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Footnotes:
[1] Some separate copies of these Appendixes are printed, for those
who may desire to add them to the former editions.
[2] It has been supposed that eleven and twelve are derived from the
Saxon for one left and two left (meaning, after ten is removed); but
there seems better reason to think that leven is a word meaning ten,
and connected with decem.
[3] The references are to the preceding articles.
[4] Any little computations which occur in the rest of this section may be
made on the fingers, or with counters.
[5] This should be (23) a × a, but the sign × is unnecessary here. It is
used with numbers, as in 2 × 7, to prevent confounding this, which is
14, with 27.
[6] In this and all other processes, the student is strongly recommended
to look at and follow the first Appendix.
[7] Those numbers which have been altered are put in italics.
[8] As it is usual to learn the product of numbers up to 12 times 12, I
have extended the table thus far. In my opinion, all pupils who shew a
tolerable capacity should slowly commit the products to memory as far
as 20 times 20, in the course of their progress through this work.
[9] To speak always in the same way, instead of saying that 6 does not
contain 13, I say that it contains it 0 times and 6 over, which is merely
saying that 6 is 6 more than nothing.
[10] If you have any doubt as to this expression, recollect that it means
“contains more than two eighteens, but not so much as three.”
[11] Among the even figures we include 0.
[12] Including both ciphers and others.
[13] For shortness, I abbreviate the words greatest common measure
into their initial letters, g. c. m.
[14] Numbers which contain an exact number of units, such as 5, 7,
100, &c., are called whole numbers or integers, when we wish to
distinguish them from fractions.
[15] A factor of a number is a number which divides it without
remainder: thus, 4, 6, 8, are factors of 24, and 6 × 4, 8 × 3, 2 × 2 × 2 ×
3, are several ways of decomposing 24 into factors.
[16] The method of solving this and the following question may be
shewn thus: If the number of days in which each could reap the field is
given, the part which each could do in a day by himself can be found,
and thence the part which all could do together; this being known, the
number of days which it would take all to do the whole can be found.
[17] A formula is a name given to any algebraical expression which is
commonly used.
[18] Or remove ciphers from the divisor; or make up the number of
ciphers partly by removing from the divisor and annexing to the
dividend, if there be not a sufficient number in the divisor.
[19] These are not quite correct, but sufficiently so for every practical
purpose.
[20] The 1′ here means that the 1 is in the multiplier.
[21] This is written 7 instead of 6, because the figure which is
abandoned in the dividend is 9 (151).
[22] Meaning, of course, a really fractional number, such as ⅞ or ¹⁵/₁₁,
not one which, though fractional in form, is whole in reality, such as ¹⁰/₅
or ²⁷/₃.
[23] By square number I mean, a number which has a square root.
Thus, 25 is a square number, but 26 is not.
[24] The term ‘root’ is frequently used as an abbreviation of square root.
[25] Or, more simply, add the second figure of the root to the first
divisor.
[26] This is a very incorrect name, since the term ‘arithmetical’ applies
equally to every notion in this book. It is necessary, however, that the
pupil should use words in the sense in which they will be used in his
succeeding studies.
[27] The same remark may be made here as was made in the note on
the term ‘arithmetical proportion,’ page 101. The word ‘geometrical’ is,
generally speaking, dropped, except when we wish to distinguish
between this kind of proportion and that which has been called
arithmetical.
[28] A theorem is a general mathematical fact: thus, that every number
is divisible by four when its last two figures are divisible by four, is a
theorem; that in every proportion the product of the extremes is equal to
the product of the means, is another.
[29] If bx be substituted for a in any expression which is homogeneous
with respect to a and b, the pupil may easily see that b must occur in
every term as often as there are units in the degree of the expression:
thus, aa + ab becomes bxbx + bxb or bb(xx + x); aaa + bbb becomes
bxbxbx + bbb or bbb(xxx + 1); and so on.
[30] The difference between this problem and the last is left to the
ingenuity of the pupil.
[31] It is not true, that if we choose any quantity as a unit, any other
quantity of the same kind can be exactly represented either by a certain
number of units, or of parts of a unit. To understand how this is proved,
the pupil would require more knowledge than he can be supposed to
have; but we can shew him that, for any thing he knows to the contrary,
there may be quantities which are neither units nor parts of the unit.
Take a mathematical line of one foot in length, divide it into ten parts,
each of those parts into ten parts, and so on continually. If a point A be
taken at hazard in the line, it does not appear self-evident that if the
decimal division be continued ever so far, one of the points of division
must at last fall exactly on A: neither would the same appear
necessarily true if the division were made into sevenths, or elevenths,
or in any other way. There may then possibly be a part of a foot which is
no exact numerical fraction whatever of the foot; and this, in a higher
branch of mathematics, is found to be the case times without number.
What is meant in the words on which this note is written, is, that any
part of a foot can be represented as nearly as we please by a numerical
fraction of it; and this is sufficient for practical purposes.
[32] Since this was first written, the accident has happened. The
standard yard was so injured as to be rendered useless by the fire at
the Houses of Parliament.
[33] The minute and second are often marked thus, 1′, 1″: but this
notation is now almost entirely appropriated to the minute and second
of angular measure.
[34] The measures in italics are those which it is most necessary that
the student should learn by heart.
[35] The lengths of the pendulums which will vibrate in one second are
slightly different in different latitudes. Greenwich is chosen as the
station of the Royal Observatory. We may add, that much doubt is now
entertained as to the system of standards derived from nature being
capable of that extreme accuracy which was once attributed to it.
[36] The inch is said to have been originally obtained by putting together
three grains of barley.
[37] ‘Capacity’ is a term which cannot be better explained than by its
use. When one measure holds more than another, it is said to be more
capacious, or to have a greater capacity.
[38] This measure, and those which follow, are used for dry goods only.
[39] Since the publication of the third edition, the heaped measure,
which was part of the new system, has been abolished. The following
paragraph from the third edition will serve for reference to it:
“The other imperial measure is applied to goods which it is
customary to sell by heaped measure, and is as follows:
2 gallons 1 peck
4 pecks 1 bushel
3 bushels 1 sack
12 sacks 1 chaldron.
The gallon and bushel in this measure hold the same when only just
filled, as in the last. The bushel, however, heaped up as directed by the
act of parliament, is a little more than one-fourth greater than before.”
[40] Pure water, cleared from foreign substances by distillation, at a
temperature of 62° Fahr.
[41] It is more common to divide the ounce into four quarters than into
sixteen drams.
[42] The English pound is generally called a pound sterling, which
distinguishes it from the weight called a pound, and also from foreign
coins.
[43] The coin called a guinea is now no longer in use, but the name is
still given, from custom, to 21 shillings. The pound, which was not a
coin, but a note promising to pay 20 shillings to the bearer, is also
disused for the present, and the sovereign supplies its place; but the
name pound is still given to 20 shillings.
[44] Farthings are never written but as parts of a penny. Thus, three
farthings being ¾ of a penny, is written ¾, or ¾. One halfpenny may be
written either as 2/4 or ½; the latter is most common.
[45] When a decimal follows a whole number, the decimal is always of
the same unit as the whole number. Thus, 5ᔆ·5 is five seconds and five-
tenths of a second. Thus, 0ᔆ·5 means five-tenths of a second; 0ʰ·3,
three-tenths of an hour.
[46] Before reading this article and the next, articles (29) and (42)
should be read again carefully.
[47] Any fraction of a unit, whose numerator is unity, is generally called
an aliquot part of that unit. Thus, 2s. and 10s. are both aliquot parts of a
pound, being £⅒ and £½.
[48] A parallelepiped, or more properly, a rectangular parallelepiped, is
a figure of the form of a brick; its sides, however, may be of any length;
thus, the figure of a plank has the same name. A cube is a
parallelepiped with equal sides, such as is a die.
[49] This generally comes in the same member of the sentence. In
some cases the ingenuity of the student must be employed in detecting
it. The reasoning of (238) is the best guide. The following may be very
often applied. If it be evident that the answer must be less than the
given quantity of its kind, multiply that given quantity by the less of the
other two; if greater, by the greater. Thus, in the first question, 156
yards must cost more than 22; multiply, therefore, by 156.
[50] It is usual to place points, in the manner here shewn, between the
quantities. Those who have read Section VIII. will see that the Rule of
Three is no more than the process for finding the fourth term of a
proportion from the other three.
[51] Commission is what is allowed by one merchant to another for
buying or selling goods for him, and is usually a per-centage on the
whole sum employed. Brokerage is an allowance similar to commission,
under a different name, principally used in the buying and selling of
stock in the funds.
Insurance is a per-centage paid to those who engage to make good
to the payers any loss they may sustain by accidents from fire, or
storms, according to the agreement, up to a certain amount which is
named, and is a per-centage upon this amount. Tare, tret, and cloff, are
allowances made in selling goods by wholesale, for the weight of the
boxes or barrels which contain them, waste, &c.; and are usually either
the price of a certain number of pounds of the goods for each box or
barrel, or a certain allowance on each cwt.
[52] Here the 4s. from the dividend is taken in.
[53] Here the 3d. from the dividend is taken in.
[54] Sufficient tables for all common purposes are contained in the
article on Interest in the Penny Cyclopædia; and ample ones in the
Treatise on Annuities and Reversions, in the Library of Useful
Knowledge.
[55] This rule is obsolete in business. When a bill, for instance, of £100
having a year to run, is discounted (as people now say) at 5 per cent,
this means that 5 per cent of £100, or £5, is struck off.
[56] This question does not at first appear to fall under the rule. A little
thought will serve to shew that what probably will be the first idea of the
proper method of solution is erroneous.
[57] The teacher will find further remarks on this subject in the
Companion to the Almanac for 1844, and in the Supplement to the
Penny Cyclopædia, article Computation.
[58] And at discretion one hundredth more for a large fraction of three
inches.
[59] The student should remember all the multiples of 4 up to 4 × 25, or
100.
[60] The treatises on book-keeping have described this difference in as
peculiar a manner. They call these accounts the fictitious accounts.
Now they represent the merchant himself; their credits are gain to the
business, their debits losses or liabilities. If the terms real and fictitious
are to be used at all, they are the real accounts, end all the others are
as fictitious as the clerks whom we have supposed to keep them.
[61] This theorem shews that what is called reducing a fraction to its
lowest terms (namely, dividing numerator and denominator by their
greatest common measure), is correctly so called.
[62] For that which measures a measure is itself a measure; so that if a
measure of a could have a measure in common with b, a itself would
have a common measure with b.
[63] A prime number is one which is prime to all numbers except its own
multiples, or has no divisors except 1 and itself.
[64] Expand (a-1)ᵇ by the binomial theorem; shew that when b is a
prime number every coefficient which is not unity is divisible by b; and
the proposition follows.
[65] The principle of this mode of demonstration of Horner’s method
was stated in Young’s Algebra (1823), being the earliest elementary
work in which that method was given.
[66] Various exceptions may arise when an equation has two nearly
equal roots. But I do not here introduce algebraical difficulties; and a
student might give himself a hundred examples, taken at hazard,
without much chance of lighting upon one which gives any difficulty.
[67] This form might be also applied to the integer portions; but it is
hardly needed in such instances as usually occur. See the article
Involution and Evolution in the Supplement to the Penny Cyclopædia.
[68] After the second step, the trial will rarely fail to give the true figure.
[69] The solution of x³ + 0x² + 0x-2 = 0.
[70] Taken from a paper on the subject, by Mr. Peter Gray, in the
Mechanics’ Magazine.
[71] Taken from a paper on the subject, by Mr. Peter Gray, in the
Mechanics’ Magazine.
[72] Taken from a paper on the subject, by Mr. Peter Gray, in the
Mechanics’ Magazine.
[73] Taken from the late Mr. Peter Nicholson’s Essay on Involution and
Evolution.
[74] Taken from the late Mr. Peter Nicholson’s Essay on Involution and
Evolution.
[75] Taken from the late Mr. Peter Nicholson’s Essay on Involution and
Evolution.
[76] Taken from the late Mr. Peter Nicholson’s Essay on Involution and
Evolution.
[77] A four-sided figure, which has two sides parallel, and two sides not
parallel.
[78] The right angle is divided into 90 equal parts called degrees, each
degree into 60 equal parts called minutes, and each minute into 60
equal parts called seconds. Thus, 2° 15′ 40″ means 2 degrees, 15
minutes, and 40 seconds.
 Transcriber’s Notes:

The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.
The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and so
that they are next to the text they illustrate.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.