EUROPE FROM THE 18TH CENTURY TO 1815

Enlightenment new way of thinking from the 1700s CAUSE: logical explanations of the working of the universe, advances in physical sciences (Newton) CHARACTERISTICS: - rationalism: truth can be arrived by logical thinking - explanation of human nature & the operation of society - natural law governs the universe PHILOSOPHERS: - Locke: o Two Treatises of Government o natural rights: life-liberty-property o social compact (=trsadalmi szerzds): government with limited powers, people have the right to abolish it if necessary - Denis Diderot: chief editor of the French Encyclopaedia (a handbook on the Enlightenment, criticising the Church, the government, the slave trade, torture, taxes and war; 35 volumes were published between 17511780), DD was imprisoned - Montesquieu o Spirit of the Laws (=A trvnyek szellemrl) o separation of powers (concept of checks and balances)

legislative: makes/ corrects laws (now: parliament) executive: making peace/war, foreign policy, public security (government) judiciary: punish criminals (deciding desputes) (courts)

Voltaire o Letters on the English (lived in exile in Britain) o praised Britains constitutional monarchy, denounced the Frenchs censorship, injustice and despotism, urged religious freedom Rousseau o The Social Contract (=A trsadalmi szerzdsrl) o people are born good but their environment, education and laws corrupt them o root of inequality: private property o popular sovereignty (=nphatalom, npszuverenits): the government is created by and rules according to the General Will (=the rule of the majority, tbbsgi akarat, kzj) o the government has unlimited power to enforce the general will

Enlightened absolutism: in the 18th century the less developed absolute monarchies wanted to catch up with the West. Changes in economy, social and cultural areas, but not in the hierarchy or in the political system. (Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal, Italy, Denmark) PRUSSIA (FREDERICK THE GREAT) - created the best army in Europe- territorial expansion (War of the Austrian Succession: Silesia; First Partition of Poland: Posen) - planned tax collecting - reorganised civil service - development of trade and new industries - every children had to go to school - no torture - religious freedom RUSSIA (CATHERINE II (THE GREAT)) - expansionism: northern shore of the Sea of Azov, Black Sea, Crimea; participated in all the 3 Partitions of Poland, gained the largest parts - LIMITED religious freedom and torture - support of arts, science and literature - education of the children of the nobles

The French Revolution THE CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION - absolute, unlimited power of Louis XVI (corruption, censorship, imprisonment) - oppression of the 3rd Estate (bearing the whole tax burden) - privileges of the 1st and 2nd Estates - Enlightenment (vision of a better post-revolutionary world) - revolts in England and America - huge debts, bankruptcy (after helping America) - economic crisis STEPS OF THE REVOLUTION - the king called the Assembly of Notables (aristocrats) - they were unwilling to co-operate unless he calls the Estates-General (May of 1789) - the 3rd Estates demanded to be given 600 representatives (instead of 300) and voting by head (EG into National Assembly) - king rejected the 2nd request- Tennis Court Oath: 3rd E.=National Assembly - destruction of the Bastille (14 July 1789=beginning of the revolution) - National Guard led by La Fayette

AFTER -

in towns: councils, national guards Great Fear: peasant violence Louis yielded- formation of the National Assembly THE REVOLUTION... no tithe, feudal dues no class distinctions (privileges) DECLARATION OF RIGHTS OF MAN (26 August 1789): o equal rights + natural rights (liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression) o authority proceeds from the nation o liberty= freedom to do anything which injures no one else o freedom of speech and religion o law can only prohibit actions that hurtful to society o law is the expression of the general will o all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty o public military forces for the good of all, not for personal advantage o common contribution (tax) should be equally distributed on the base of wealth o separation of powers confiscated Church lands many assignats (state bonds), lands sold to peasant inflation Church reforms: o no tithe o controlled by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy o national church is independent from the pope, clergy=paid, elected government officials condemned by the pope uniform national taxes and laws CONSTITUTION OF 1791 o written by the Constituent Assembly o constitutional (limited) monarchy o king retained executive powers exclusively, had suspensive veto over legislation o Legislative Assembly: passed the laws (elected property owners) o Judiciary: Court: elected, independent judges o 1 chamber o parl. lasts for 2 years elections o executive: government (king+ministers), local administration Communes

o legislative: National Assembly (law making, taxes, interpellation (questions to the ministers) o judiciary: Court of Appeals, High Court, Local Courts CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY (1791-92) - political clubs: Jacobins, Girondists - Louis XVI retained the throne, later tried to escape, but captured and restored to the throne - demonstration at the field of Mars: to establish a republic (the National Guards killed those who tried protect the king), led by the radical Danton

Legislative Assembly (=Trvnyhoz Nemzetgyls) was formed o Jacobins: from the middle class (+sans culottes), supporters of the republic, radicals, led by Robespierre o Girondists: moderately radicals o Const. Monarchists o Royalists: wanted to restore the Old Regime Declaration of Pillnitz (1791 after the escape of Louis) o Leopold (Habsburgs) and Frederick William (Prussia) wanted to restore absolutism (didnt want the spread of it) o threat of invasion War o supporters: king: hoped the victory of the invaders Girondist: to strengthen the power of France- the king had chosen them France declared war on Austria (Louis pulled back the Girondists with his vetos, later gave back the power to the const. monarchists) Austrian and Prussian troops invaded France (no money, no French army) Brunswick Manifesto (1792): the leader of the invaders declared if people attack the king or his family, Paris will be destroyed (military execution) Jacobins (with the support of the Girondists) attacked the royal palace (Tuileries) the king fled to the building of the Legislative Assembly, but he was captured and imprisoned National Convention (=Konvent): elected by universal male suffrage end of Const. Mon. Rightists=Girondists: wanted to preserve the achievements of the revolution Leftists= Jacobins (the Mountain)+ sans culottes (from the lower middle class): were willing to sacrifice some features of the revolutionary system (eg.: civil liberties) moderates (wanted to achieve balance, supported who was more convincing)- plain=mocsr Only the NC ruled: no separation of powers (chance of tyranny) terror: massacre of the opponents of the revolution (clergy, aristocrats) 20 September 1792: Victory at Valmy, REPUBLIC execution of the king and his family

o
o

o o
o

o
o

o REBUBLIC
o

o military campaigns: natural borders + spread of liberty o nationalism: new French nation on the bases of equality of rights and the use of French language o First Coalition against France (Prussia, Austria, Britain, Holland, Spain) o conscription to the army +inflation +starvation= peasant revolts (Vende) o Jacobins wanted maximalisation of prices and the execution of traitors) o 2 June 1793: Jacobins +sans culottes arrested and executed the Girondists THE JACOBIN DICTATORSHIP - led by Robespierre - Committee of Public Safety - total war: mobilised the whole nation for the purposes of the war - confiscated food and supplies for the army - maximalised prices (black markets!) and wages - Cult of Supreme Being: to get rid of the Church - new constitution inspired by the ideas of Rousseau: was never put into practice - Reign of Terror - Law of Suspects: anyone who was thought to be disloyal to the government was executed after summary trial (mostly peasant, workers and bourgeoisie) - Robespierre with some supporters turned against the Jacobins: executed the extremists later the moderates, eliminated the sans cullotes - won the war, but some of the remaining Jacobins turned against R. - Coup of Thermidor (28 July 1794): end of the Reign of Terror DIRECTORY (=DIREKTRIUM) 1794-1799 - repealed the emergency laws of the Jacobins - peace with the First Coalition - new constitution - wanted to keep away the Right (Royalist) and the Left (radicals) from the power - wanted the rule of the propertied classes (putsch attempts from Left & Right) - the significance of the army increased (inefficient and corrupt Directory) NAPOLEON - coup detat (=llamcsny) 1st consul - 1804: emperor, created a police state

censored speech and press, secret police, arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, state-controlled education Code Civil/Napoleon: equality before law, religious toleration, trial by jury new stabile currency: franc; Bank of France Concordat of 1801: peace with the Church wars: o Allies of the Second Coalition peace of Amiens new conflicts:
o

allies wanted to overthrow Napoleon

o o
o

o FAILURE OF NAPOLEON - decline in trade, business failure & unemployment due to the Continental System - huge losses & defeat in Russia: o R. refused battle, retreated o won at Borodino and occupied Moscow which was destroyed : scorched earth o Russian guerrilla attack & cold winter - spread of nationalism in other countries guerrilla warfare - Prussia and Austria declared war, and won in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, later captured Paris - N. exiled to the island of Elba 100 days later returned final defeat at Waterloo exiled to the island of St. Helena - Congress of Vienna o principle of legitimacy: rightful/legitimate rulers were restored to the throne (France: Bourbon dynasty) o balance of power and peace in Europe o buffer states around France o compensation of the losses: Russia: parts of Poland, Finland, and Bessarabia Britain: Malta, Ceylon, Cape Colony Austria: Venetia, Lombardy

Napoleon wanted to rule Europe defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz created dependencies (the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the Confederation of the Rhine) wanted Britains rule over the seas naval supremacy of Britain + Admiral Nelson = defeat at Trafalgar (1805) Continental System: closed Europe from British trade (trade with overseas territories) Russia resumed trade with Britain: Napoleon invaded them (1812)

Fourty Years Peace totally disregarding the new ideas (liberty and nationalism) o Congress System: to maintain peace and discuss the common interests Map Valmy, Vende, Austerlitz, Trafalgar, Borodino, Waterloo