iGCSE Edexcel Physics Study Guide

Izzie Keeley

2017 Exam
FORCES IN MOTION

Astronomy

Moments and
momentum

1
 Movement
MOVEMENT AND POSITION
and Position
 Distance time graphs
o The gradient is the speed
 Motion
o Speed = Distance / Time
o Set up a track time how long it takes for different objects to
travel that distance and plot on a graph
o Acceleration = Change in velocity / time taken
 Velocity Time graphs
o Distance = area under graph
o Acceleration = gradient Figure 1: Distance time graph
o Constant speed is a straight flat line
o Doesn’t show direction

Figure 3: Speed Equation Figure 2: Acceleration Equation

Figure 4: Velocity Time Graph
Section
2

2
FORCES AND MOVEMENT

 Effects of forces
o Speed
 When an object is stationary there are equal forces
acting upon it
 When it is accelerating then the forward force is
greater than the backward force
 When it is travelling at a constant speed all the
forces are again equal even though it is moving
 When it is decelerating then the backwards force is
greater e.g. drag or friction
o Shape
 Changes in shape affect momentum
 Crumple zones increase the time crashing so reduces force on the passengers
o Direction
 The direction of the greatest force is the direction it will travel
 Types of forces
o Gravity/weight
 Acts downwards
o Reaction force
 Acts upwards
o Electrostatic force
 Between two charged objects the direction depends on the charge
o Thrust/push/pull
 Speeds something up
o Drag/air resistance/friction
 Slows an object down
 Friction opposes motion and there are 3 types
 Between two solid surfaces that are gripping
 Friction between two solid objects that are sliding past each other, this
friction can be reduced by using a lubricant
 Resistance or drag from fluids
o To try and reduce this objects are made to be streamlines
o In a fluid as speed increases so does friction
o Lift
 Aeroplane wings
o Tension
 In a rope or cable
 Vector or Scalar
o Vector quantities have a direction and size
o They are forces
 Can be represented with arrows
o Scalar only have size

3
  Resultant force
o This can be found by combining vectors
o Pick a direction as the positive then any other
forces going in the opposite direction are taken Figure 5: Resultant forces
away from this value
o Force = mass x acceleration
 Weight = mass x g
 Terminal Velocity
o At the start weight acts downwards with small air resistance
acting up
o This means they will accelerate downwards
o As speed increases so does air resistance until it balances the
weight Figure 6: Force Equation
o This means there is no resultant force a = 0
o Constant speed = terminal velocity
 Experiment
o Use sycamore seed of similar and different wing lengths
o Drop from a height and time how long it takes to reach
the floor
o You should find that the bigger the wings the longer the
time falling as there is a greater drag force meaning a
lower terminal velocity
 Stopping distance
o Thinking distance is the distance the car travels in the time it takes between the hazard
being noticed and applying the breaks it is affected by 2 factors
 How fast you are going, the faster the further
 Level of consciousness which can be affected by tiredness, drugs, alcohol and old
age
o Stopping distance
 How fast you’re
o Stopping distance
 How fast you’re travelling
 The mass of the vehicle as a larger mass and the same breaks will take
longer to stop
 How good the breaks are
 How good the grip is, which is affected by road surface, weather and tyres
 Hooke’s Law
o Extension is proportional to force
o Experiment
 Attach a newton meter to a spring and measure the length
 Keep adding weights and measuring the spring
 Plot the results on a graph
o Hooke’s law is obeyed up to a limit when the graph starts to curve it is called the elastic
limit
o When it reaches this point the material can no longer return to the original shape
o If a material can return to its original shape after a force has been removed it displays
elastic behaviour

4
MOMENTS AND MOMENTUM

 Momentum
o Momentum = force x velocity
o Momentum before an event = total momentum after if NO external
forces act
 Force = Change in Momentum / Time Taken
o Safety features
 In a crash crumples zones on cars and air bags increase the Figure 7: Momentum Equation
time crashing meaning that there is less force to reach the same
momentum
 Seatbelts allow you to move forward which also increases time
 Newtons 3rd law
o For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
o If the forces are equal there will be no resultant movement
 Moments
o Moment = force x perpendicular distance
o The centre of gravity hangs directly below the point of suspension Figure 8: Force Equation
o Finding centre of gravity
 Hand the shape and a plum line from the same point and wait until they stop
moving
 Draw a line along the plumb line
 Repeat but hanging from a different point
 Where the two lines cross that is the centre of gravity
 Principle of Moments
o Total Anticlockwise moments = Total Clockwise moments
o Forces are not always equal across all supports

Figure 9: Newtons 3rd Law

5
ASTRONOMY

 Gravity
o On earth gravity is 10
o Gravity is different on the moon because earth has a greater mass
so has a higher gravitational field strength
 Comets moons and planets
o Gravity causes planets and moons to orbit
 It is a balance of the forward motion and the forces
pulling them in
o Comets, moons and planets
Figure 10: Comets orbit
 Comets have an elongated orbit
 Planets and moons have regular elliptical orbits
 Planets orbit a star and moons orbit planets
 Orbital Speed
o It’s just the distance time equation except the distance is the
circumference of the orbit
 Terms
o Universe Figure 11: Orbital Speed Equation
 A large collection of billions of galaxies
o Galaxy
 Large collection of billions of stars
o Solar System
 It is in the milky way galaxy


Figure 12: Solar System

6
ELECTRICITY

Mains
Electricity

Section
2

Electric Charge

Energy and Potential

Difference in circuits

7
UNITS AND MAINS ELECTRICITY

 Units
o Ampere A – current
o Coulomb C – Charge
o Joule J – energy
o Ohm Ω - resistance
o Second s – time
o Volt V – potential/energy
o Watt W – power
 Electrical hazards
o Frayed cable
 Insulation is worn down causing live wired to be exposed leaving a risk of shock
as they can conduct electricity
o Long cables
 There is a greater risk of overheating because there is more resistance
o Damaged plugs
 There may be damaged safety features
o Water and metal objects conduct electricity and can cause the energy from the socket to
flow through which could cause a fire or a risk of electrocution
 Safety features
o Insulation
 Where a material is covered with a material which doesn’t conduct electricity
o Double insulation
 It is first surrounded by an internal plastic casing which means that even if the
wires become loose the case cannot conduct electricity and there is also an outer
casing of plastic so there is not live conductor
o Earthing
 If the live wire comes lose and touches the metal casing, the current runs
through the earth terminal, which is also connected to the casing. Due to the low
resistance the current surges through and breaks the fuse to disconnect the
appliance
o Fuses
 A section of wires within the circuit that will melt if the current is too high and
this breaks the circuit
o Circuit breakers

 Resistors
o A resistor is a thin piece of metal that slows down current. The electrons within the
circuit collide with the ions, which causes some of the electrical energy to transfer into
heat energy.
o The ions continue to vibrate which increases the temperature further because the
vibration makes it harder for the electrons to pass through. The constant collisions
continue to heat the resistor.
o This is used in hairdryers and tumble dryers
 Mains electricity is called a.c supply
o This is alternating current as the current is constantly changing direction
 Battery Supply is d.c
o Direct current means that the current only travels in one direction around the circuit

8
9
 EQUATIONS
o Power = Voltage x Current

o Energy transferred = Current x Voltage x Time

10
ENERGY AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN CIRCUITS

 More Voltage = More Current

 More Resistance = Less Current
 Series circuits
o Current remains the same throughout voltage changes at
different points in the circuit
o The size of the current depends on the voltage
o If more cells are added then voltage increases and if more
resistance is added the voltage decreases
o The more bulbs are added the dimmer they become because
they all the share the same voltage
o If one part of the circuit breaks then the rest of the circuits Figure 13: Series Circuit
turns off because there is a a gap in the circuit
 Parallel circuit
o Switches can be placed in different places around the circuit which
allows individual bulbs to be turned off individually
o Each branch receives the same voltage so the bulbs remain bright
o If one bulb breaks then only that section of the circuit is broken
o Current changes at different points in the circuit and voltage stays the
same
Figure 14: Parallel
 Current
Circuit
o Current is inversely proportional to resistance
 The higher the current the lower the resistance and the lower the current the
higher the resistance
o Current is present if a LED or lamp lights up
o It is the rate of flow of charge
o Electric current is the flow of negatively charged electrons
 Resistance
o An increase in resistance means the gradient will reduce
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
LDRs are light dependant resistors which change dependant on the light
 Resistance goes down as light increases
o Thermistors are temperature dependent resistors
 Resistance goes up with increasing temperatures
 Voltage is Joules/coulomb

11
12
  Voltage = current x resistance
 Charge = current x time

13
ELECTRICAL CHARGE

 Conductors and Insulators

o Conductor’s allow a current to flow through them, usually metals e.g copper and silver
o Insulators don’t conduct very well so current can’t flow e.g plastic
 Static Electricity
o Two insulators can be rubbed together which transfers
electrons and causes the insulator to be able to conduct
a charge
o A polythene rod gains electrons and therefore has a
negative charge which means it will attract small
objects
o The acetate rod becomes positively charged as it loses
its electrons to the cloth
O ONLY ELECTRONS CAN MOVE
O A charged conductor can be discharged by connecting
it to an earth wire
 Static Experiments
O You can place a rod with a charge that is already known onto a watch glass
O Charge the rod with the unknown charge and place near to the rod on the glass
O If it is attracted it has an opposite charge, if it repels the charges are the same
 Uses
O They can be used in inkjet printers
 The ink is charged as it pass through a nozel between to plates that are also
charged, one positive and one negative
 The size and direction of voltage on the plates changes so the ink is directed to
different places on the paper
O Photocopiers
 The image is projected onto an image plate
 The white areas allow light to fall there meaning that the charge fades
 The charged places attract the negatively charged powder which is then heated
so that it sticks the paper
 Electrostatic Phenomena
O Lightning
 This is caused by the raindrops and ice bumping into each other so they lose
electrons
 These electrons fall to the bottom of the cloud and the top of the cloud remains
positively charged
 These negative electrons cause a spark where it is attracted to a neutral charge
like earth, this is the lightning being attracted to earth
 Dangers
O Fuelling a vehicle
 If a tank is being filled with petrol it can be caused by it the rubbing against the
pipe
 If there is a spark then jt could explode
 This is why there is an earth wire from the tank tot the ground so the charge can
escape

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WAVES

Properties

Electromagnetic
Spectrum

Section
3

Light and
Sound

15
PROPERTIES OF WAVES

 Transverse waves
 Transverse waves travel
perpendicular to the direction
of energy transfer

Figure 15: Transverse Wave

 Longitudinal waves travel

parallel to the direction of
energy transfer

Figure 16: Longitudinal Wave

Figure 4: Time period = 1 / frequency

Figure 17: Wave speed Formula
Given in exam

 Diffraction
 This is when waves spread out in order to get around
an obstacle
 Longer wavelengths refract more which is why if
houses are behind a hill they would struggle to
connect to FM radio and TV signals because they do
not diffract much
 The narrower the gap or the longer the wavelength
the bigger the diffraction

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THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 Uses of
Radio Waves
 Used for communication like radios and TV broadcasting
 Long wave radio can be transmitted across the world whereas short radio waves for
broadcasting can only be received if it is direct sight of the transmitter
 Microwaves
 It can be used for cooking and mobile phone communication
 The vibrations create heat
 Infrared
 Can be used in thermal cameras to detect heat sources
 Cameras detect the vibrations caused by emitting heat
 Visible light
 Can be used in photography and optical fibres for data transmission
 Total internal reflection sends data as pulses of light
 Photography uses a light to reflect an image onto a film
 Ultraviolet
 Fluorescent lamps use UV
 The phosphor coating absorbs the UV and emits it as visible light
 X-Rays
 Used to see inside of the body
 They pass through soft tissue but are absorbed by bones the detection plate starts all white
but the x-rays that go through cause it to turn black
 Gamma Rays
 Used to sterilise equipment as they kill all the microbes
 Dangers
 Increasing frequency means more danger
 Radio- no danger
 Microwaves- internally heat body tissue
 Infrared- can cause skin burns
 Visible- blindness
 Ultraviolet- can cause blindness and damage to surface cells because it is ionising
 X-Rays- can cause cell mutations because they are ionising
 Gamma- can cause cell mutations due to its frequency

17
LIGHT AND SOUND

 Reflection
o Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
 Ray diagrams
o Learn how to construct these
o Start by drawing the image exactly opposite the object
o Draw a line from the top of the image to the top of the eye
o Draw a line from the top of the object to the point where it crosses the Figure 18: Reflection
mirror line Diagram
o Repeat but draw the lines to the
bottom of the eye 3

1
4

Figure 19: Ray Diagram

 Law of Refraction
o Refraction is the slowing down of a wave in a material of a different
density
o EM waves slow down but sound waves speed up
o To calculate refractive index, use this equation:
o N= sin i / sin r
 Refraction in Semi-circular blocks
o Diagram a
 If the angle of incidence less than the critical angle most of the Figure 20: Refraction
light passes out Experiment Block
o Diagram b
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, then the emerging ray
will come out along the edge of the block
o Diagram c
 If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then the ray will be
internally reflected which is called total internal reflection
o To find the critical angle you
need to find the refractive index
first (n) then use this equation
o Sin C= 1/n
o The bigger the refractive index
the smaller the critical angle
 Refraction in prisms Figure 21: Refraction in Semi-Circular Blocks

18
 o Red light refracts less and violet refracts the most

19
  Total internal refraction
o It can be used in communication using optical fibres
o The light the light rays always hit the cladding inside at an angle greater than c so
the light is always totally internally reflected
 Analogue and Digital
o Analogue signals can have any value and the amplitude and
frequency vary constantly
o Digital signals can only be on or off
o Digital signals carry more data and maintain their quality over time
o When an analogue signal is amplified, the noise is amplified too
o Interference is when two or more waves of a similar frequency
Figure 22: Analogue and digital
meet and create a new signal and amplitude signals
o Multiplexing is the process of transmitting multiple digital signals
down one cable
o Quantisation is the process of rounding multiple values to a smaller set which means
more information can be fit in to the same amount of space
o This process loses more analogue data
 Sound waves
o They are longitudinal waves that can be reflected refracted and diffracted
o Humans can hear a frequency of 20Hz to 2000 Hz
o Speed of sound can be measured using the equation speed = distance / time
 Set up an oscilloscope, two microphones with a measured distance between
them and a speaker
 Measure the time it takes for the sound to reach the second microphone
after the first one picks up the sound
 Oscilloscopes display sound waves
o They convert the sound waves into electrical signals
o The grater the amplitude the more energy it carries
meaning it would be louder
o The higher the frequency the higher the pitch
 It is the number of complete vibrations each
second
o To measure frequency on an oscilloscope
 Adjust the time setting so one complete cycle is Figure 23: Oscilloscope Readings
shown
 Read the period
 Frequency = 1 / period

20
ENERGY RESOURCES AND ENERGY
TRANSFER

Section
4

21
ENERGY TRANSFER

 9 types of energy
o Electrical – whenever a current flows
o Light – the sun light bulbs
o Sound – anything that makes a noise
o Kinetic – anything moving
o Nuclear – released only from nuclear reactions
o Thermal – flows from hot to cold objects
o Gravitational potential – anything that can fall
o Elastic potential – springs elastic rubber bands
o Chemical – food, fuels, batteries
 Energy is conserved in two different ways
o Energy Conservation is using less resources and is o with our environment
o Principle of conservation of energy is the physics one
 Energy can never be created or destroyed- its only ever transferred from one
form to another
 Energy is only useful when it I can be transferred from one
form to another
 Efficiency
o Efficiency = useful energy output / total energy input
o Every object and situation creates useful and waste energy
o The less waste energy the more efficient the device
o A light bulb produces light and heat, a fire creates heat, light and Figure 24: Efficiency Equation
sound
 Sankey diagrams show how efficient a product is in a diagram
o It can either be sketch or detailed
o In an accurate diagram, each square width is proportional to the
number of joules
 Energy transfer
o Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation
o Conduction
Figure 25: Sankey Diagram
 The transfer of heat in solids
 The vibrating particles pass on their kinetic energy to the
particles next to them causing a rise in temperature
o Radiation
 It is the emission of electromagnetic waves
 All objects emit and absorb heat energy it does not
need particles to travel
o Convection
 Occurs in fluids when the heated particles rise
because they are less dense
 They then cool and sink back down because they
are denser where they are then heated again
 In an Immersion heater, the same thing happens to
the water and the same things happens to the air
when radiators are turned on
Figure 26: Convection Diagram

22
 o Insulation
 Buildings can place fibreglass wool in the loft or
on water heaters to prevent the loss of heat from
conduction and convection
 Thick curtains and double glazing stop excess heat
escaping because they are poor conductors of heat
 Humans have hairs that stand up to trap a layer of
air which limits the loss of heat by convection
 Clothes prevent conduction of heat because of the Figure 27: Reduced heat transfer
air pockets and they reduce radiation as the
materials absorb your heat

23
WORK AND POWER

 Work done
o Work done = force x distance
o Work done is equal to energy transferred
 Power
o Power = work done / time taken
o The rate of energy transfer as it is where a lot of energy is transferred in a short period
o It is measured in watts
 Gravitational Potential Energy
o It is the energy stored in an object before it falls
o Gravitational potential energy = mass x g x height
 Kinetic Energy
o Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x speed2
 Conservation of energy
o Kinetic energy gained = gravitational potential energy lost
Figure 28: Conservation of Energy

Figure 29: Work Done Equation Figure 30: Power Equation Figure 31: Gravitational Figure 32: Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy Equation

24
ENERGY RESOURCES AND ELECTRICITY GENERATION

 Energy transfer in generating electricity

o Wind
 Converts kinetic energy to electric as the wind turns the blades which turns a
generator
 Renewable, no waste is produced, cheap to run and they are reliable
 Wind may not be strong enough, spoils the view, expensive to set up
o Solar cells
 Transform light energy into electrical energy
 Renewable, no pollution, low running costs, small scale production
 Not practical or too expensive to connect it to the grid, may not be enough
sunlight
o Solar heating systems
 Black pipes in a glass box which uses light and turns it into heat to heat the
water in the pipes
 Used for small scale, low running costs
 Expensive to set up
o Geothermal systems
 Hot rocks underground convert heat to kinetic to electrical
 The heat increases the pressure which forces the water back up to the surface
and the steam produced turn a turbine
 Sustainable to use, no environmental problems
 Expensive compared to the energy out
o Wave power
 Kinetic to electrical
 The up and down motion turns the generator
 No pollution, renewable, minimal running costs
 Reliant on weather, hazard to boats and high initial start-up costs
o Tidal barrage
 Tide flows through the turbine
 Kinetic to electrical
 No pollution, renewable, minimal running costs
 Low tides provide less energy, alters the habitat, spoils the view
o Nuclear power
 Heat to kinetic to electrical
 The heat from the nuclear fission heats the water to make steam which drives
the turbine
 No greenhouse gases
 Expensive to build and maintain, radioactive waste, processing the uranium
causes pollution
o Fossil fuels
 Coal, gas, oil
 Chemical to heat to kinetic to electrical
 They are reliable and are not affected by the environment, releases lots of
energy
 Release CO2 which impacts global warming, sulphur dioxide causes acid rain,
they are non-renewable
o Pumped storage is a way of storing energy that has already been generated
 Lower reservoir water is pumped bac to the higher one

25
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Section
5

26
SOLIDS LIQUIDS AND GASES

 Density
o Density = Mass/Volume
o To use this in an experiment find an object
o Measure the mass and volume
 If the shape is irregular use a set volume of water e.g. 100 cm
3
place the object in and the amount of water displaced is the
volume of the object e.g. if the water goes from 100 to 130
Figure 33: Density Equation
o Use these measurements to calculate density
 Pressure
o Pressure = Force / Area
o It is measured in pascals (Pa)
o In gases and liquids at rest the pressure at any point acts equally in all
directions
o In gases and liquids pressure increases with depth
 Pressure Difference Figure 34: Pressure Equation
o Pressure difference = height x density x g
o Height must be in m, Density in kg/m3 and gravity is 10m/s2
 Change in state
o When you heat a liquid, it gains energy
o When they have enough energy, they break the attractive forces between them, this is
boiling
o Evaporating
 This is when particles escape from a liquid
 This can happen if 2 conditions are met
 Travelling in the right direction
 Travelling fast enough to overcome the bonds between them
 When the fast particles escape the average speed then slows down
 This means the remaining liquid cools slightly
 Helpful when you sweat the remaining water cools you down
 Particle theory
o Particle theory says that as particles move about (randomly) they collide, when they
collide with a surface the exert a pressure on the surface (like air keeping a balloon
inflated)
o Brownian motion supports the particle theory
 It is the type of movement of any particles in suspension
 Large heavier particles are moved by smaller lighter particles
 P1V1 = P2V2 for a fixed mass at a constant temperature
 Gas movement
o When gases move, and collide with other surfaces, they exert a force which is what
causes pressure on the walls of a container
o If temperature is increased in a sealed container, the pressure will increase
o This is because of the energy increase means the particles move with more pressure and
force
 Kelvin
o Absolute 0 is measured as 0 K, -273°C
o Absolute 0 occurs because it is the least amount of kinetic energy possible

27
 o To convert from Kelvins to Celsius just subtract 273

28
  Temperature and Energy
o Kinetic energy is directly proportional to temperature
o Temperature supplies more heat
o The temperature of the gas in K is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its
particles
o Kinetic energy is ½mv2
o If you increase temperature in a sealed gas container and keep volume and mass the
same, then pressure increase will be directly proportional
o p1/t1 at a constant volume

29
RADIOACTIVITY AND PARTICLES

Radioactivity

Section
7

Particles

30
NUCLEAR ENERGY

TOPIC 1- THE ATOM AND NUCLEAR DECAY

 Isotopes
o An atom with the same number of protons and a different numbers of electrons
 Atom calculations
o Mass No. = protons + neutrons
(nucleus)
o Neutron No. = Mass No. – Atomic No.

o Atomic No. (if neutral atom) = no. of

protons and electrons

 Nuclear forces
o Electrostatic Force
 Causes like charges to repel at large distances
o Strong Nuclear Forces
 Attractive force between protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom, only
effective over the diameter of a medium sized atom
o When the forces are unbalanced large atoms experience nuclear fission. This is where
the atom splits which is called radioactivity
 Radioactive decay is unpredictable
o We can’t cause or stop theses decays from happening
o They occur completely at random
 Three types of radiation
o Alpha Particles ∝
 Contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 It helps to stabilise the atom as it strengthens the strong nuclear forces
 They can be blocked by 6 cm of air and paper
o Beta Particles β
 A fast moving electron from the nucleus
 The neutron in the nucleus changes from a neutron to a proton and an electron
is released
 They are blocked by 5mm of aluminium
o Gamma Rays Ɣ
 Electromagnetic wave with a short wavelength
 A loss of energy from the atoms excited state
 Protection from thick lead
 Nuclear decay equations

31
  Background radiation sources
o Natural sources include
 In air, radon gas
 Cosmic rays
 Granite
o Manmade sources
 Nuclear weapons
 Air travel
 Medicine
 Atom theories

Figure 35: Plum Pudding Model Figure 2: Nuclear Atom Model

 Marsden’s experiment

o Most of the particles passed straight through

 Most of the atom is empty space
o Some were deflected away
 The nucleus is small and positively charged like the alpha particle
o Few ∝ particles were deflected back
 Nucleus was denser

32
TOPIC 2-HALF LIFE AND NUCLEAR ENERGY

 Becquerel’s
o The number of counts from a radioactive source in one second
 Half life
o The time it takes for the number of undecayed atoms to reduce by half
o Different elements have different half-lives depending on how unstable they are
 Calculating half lives
o A radioactive sample has a half-life of two years and a starting activity of 6000 Bq. When
will the count rate be safely below 1000 Bq?
 Create a table and write in the values you know
 The starting count is always 0 half lives

Count rate Number of half lives

1 h/l = 2years

6000 0

 Write in each new row half of the previous amount

Count Rate Number of half lives  At a count rate of 750 it is below

1000 so to find the no. of half-
6000 0 lives you do 3x2=6

3000 1

1500 2

750 3

 Uses of Radioactivity include:

o Medical Tracers
 Travel around the body and if there is a collection of chemicals the radiation
collects there as well and can be traced by computers
 Gamma and beta radiation is used because they are less likely to be absorbed by
the health sells in the body
o Non-medical tracers: Smoke Detector
 Detects a change in current as the alpha particles complete the circuit however
the smoke can block the alpha particles causing the alarm to go off
 Gamma and beta cannot be used as they would not be absorbed by the smoke
particles and the current would continue to run
o Radiotherapy
 The use of gamma rays to kill mutated cancer cells
 Gamma has enough energy to penetrate and kill the cells
 It is relatively painless however there is a risk of killing healthy cells if they miss
o Carbon dating

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  You can measure the amount of radioactive isotope left in a sample and if the
half-life is known you can work out how old the sample is
 Carbon-14 has a constant level in the atmosphere and in living things. When
things die the C-14 becomes trapped and begins to decay causing the
radioactivity to decrease.
 By comparing the old sample to a living one allows you to see how many half-
lives have passed
 Dangers of ionizing radiation include:
o Damaging cells and tissues
 If a lower level of radiation hits cells it can damage the molecules within. These
cells then divide uncontrollably which is called cancer
 However high doses of radiation can be more damaging as they can cause
radiation sickness. This is where the cells are killed completely
o Mutations
 The radiation can damage DNA within cells which can also cause cancer
o Waste disposal
 Waste with a short half-life can be left until it is no longer radioactive and then is
just treated as regular waste
 However, if it has a long half-life it has to be sealed and then buried
underground in a secure location
 Risk of contamination of groundwater- plants, soil, rivers
 Nuclear fission
o A single neutron is fired at the
uranium nucleus causing the
forces to become unbalanced
and the nucleus to split
releasing heat energy
o Further neutrons are released
causing a chain reaction to
occur
o Moderators are used to slow
the neutrons and make sure the collisions occur and moderators absorb excess neutrons to
prevent further decays from happening
o To make electricity
Figure 36: Nuclear Fission
the water is heated
and turns to steam which causes the turbine to turn powering the generator

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