 1=d and v= 42 from flow equation)
eda ( @ eee)
or e = 403 10° volts (21.41)
nd
This shows volume flow rate ( is directly proportional to the induced e.mf. ¢ so long
as the flux density remains unaltered.
The e.m,f. in the conductor is picked up by means of two electrodes set in the opposite
sides of an insulating and non-magnetic pipe. This is to prevent short-circuiting of the
induced voltage, and to allow magnetic field to penetrate the liquid. The electrodes are
mounted flush with inside faces of the pipe and thus making a direct contact with the
flowing liquid wleasurement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1155
‘The e.m.f. generated by the instrument, however, is very small (typically of the order
of 1 mV) and the resistance of the fluid is often very high. Therefore, the output of the
instrument is generally amplified suitably.
Advantages :
1. No obstruction to flow.
2. Can handle slurries, greasy materials and liquids containing suspended matter.
3, High accuracy and reliability,
4, The output is unaffected by changes in characteristics of liquid such as viscosity,
pressure and temperature.
. The output (voltage) is linearly related to the input (flow rate).
6. Bidirectional flow can be measured by reversing connections which can be done
manually or automatically.
7. The mass flow rate can be found by measuring the density and then multiplying
the output signals for indication of mass flow rate.
8. The voltage output of these meters is proportional to average velocity and hence
it does not matter whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
@
Disadvantages :
1. The operating costs are high particularly if heavy slurries are handled.
2. Its use is limited to fluids having conductivity at least of the order of
0.05 umho/cm.
3, They must be full at all the times because it sees velocity as analogues to volume
flow rate.
Application. This type of meter in its various forms has been widely used for metering
corrosive acids, cement slurries, sewage, paper pulp, detergents etc. which present difficult handling
problems.
21.3.9. Ultrasonic Flow Meters
The working principle of these meters is based on an apparent change in velocity of propagation
of sound waves in a fluid with a change in the velocity of the fluid flow. The method uses
transmitters and receivers of acoustic energy. “Piezoelectric crystals” are used as both transmitters
and receivers. :
Fig. 21.42 illustrates an ultrasonic flow meter for measurement of flow.
Refer to Fig. 21.42(i) : Travel time difference method-Single transmitter-receiver system.
When flow velocity (v) is zero, the transit time of the pulse from the transmitter to the
receiver is given by :
ss (21.42)
where, Distance between the transmitter and receiver, and
Velocity of sound in fluid.
Now, when the fluid moves with velocity v, the transit time becomes :
d
= eho +(21.43)
d(c-v) _ d(c-v)
~ €#0e-0) Pvt
«-Multiplying numerator and denominator by (c-v) a8 Electrical & Eleatronia Measurariants and Instrumentation
fi (Receiver)
LJ wr + [) 5
Hemme eemeetl
(i) Travel time difference method-single transmitier-receiver systarn
y Ry
tr, br,
(i) Travel time difference method-Twin transmitter-receiver system
Vv
> —J—e-w DA
Lg——__
Receiver and ~ Pulse
amplifier generator
(iil) Oscillating loop method
Fig. 21.42 Ultrasonic flow meter.
For any reasonable flow rate in liquids, the relationship » << c holds and there is
negligible error in writing, then
t= Mc-0)
de-0)
¢
3
or, ts a(1-2) on(21.44) jesutement of Non-Electrical Quantities 1157
Let ty —t = At (Travel time difference), then
At= t=
¢
dv
oF, Ate = ce) (21,45)
¢
Refer to Fig. 21.42 (ii) : Travel time difference method-Twin transmitter-receiver method :
Because the measurement of f, is generally not provided for in the present measurement,
perefore, it is preferable to have additional set of transmitter-receiver system along with
he present system [sce Fig. 21.42(ii)] to determine the transmit time against the direction
x flow. If the f, is the transit time along the flow and f, the transmit time against the flow,
en the travel time difference At is given by :
at=b-h
oy
or, ate We (2 v<
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