3 Fatigue

MACHINE
DESIGN
3. Fatigue
1
MACHINE DESIGN: PROGRAM OF THE SUBJECT
I. SECTION
0. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1. MACHINE DESIGN. INTRODUCTION
2. CALCULATIONS WITH STATIC STRESSES
3. FATIGUE
4. MEF. INTRODUCTION
II. SECTION
5. SHAFTS AND THEIR COMPONENTS. DESIGN
6. GEARS. CALCULATION
7. BELTS
8. CLUTCHES, BRAKES, AND SCREWS Team work
9. BEARINGS
2
MACHINE DESIGN: PROGRAM OF THE SUBJECT
I. SECTION
3. FATIGUE
1. INTRODUCTION 4. INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 4.1. CYCLIC LOAD
1.2. BREAKAGE PROCESS 4.2. INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS
1.3. DANGEROUS SITUATIONS 4.3. THEORIES
2. LOADS 4.4. EQUIVALENT ALTERNATING STRESS
2.1. ORIGIN OF THE LOADS 4.5. EQUIVALENT STATIC STRESS
2.2. STRUCTURES THAT SUFFER VARIABLE LOADS 4.6. FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATION
2.3. LOAD TYPES 4.7. EXERCISES
2.4. MATERIALS THAT HAVE BEEN BROKEN BY FATIGUE 5. ACCUMULATIVE DAMAGE
3. S-N CURVES 5.1. ANALYSIS OF THE ACCUMULATIVE DAMAGE
3.1. ORIGIN 5.2. PALMGREN-MINER THEORY
3.2. PARAMETERS 5.3. MANSON THEORY
3.3. INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES 5.4. EXAMPLE
3.4. PROBABILISTIC MODELS 5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD

5.6. RAINFLOW METHOD TO APPLY PALMGREN-
3.5. FACTORS THAT CHANGE THE FATIGUE LIMIT
MINER
3.6. EXERCISES
5.7. EXERCISES 3
FATIGUE - INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Fundamental concepts
1.2. Breakage process
1.3. Dangerous situations
4
1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Forces and stresses
M
F
𝐹𝐹 𝑀𝑀 · 𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼
Bending moment
Axial force
Q 𝑄𝑄 · 𝑀𝑀𝑒𝑒 𝑇𝑇 · 𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑏𝑏 · 𝐼𝐼 𝐽𝐽
Shear force Torsional moment
5

Most structures, machines, and equipment suffer the action of loads
variable along the time.
Under the influence of variable loads
RESISTANCE/STRENGTH
COLLAPSE OF THE MATERIAL
Most unfavorable point

COLLAPSE CAUSED BY FATIGUE
CASE 1 CASE 2
In case 2 although the load is smaller, the
material can collapse.
6
FATIGUE  it is the most dangerous way of failure

The 80-90% of collapse in mechanical systems occurs by FATIGUE.
Very often causes catastrophic consequences without prior notice.
Criterion to consider in design.

Objective  to stablish a methodology to calculate when the system
will fail under variable actions
7

• Regarding a mechanical component, fatigue is the weakening of a material
caused by repeatedly applied loads.
• Structures subjected to repeated cyclic loadings can undergo progressive

damage which is shown by the propagation of cracks. This damage is called
fatigue and is represented by a loss of resistance with time.
• The repetitive effect of the applied load leads to the failure of the component,
although the nominal stresses which are reached in service are not high.
• The origin of the failure is caused by the generation of tiny cracks which grow
a small quantity each time the load cycle is applied.
• As time goes by, the crack is big enough to weaken the component leading
to its total breakage.
8
Tensile load state Tensile state variable in

time
COLLAPSE CAUSED
BY FATIGUE
High amount of load cycle
9
1.2. BREAKAGE PROCESS

Collapse caused by fatigue  3 stages
1. Creation of a small crack. At 45º of the application of the force. Crack in shear
state.
2. Propagation of the crack. At 90º of the application of the force. Normal to the
surface under tensile.
3. Collapse.
F 10

The crack formation originates a stress concentration in a point located at the
end of the crack.
The area placed ahead of the crack is subjected to cyclic plastic deformation.
11
1. stage: crack creation
2. stage: crack propagation
3. stage: collapse
12
1.3. DANGEROUS SITUATIONS

The following situations could lead to fatigue failure:
• Fixed component which suffers variable loads.
• Rotating component which suffers loads constant over time.
• Rotating component which suffers variable loads.
13
FATIGUE - LOADS
2. LOADS
2.1. Origin of the loads
2.2. Structures that suffer variable loads
2.3. Load types
2.4. Materials that have been broken by fatigue
14
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.1. ORIGIN OF THE LOADS
Influence of
Wind
people
Waves
Traffic of
vehicles Machines
15
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.2. STRUCTURES THAT SUFFER VARIABLE LOADS
Passages
Vehicles and machines
Buildings
Towers and chimneys
Benches
16
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.2. STRUCTURES THAT SUFFER VARIABLE LOADS
Wind structures
Bridges
Off shore structures
Cranes
17
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.3. LOAD TYPES

- Static loads: its value does not change in time
- Dynamic and Variable loads: its value is variable
- According to the origin:
* Random: found in reality
* Deterministic: normally found in laboratory
- According to the variation in time:
* Periodic: they are repeated by a periodic Tp
* Non periodic: impulsive loads or loads of larger duration
- According to its amplitude:
* Constant amplitude: not found in reality
* Block with constant amplitude: not found in reality
* Variable amplitude 18
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.3. LOAD TYPES

Block with constant amplitude
Periodic
Harmonic
Impulsive
Variable amplitude
Non periodic
load of high
duration
19
FATIGUE - LOADS
2.4. MATERIALS THAT HAVE BEEN BROKEN BY FATIGUE
.
Aloha airlines flight 243
Liberty ships 20
FATIGUE - S-N CURVES
3. S-N CURVES
3.1. Origin
3.2. Parameters
3.3. Interpretation of the curves
3.4. Probabilistic models
3.5. Factors that change the fatigue limit
3.6- Exercises
21
3.1. S-N CURVES - ORIGIN

Static loads  TENSILE TEST  E, σe, σyp, σu, ν
Dynamic loads  TIME is added.
To make the model
S-N CURVES
22

S-N Curves were developed by the German engineer August Wöhler during the
resulting investigation of a train crash in 1842 in Versailles, France. In this crash, the
wheelset of the train locomotive failed under the repeated “low level” cyclic stress of
everyday usage on the railroad. Between 1952-1870 he carried out many fatigue tests
with train wheelsets (wheels + spindle). He showed results in S-N curves or Wohler
diagrams.
TEST
A sinusoidal load with constant

amplitude and frequency is applied to
the test bar until collapse. The test is
done controlling the force.
23

These graphics express stress vs cycle number.
They are obtained experimentally from several test bars tested under
certain conditions.
- Cyclic loads
- Test bar type
- Surface finishing
- Test bar size
- Load type shape
24

Tests with many stress levels.
With each stress level several tests, to know the dispersion.
25
3.2. S-N CURVES - PARAMETERS
• maximum stress: σ max σ
• minimum stress: σ min
• mean stress:
σa
σ max + σ min
σm =
2
• stress amplitude: σ max
σm
σ max − σ min
σa = σ min
2
• stress range: ∆σ = σ max − σ min t
σ min
• stress ratio: R= 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 + 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎
σ max
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 − 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎
26

Stress cycle
N =T ⋅ f
N= cycle number
T= test duration
f= frequency
27
EXAMPLE
A fatigue test has been taken with the following parameters:
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 10 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑓𝑓 = 3 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
The time to collapse has been 484000 sg.

Calculate:
Stress range, mean stress, R relationship, and cycle number.
28
3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

Fatigue tests  S-N curves  relationship between Δσ and N
29

Strips S-N of aluminium alloys
30
In ferric alloys and titanium,

fatigue shows a very clear
asymptotic limit
In non ferric alloys, there is no

clear limit defined.
In these cases it is considered a
value of Δσ of 5·108 cycles.
31
The fatigue state of high cycles is revealed by S-N curves.

S: cyclic stress
N: cycle number
FATIGUE TEST 32
High life (106 cycle)

S 'e = 0,5Sult ( Sult ≤ 1400 MPa)
S 'e = 700 MPa ( Sult > 1400 MPa)
Low life (103 cycle)

S103 = 0,9 Sult
Long life (103 ÷ 106 cycle)

Between 103 eta 106 cycles, interpolate between both values.
33

Alternating fatigue strength
Tensile strength
34

• With lower stress levels, life under fatigue increases.
• Fatigue limit: alternating stress which causes a fatigue failure at N cycles. The material will not
collapse bellow certain stress level.
This limit can be lower in corrosive environment or punctual overload.
• Endurance limit: stress level which a test bar can withstand cyclic stress indefinitely without
exhibiting fatigue failure
• Results show great dispersion, different fatigue levels can be achieved with the same stress level.
To adjust results probabilistic models are used. There are two kind of graphics which are used to
represent this information: Linear-logarithmic and Logarithmic-logarithmic.
The use of these curves is not

recommended for low cycles.
They are valid for more than 1000
cycles.
35
3.4. S-N CURVES – PROBABILISTIC MODELS
S-N CURVE WITH LINEAR-LOGARITHMIC FITTING
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 log 𝑁𝑁 , where C and D are constants for the fitting.
36
S-N CURVE WITH LOGARITHMIC-LOGARITHMIC FITTING
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴 � 𝑁𝑁 𝐵𝐵 , where A and B are constants for the fitting.
37
S-N CURVE WITH LOGARITHMIC-LOGARITHMIC FITTING

S f = aN b ⇒ log S f = log a + b log N
log S 'e = log a + b log 106 → log S 'e = log a + b.6 → log a = log S 'e −6.b
log S '103 = log a + b log 103 → log S '103 = log a + b.3 → log S '103 = log S 'e −6.b + 3.b
S '103
log S '103 = log S 'e −3.b → − 3.b = log S '103 − log S 'e = log
S 'e
1 0,9.Súlt
b = − log
3 S 'e
1 0,9Súlt S' 3
log S 'e = log a − log .6 = log a − 2 log 10
3 S 'e S 'e
log S 'e = log a − 2(log S '103 − log S 'e ) = log a − 2 log S '103 +2 log S 'e
log a = 2 log S '103 − log S 'e
a=
(0,9.Súlt )
2
38
S 'e
EXAMPLE
Calculate the stress-life curve for a test bar of steel with σult = 792 MPa, using
the linear-logarithmic fitting and the logarithmic-logarithmic fitting.
39
EXAMPLE
La resistencia a la fatiga a bajo ciclo :

The strength fatigue at low cycles:
S '
103
= 0,9.S ult = 712,8 MPa para 10 ciclos
3
cycles
El límitelimit:
Endurance de fatiga :
S e' = 0,5.S ult = 396 MPa para 10 6 ciclos

cycles
40

Súlt = 792 MPa
EXAMPLE
S '103 = 0,9 × 792 = 712,8MPa
S 'e = 0,5 × 792 = 396 MPa
S '103 = C + 3.D C = 2 S '103 − S 'e = 1029,6

S f = C + D log N ⇒ →
S 'e = C + 6.D D = (S 'e − S '103 ) / 3 = −105,6
S '105 = 1029,6 + (− 105,6) log 105 = 501,6 MPa
a=
(S ' ) 2
( )
103
b
S '103 = a 103 S 'e
S f = aN b ⇒ ⇒
S 'e = a (10 )
6 b 1 S' 3
b = − log 10
3 S 'e
a=
(712,8)
2
= 1283,04
396 ( )
S105 = a 105
b
= 481,71MPa
41
1 712,8
b = − log = −0,085
3 396
EXAMPLE
log 712,8 − log S f log 712,8 − log 396
=
log 0,9xSúlt
log 105 − log 103 log 106 − log 103
S f = 481,71MPa
log Sf
log S’e
log103 log105 log106
42
EXAMPLE S-N curve using a linear-logarithmic fitting: σa = C + D·logN
• C = 2 x 712,8 – 396 = 1029,6

• D = (396 – 712,8)/3 = - 105,6
σN’ = 1029,6 - 105,6.log N MPa
• The fatigue strength at 105 cycles is:

σ105 = 1029,6 – 105,6x5 = 501,6 MPa
43
EXAMPLE S-N curve using a logarithmic-logarithmic fitting: σa = A.NB
• A = (712,8)2/396 = 1283,04
• B = log(396/712,8)/3 = -0,0851
σN = 1283,04 x N-0,0851
• The fatigue strength at 105 cycles is:
σ105 = 1283,04 x (105)-0,0851 = 481,71 MPa
44
EXAMPLE logS
712,8 MPa
σ105
396 MPa
105 106 logN
45
3.5. S-N CURVES – FACTORS THAT CHANGE THE FATIGUE-LIMIT

The values obtained from the S-N curves, are taken from laboratory, using test
bars. Real components do not fulfil these characteristics, thus, the fatigue-limit
is not that taken from tests.
Some aspects have to be taken into account to approximate the real behavior.
These aspects depend on the component and will diminish the fatigue
SN
strength.
S’103
S103
S’e Test bar
Se Component
46
N(cycles)

• To do the correction of the component with 106 cycles:
Se = ka.kb.kc.kd.ke.S’e/kf
• To do the correction of the component with 103 cycles:
S103 = ka.kb.kc.kd.ke.S’103
» Ka = factor dependent on the surface finish

» Kb = factor dependent on the size
» Kc = factor dependent on the load type
» Kd = factor dependent on the temperature
» Ke = some other factors
» Kf = factor dependent on the non continuity
47
Ka ⇒ factor dependent on the surface finish

Ka = a.Sbult
SURFACE FINISHING a factor b exponent

Kpsi Mpa
Grinding 1,34 1.58 -0.085
Machining or cold-rolling 2,70 4.51 -0.265
Hot-rolling 14,4 57.70 -0.718
Forging 39,9 272.00 -0.995
For N = 103 cycle  ka = 1

48
Working stresses
Fatigue limit, kg/mm2
grinding
machining
hot-rolling
raw state of forge
49
Tensile strength, kg/mm2
Ka ⇒ factor dependent on the surface finish
50
Kb ⇒ factor dependent on the size

Axial load  there is no influence of the size
Bending and torsion
When rectangular cross-section, the equivalent diameter is:
For N = 103 cycle  kb = 1

51
Kc ⇒ factor dependent on the load type
0,923 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 ≤ 1520 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
1,000 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 > 1520 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
1,000 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
0,577 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
52
Kc ⇒ factor dependent on the load type
bending torsion
bending axial others
and torsion or shearing
In the case of pieces whose diameter are lower than 10 cm, the values are
reduced 0,1 until 15 cm 0,2 and for pieces whose size and shape are different, a
reduction factor will have to be considered and a safety factor, which will take
into account the uncertainty, will also be considered.
53
Kd ⇒ factor dependent on the temperature
TºC kd TºC kd
20 1.000 300 0.975
50 1.010 350 0.927
100 1.020 400 0.922
150 1.025 450 0.840
200 1.020 500 0.766
250 1.000 550 0.670
600 0.546
54
Ke ⇒ some other factors
Reliability Corrector factor
0.5 1.000
0.9 0.897
0.95 0.868
0.99 0.814
0.999 0.753
55
Ke ⇒ some other factors

Ke = 1 – 0,08 . z
RELIABILITY VARIABLE Z
56
Kt ⇒ factor dependent on the stress concentration

It is the relation between maximum local stress located at the
notch and nominal stress which is applied to the component
in general.
Kt = σ/σnom
The value is dependent on the non continuity (i.e. notch)

geometry and type. It is independent of the type of material.
57
TABLES
3.5. S-N CURVES – FACTORS

THAT CHANGE THE FATIGUE-
LIMIT

LIMIT

LIMIT

LIMIT




Kf ⇒ factor dependent on the non continuity
k f = 1 + q (kt − 1)
1
q=
a
1+
r
r: radius of the non continuity (i.e. notch)
a: constant dependent of the material in mm
a = 0,510 mm (aluminum alloys)
a = 0,250 mm (normalized steels of low carbon quantity)
a = 0,064 mm (hardened steel)
 2070 MPa 
a = 0,025  mm (Súlt ≥ 550 MPa )
 S últ  66

1
q
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 kf
The figure represents notching sensibility curves for steel with different
BHN (BHN=3xσult(kg/mm2)). In the case of foundry it is advisable to use q =
0,2. 67
kf always lower than kt; if higher kf = kt
SHEARING
BENDING
68
3.6- EXERCISE 1
A mechanical component with rectangular section is subjected to a bending

alternate moment. Determine the coefficients which modify the fatigue-limit
by knowing the following data.
Data: a = 0,01 m
b = 0,05 m
a
Su= 1100 MPa (steel)
machined surface finish

b
temperature 325ºC
reliability 99%
69
3.6- EXERCISE 2
Let’s have a steel with the following characteristics.

σult = 6650 kg/cm2 and σyp = 5180 kg/cm2
Calculate:
1- fatigue-limit for a rotating test bar S’e.
2- fatigue-limit for a test bar under a centered axial variable load.
3- fatigue strength for 104 cycle.
4- duration with a variable stress of 3850 kg/cm2
70
3.6- EXERCISE 2
With this material it is desired to manufacture a component by forge + grinding.

It is wanted to reach a reliability of 99,99 % at a temperature of 25ºC.
thickness 2 cm 1 cm
F(t) F(t)
10 cm 5 cm
71
3.6- EXERCISE 2
Calculate:
5- Draw log S – log N graphic of the component
6- Consider the factor of stress concentration
Determine the fatigue strength for 105 cycles in the following cases.
7- Not considering the factor of stress concentration
8- Considering the factor of stress concentration
9- Kf’ of this duration
10- Calculate the foreseen life duration with an alternate nominal stress of
4000 kg/cm2
72
FATIGUE – INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS
4- INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS

4.1. Cyclic load
4.2. Influence of the mean stress
4.3. Theories
4.4. Equivalent alternating stress
4.5. Equivalent static stress
4.6. Fatigue life calculation
73
4.1. CYCLIC LOAD

MEAN STRESS AND ALTERNATING STRESS
S máx + S mín
• Mean stress Sm =
2
∆S
• Alternating stress Sa =
2
• Stress range ∆S = S máx − S mín
S mín
• Stress ratio R=
S máx
74
4.1. CYCLIC LOAD

MEAN STRESS AND ALTERNATING STRESS
S
Sa
Smáx
Sm
Smín
time
S máx = S m + S a S mín = S m − S a 75
4.2. INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS
Mean stress has a great influence in the duration of systems under

fatigue.
- Tensile mean stresses diminish the fatigue strength.
- Compression mean stresses cause the opposite effect, they avoid
the crack propagation.
76
Sa being the stress amplitude, in case of alternate stress the value of

the stress which is acceptable is:
Se
S ad = S a =
CS
CS being the safety coefficient and supposing infinite life, or supposing
N cycles duration corresponding to fatigue strength SN.
SN
S adN = S aN =
CS
The safety coefficient in terms of duration can be considered as:

N
CS ' =
nad
77

If the mean component of the stress (Sm ≠ 0)  it contributes to
the failure of the component.
In order to represent the variable state of the stress, the mean component Sm
and the variable component Sa will be considered.
It is not possible to apply the superposition of the effect of the fatigue stress with
the effect of the static stress state.
Therefore, these components can not be separated in order to study in detail

each component independently.
In consequence, it is required to perform tests in a systematic way with different

values of Sm and Sa.
To calculate fatigue strength there are several theories or methods. 78

4.3. THEORIES: GOODMAN
SN Sa Su − S m S a
= ⇒ =
Su Su − S m Su SN
Sa
Sa Sm 1 The Goodman relation
+ = ⇔ Goodman − en ⋅ kurba
can be represented
S N Su CS mathematically
SN
Sa
Sm Sul Sm
79
4.3. THEORIES: GOODMAN MODIFIED
It takes into account the failure due to yield stress.

It considers the same yield limit at traction and compression.
Sa
Syt Goodman modified
SN
Syc Syt Sul Sm
80
4.3. THEORIES: SODERBERG

More conservative than the modified
SN Sa S y − Sm Sa
Goodman curve. = ⇒ =
S y S y − Sm Sy SN
Sa Sm
+ =1 ⇔ Soderberg
Soderberg− encurve
⋅ kurba
SN S y
Goodman modified
81
4.3. THEORIES: DIFFERENT THEORIES GRAPHICALLY
yield curve
ASME-elliptical curve
Generic load curve,
slope r=Sa/Sm
Gerber curve
Goodman curve
Soderberg curve
82
FATIGUE FAILURE
4.3. THEORIES: DIFFERENT FORMULAE
• Soderberg: Sa Sm
+ =
1
S e S y c.s.
• Goodman: Sa Sm
+ =
1
S e S ut c.s.
• Gerber: c.s. × S a  c.s. × S m

+ 

2
 = 1
Se  S ut 
• ASME-elliptical:  c.s. × S 
2 2
 c.s. × S m 
 a
 +  =1
 S 
 Se   y 
83
4.3. EXERCISE
The component of the figure is made of steel, ultimate strength is

Sult = 6.650 kg/cm2 and yield strength is Sy = 5.180 kg/cm2. Fatigue
strength is 1.950 kg/cm2.
It is subjected to a tensile load variable along time, between a
maximum value of 5000 kg and a minimum value of 2000 kg.
Calculate the safety coefficient applying Soderberg and Goodman.
Stress concentration factor Kt = 1,85.
thickness 2 cm 1 cm
F(t) F(t)
10 cm 5 cm
84
4.4. EQUIVALENT ALTERNATING STRESS

It is the alternating stress which is equivalent to a given stress combination.
Goodman curve
Soderberg curve
It is used in problems where the number of cycles until failure wants to be found
out.
85
4.4. EXERCISE
Calculate the number of cycles necessary to make the component
fail subjected to the following stresses:
Sm = 300 MPa
Sa = 200 MPa
This component is manufactured with ductile steel.
Su = 980 MPa
The equation that describes the behavior under fatigue of the
component is the following:
Sn = 1520 – 213 logN
86
4.5. EQUIVALENT STATIC STRESS

It is the equivalent static stress for a given stress combination.
Soderberg curve
Goodman curve
It is used in problems where the component life (cycle number) is known and it
is asked to find out the safety coefficient or its geometrical dimensions.
87
4.5. EXERCISE
Calculate making use of the equivalent static stress, the safety factor of
a component manufactured with ductile steel.
Su = 1960 MPa and in its more critic point there is a non continuity,
being Kt = 2.
That point is subjected to the following stress-state:
Sm = 200 MPa
Sa = 150 MPa
The fatigue strength in that point is: Se = 310 MPa.
88
4.6. FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATION
LOADS
FATIGUE
S-N CURVES LIFE
CALCULATION
GEOMETRY, Kt
OPTIMIZATION
89
4.7. EXERCISE 1
The piece of the figure is made of steel and after a thermal treatment it has a ductile
behaviour at a temperature of 20ºC and with static loads (ultimate strength 15,200 Kg/cm2
and a yield stress 8.900 Kg/cm2). The piece is made with the same thickness “e” after a
forging process and a milling and drilling, finishing with a fine grinding. The required safety
coefficient is 1,25. At its extremes is subject to a uniform load, which consists of a mean
component of 9.200 Kg and a component which varies harmonically with an amplitude of
7.000 Kg (the frequency variation is considered enough low in order to ignore the dynamic
effects).
Calculate the thickness “e” in case of infinite life and 650.000 cycles.
diameter = 7 cm
r = 2 cm
20 cm 14 cm
r = 2 cm
20 cm
50 cm
70 cm
90
4.7. EXERCISE 2
The piece of the figure is subject to a load which varies harmonically and whose minimum
value is 2.300 Kg and whose maximum value is 5.500 Kg. It is required that the piece
works as a “fuse” in a machine and that its failure takes place at 500.000 cycles. This
piece is made of steel (ultimate strength 15.200 Kg/cm2; yield strength 11.200 Kg/cm2)
and is manufactured by forging and fine grinding. It will work at 80ºC.
Determine the thickness that is necessary in order to fulfil all the requirements.
40 cm
20 cm
= 3cm
4 cm
2 cm
91
4.7. EXERCISE 3
A spring with flat sheets is used to block a trailing roller in contact with a flat levy. The movement
amplitude of the roller is constant and in consequence the alternating component of the bending
moment. Nevertheless the preload in the spring can be adjusted to different speeds of the levy. When
the levy is moved with a high speed, the preload must be increased in order to avoid that the roller
rebounds or remains hanged. In case of low speeds, the preload must be decreased in order to obtain a
bigger length in the contact surface of the levy and the roller.
The spring is a cantilever element made of steel whose dimensions are: length 81 cm, width 5 cm and
thickness 0,625 cm. The ultimate strength is 11.500 Kg/cm2, the yield strength is 9.750 Kg/cm2 and the
fatigue limit 2.150 Kg/cm2 (with the correction factor applied). The total movement of the levy is 5cm
and it is desired to preload the spring stablishing a deflection of 5cm for low speeds and until 12,5cm for
high speeds.
Determine the safety factors for each above conditions.

81 cm
0,625cm 5 cm
92
4.7. EXERCISE 4
If the load which is applied over the steel piece whose section is circular and which varies along time
from Fmax= 4000 N to Fmin= -1000 N, calculate the fatigue safety factor in point “a” where the dimension
of the diameter changes taking into account infinite life and with a reliability of 99%.
DATA: Grinding finishing.
Peterson´s constant for this steel: a=0,1 mm
Sy = 260 MPa
Su = 480 MPa
L1 = 1,5 cm. L2 = 8 cm
r = 1 mm. D = 24 mm. d = 20 mm.
Size factor in the section where the diameter changes under bending load: kbf = 0,9
under axial load: kba = 1
REMARK: If mean stress is considered in order to solve the problem, apply Goodman´s criterion.
y
r
F
D d
x
point a L2
L1 93
4.7. EXERCISE 5
According to the figure, the load which is applied over the piece which supports a machine is known.
Determine the fatigue length (hours). The piece is made of steel (ultimate strength 9.000 Kg/cm2,
yield strength 8.000 Kg/cm2 and is manufactured by forging and machining. Safety coefficient 1,2.
100cm
0,5cm
F F
4cm 2 cm
100cm
6Tn
-2Tn 94
2seg
4.7. EXERCISE 6
The piece of the figure is made of steel. After a thermal treatment it has a ductile behaviour at a
temperature of 20ºC considering static load. The ultimate strength is 15.200 Kg/cm2 and the yield
strength 8.900 Kg/cm2. The thickness is constant. The piece is manufactured by a stamping process
and afterwards a milling and drilling process. The required safety coefficient is 1,25. The piece is
subject at its extremes to a bending load, which is composed of a mean component of 9.200 Kg/cm2
and a one which varies harmonically whose amplitude is 7.000 Kg·cm. The frequency of its variation is
considered low enough in order to ignore the dynamic effects.
Determine the thickness “e” for infinite length and 650,000 cycles.
diameter = 7 cm
r = 2 cm
20 cm 14 cm
r = 2 cm
20 cm
50 cm
70 cm 95
4.7. EXERCISE 7
The piece of the figure is subject to a load whose value varies between 8.000 N
and 0 N. The material is a ductile steel and it has been machined.
Determine the fatigue failure safety coefficient with a reliability of 90%.
Data: Sult= 650 MPa.; L1= 3 cm.; L2 = 11cm.; H = 6 cm.; h = 4 cm.;

e = 1 cm.; r = 2 mm.
r
H h
F
L1 L2 96
4.7. EXERCISE 8
The piece of the figure is made of a ductile steel and was machined. Before operation is subject to a
preload of 5.000N (traction) at its extremes and in operation it is subject to a moment which varies from
0 to 10.000N·cm (in addition to the preload). Its dimensions are: W = 11 cm., d = 10 cm., r = 1,25 mm
and thickness 1 cm.
Determine:
a)Safety coefficient by Sodeberg and Goodman.
b)Fatigue resistance after 15.000 cycles.
DATA:
Ultimate strength: 650 MPa Yield strength: 490 MPa Surface finish factor, ka = 0,81
Size factor, kb. for axial load: 1 Loading factor, kc. for axial load: 0,923
for bending: 0,918 for bending: 1
Stress concentration factor, kf. for axial load: 2,67
for bending: 2,2
M 1 cm M
W
d
5.000 N 5.000 N
97
4.7. EXERCISE 9
Considering a steel whose ultimate strength is 16.500 Kg/cm2 and whose yield strength is
12.400 Kg/cm2, design a piece with the loads and the shape of the figure. The piece will be
manufactured cutting plate and afterwards with a fine grinding process. The performance temperature
will be between 10 and 45ºC with a safety coefficient of 1,25. Determine the minimum thickness “e”
taking into account a length of 2.800 hours. The reliability is 99,999%.
15 cm
Diameter = 3 cm
r = 1 cm
F 6 cm
4 cm
F
r = 1 cm
40 cm F(kg)
70 cm
1.000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 t(s)
-500 98
4.7. EXERCISE 10
The cylindrical piece of the figure is subject to a synchronous action of two loads which are represented
in the graphic. The frequency of the loads is 1 Hz. The piece is manufactured by forging, machining and
drilling. The steel is brittle (ultimate strength 9.300 Kg/cm2). The safety coefficient which is desired is 1,8
at an ambient temperature. The diameter D is 9 cm and d is 6 cm, being the radius 1,5 cm.
Determine the value of the force F which can be supported under these conditions.
75 cm 50 cm
F.senωt
D d
F.senωt
r 99
4.7. EXERCISE 11
The piece of the figure is subject to a load which varies from Fmax = 20 kN to Fmin = 5 kN.
Determine the fatigue failure safety coefficient for infinite life according to the following data:
Piece: H = 6 cm; h = 4 cm; thickness = 1 cm; L1 = 3 cm; L2 = 15 cm; r = 2 mm
Stress concentration factor in the point where the height changes: Axial Kt(axial) = 2,6
Bending Kt(bending) = 2,2
Material: ductile steel with ultimate strength of 620 MPa
Correction factor for fatigue: Surface factor: ka = 0,9
Size factor for bending: kbf = 0,8c
Size factor for axial load: kba = 1
Temperature factor: kd = 1
y Reliability factor: ke = 0,81 α=84,9º
r
H h
x
100
L1 L2
4.7. EXERCISE 11
The most unfavourable section will be the one where the height change takes place because:
• It does not exist an important difference between the bending moment caused by the vertical of the load in the section
where the height changes and the section fixed.
• In the section where the height change, there is less area
• In this section, there is a stress concentrator, while according to the enunciate in the fixed point kt = 1
The projections of the forces are:

Fx(t) = F(t).sen(a)
Fy(t) = F(t).cos(a)
Which leads to:
moment: M(t) = Fy(t).L2
axial load: Ax(t) = Fx(t)
101
4.7. EXERCISE 12
The element of the figure with circular cross-section has a notch (entalla) of radius 1,5 cm. It is
subjected to the action of some variable loads (F1 and F2 as shown in the graphics). It is made of a
material with ultimate strength of 15.200 kg/cm2 and a yield strength of 11.950 kg/cm2, by means of a
process of forging and subsequent grinding.
The safety factor is desired to be 1,5 and the reliability of 99,999%.
Find the diameter (d) in the notch for indefinite life.
1500kg
0,6 m 0,4 m 0,4 m
F1 F2 700kg
9 cm t
0,735 m 1400kg
800kg
102
t
FATIGUE – ACCUMULATIVE DAMAGE
5. ACCUMULATIVE DAMAGE
5.1. Analysis of the accumulative damage
5.2. Theory of Palmgren – Miner

5.3. Theory of Manson
5.4. Example
5.5. Rainflow method
5.6. Rainflow method to apply Palmgren – Miner
5.7. Exercises 103
5.1. ANALYSIS OF THE ACCUMULATIVE DAMAGE
• So far we have considered that the amplitude of the alternating stress remains
constant along all the life of the mechanical part, as well as the mean stress.
• In the majority of cases, the components of machines and structural systems,

are subjected to variable tensional states with cycles whose amplitude varies
and sometimes, this variation is random.
cycles
3 cycles 4 cycles
104

S
n1 n2 n3
Represented in the figure, several series of stress, repeated a number of

cycles ni, with different values of the mean stress and variable stress.
105
We create a table:
Equivalent fatigue
alternating stress or Number of applied Number of cycles up to The “DAMAGE” that the
fatigue strength for the cycles failure at stress-state Si series do
given stress-state
S1 n1 N1 w1
S2 n2 N2 w2
“ “ “ “
“ “ “ “
Si ni Ni wi
106
5.2. THEORY OF PALMGREN – MINER
• To know the fatigue-life for these variable stress-states, models that

consider and analyze the accumulative damage are used.
• The damage index is calculated by these models, and if that index

reaches a certain critical value, the structural system will collapse
due to fatigue.
Most used model  PALMGREN - MINER
107
“Damage W” is the damage that the component can stand before

failing because of fatigue.
This value is independent of the stress Sf, but is proportional to the
cycle number.
With a stress level Sfi for a component that collapses working at Ni
cycles, the damage will be “W”.
Damage for ni < Ni cycles will be “wi”.
wi ni ni
= ⇒ wi = W
W Ni Ni
108

Palmgren – Miner supposes that the failure does not happen if the
addition of all the “damages” of every stress level is lower than or
equal to W:
𝑤𝑤1 + 𝑤𝑤2 + 𝑤𝑤3 + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑊𝑊 ⇒ will not collapse
n1 n n
W + 2 W + ................ + i W ≤ W
N1 N2 Ni
n1 n n
+ 2 + ............................ + i ≤ 1
N1 N 2 Ni
109
5.2. THEORY OF PALMGREN – MINER: EXAMPLE

The S-N curve for a certain material is known and represented on the figure.
N1 = 500000 cycle and N2 = 800000 cycle.
A test has been carried out with two stress levels, n1 = 250000 cycle and
n2 = 300000 cycle.
Calculate Miner’s index and state whether the component will collapse.
𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2
+ ≤1
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2
250000 300000
+ = 0,875 ≤ 1
500000 800000
The component will be safe,

as it will not collapse. 110
5.3. THEORY OF MANSON

It takes into account the order of the loads application.
For S1, the component stands for N1 cycles before collapse.
But we really apply n1<N1 cycles. So we cause damage.
Then, the component can still resist N1-n1 cycles.
So, the new S-N curve will pass through point log (N1-n1).
N12 And we draw the new curve (red).
log 0,9Súlt
N12-n2
Now for S2, the component will not resist N2, but N12.
We really apply n2<N12 cycles. So we cause damage.
log S2 N1-n1 Then, the component can still resist N12-n2 cycles.
So, the new S-N curve will pass through point log (N12-n2).
And we draw the new curve (blue).
log S1
Se0
Se1
Se2
log (N12-n2) log N2 log N1

log (N1-n1) 111
log N12
5.4. EXAMPLE
Thickness 2 cm 1 cm
𝑷𝑷 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
P (kg) ni cycles 𝑺𝑺 = Ni cicles
F(t) F(t) 𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
10 cm 5 cm
4.800 6x103 480 ∞
12.400 5x104 1.240 442.586
S (kg/cm2)
21.300 1x104 2.130 29.532
4190
32.100 1x103 3.210 3.793
given data
1053,6
112
N (cycles)
5.4. EXAMPLE
S (kg/cm2)
log 4190
log 3210
log 2130
 Se 
log 1240  k  = 1053,6
 f 1
log 480
log N4 log N3 log N2 N (cycles)
log 4190 − log 1053,6 log 4190 − log 1240 log 4190 − log 2130 log 4190 − log 3210
= = =
log 10 6 − log 10 3 log N 2 − log 10 3 log N 3 − log 10 3 log N 4 − log 10 3
𝑁𝑁1 = ∞ 𝑁𝑁2 = 442.586 𝑁𝑁3 = 29.532 𝑁𝑁4 = 3.793

113
5.4. EXAMPLE: BY PALMGREN-MINER. INCREASING STRESS

SERIES
Ni ciclos
P (kg) ni cycles
n
3.210n2 n3.793 n4
4.800 6x103 1
+ + 3
+ ≤1
N1 N 2 N 3 N 4
2.130 29.532
12.400 5x104
50000 10000 1000
1.240 + 442.586+ = 0,7152
21.300 1x104 442586 29532 3793
It is safe
480
32.100 1x103
114
5.4. EXAMPLE: BY MANSON. INCREASING STRESS SERIES

S (kg/cm2)
S1 makes no damage because it shows infinite life.
log 4190 S2=1240kg/cm2 resists N2=442.586 cycles. But we only apply n2=5x104
cycles. The component can still resist N2-n2=442.586-50.000=392.586
cycles. The new curve goes through this point (blue). We calculate the new
fatigue limit 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 = 1024,8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2.
2
log 2130
log 1240 S 
 e k  =1053,6
 f 
 Se 
 k 
 f 2
logN23 log 392586 log N2 N (cycles)

𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
log 4190 − log �𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓 2 log 4190 − log 1240 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
= �𝑘𝑘 = 1024,8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
log 106 − log 103 log 392586 − log 103 𝑓𝑓 2
We calculate with the new curve S-N, the life N23 for the stress 2130 kg/cm2.
log 4190 − log 1024,8 log 4190 − log 2130
= 𝑁𝑁23 = 27629 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 115
log 106 − log 103 log 𝑁𝑁23 − log 103
5.4. EXAMPLE: BY MANSON. INCREASING STRESS SERIES

S3=2130kg/cm2 resists now N23=27.629 cycles, not N3=29.532. But we
only apply n3=1x104 cycles. The component can still resist N23-n3=
27.629-10.000=17.629 cycles. The new curve goes through this point
S (kg/cm2) (purple). We calculate the new fatigue limit 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 .
3
log 4190
S4=3210kg/cm2 resists now N34=3096 cycles, not N4=3793. But we only
apply n4=1x103=1000 cycles. Then, we can affirm that the mechanical
log3210 part is safe.
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
log 2130 log 4190 − log �𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓 3 log 4190 − log 2130
 Se  =
  log 106 − log 103 log 17629 − log 103
 k f 2
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
 Se 
 k 
�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 = 822 kg/cm2
3
 f 3
log N34 log 17629 log N23 N (cycles)
log 4190 − log 822 log 4190 − log 3210

= 𝑁𝑁34 = 3096 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
log 106 − log 103 log 𝑁𝑁34 − log 103
116
5.4. EXAMPLE: BY MANSON. DECREASING STRESS SERIES
𝑷𝑷 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
P (kg) ni cycles 𝑺𝑺 = Ni cicles
𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
32.100 1x103 3.210 3.793
21.300 1x104 2.130 29.532
12.400 5x104 1.240 442.586
4.800 6x103 480 ∞
given data
117

For S1=3210kg/cm2, it takes N1=3.793 cycles to collapse. In the first round we spend n1=1.000 cycles,
so the component can still resist N1-n1=2793 cycles. Then we will have to obtain the new fatigue limit
stress 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 for the new S-N curve (blue) passing through 2.793 cycles.
2
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
S (kg/cm2) 𝑓𝑓 2 log 4190 − log 3210 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
= �𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 = 698 kg/cm2
log 4190 log 106 − log 103 log 2793 − log 103 2
log 3210 We calculate its life N12 for S2=2130 kg/cm2:
log 2130 log 4190 − log 698 log 4190 − log 2130
=
log 106 − log 103 log 𝑁𝑁12 − log 103
S 
 ek  =1053,6
 f 
𝑁𝑁12 = 13568 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
 Se 
 k 
 f 2
log N1 log N12 N (cycles)

log 2793
118

Now for S2=2130kg/cm2 it resists N12=13.568 cycles, not N2=29.532. But we only apply n2=1x104
cycles. The component can still resist N12-n2=13568-10.000=3568 cycles. The new curve goes
through this point (purple). We calculate the new fatigue limit 𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 .
3
S (kg/cm2)
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
𝑓𝑓 3 log 4190 − log 2130
log 4190 =
log 106 − log 103 log 3568 − log 103
𝑆𝑆𝑒𝑒
�𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓 = 106,3 kg/cm2
3
log 2130
 Se  We calculate its life N23 for S3=1240 kg/cm2:

 k 
log 1240  f 2
log 4190 − log 106,3 log 4190 − log 1240

 Se  =
 k  log 106 − log 103 log 𝑁𝑁23 − log 103
 f 3
log N12-n2 log N2 log N23

N (cycles) 𝑁𝑁23 = 9866 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
S3=1240kg/cm2 resists now N23=9866 cycles, not N3=442.586. But we need to apply n3=5x104=50000
cycles. Then, according to Manson the mechanical part is not safe. 119
5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD

• S-N trials are done under sinusoidal loads whose amplitude
is constant.
• But real loads are usually random.
• So, in certain stress-states it is impossible to calculate the
cycles for each amplitude directly.
• How can we extract the cycles which compose the signal in
a way that we can use the same S-N curves?
• The different cycle numbers are known by means of algorithms.
• There are different models  RAINFLOW METHOD
Counting of cycles for

irregular temporal series
120
5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD: OBJECTIVES

S (Mpa)
• Identify the existence of cycles
• Count the cycles
• Characterize the cycles:

time
- Mean stress
- Alternating stress
• Range: difference between peaks and valleys or between valleys and peaks.
• Criterion of the existence of a cycle: one cycle exists if the second range is
higher or equal to the first one.
121
5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD: GENERAL RULES

• Reorder the sequence, so that it stars with the peak whose stress absolute
value is the highest one.
• Take a phase of three consecutive values peak-valley-peak.
• In this phase, if the second range is higher or equal to the first one, a cycle has
been located. This cycle is characterised and is counted.
• On the other hand, if the second range is lower than the first one, there is no
cycle.
• Once one cycle is located and is characterised, this must be removed.
• A new phase with three values of peak-valley-peak is taken again from the
beginning.
• Finally, the cycle of the sequence whose amplitude is the highest one appears.
• The cycle counting process is finished when valleys and peaks are all
122
removed.
5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD: EXAMPLE 1
S (MPa)
D
H
F
300
200
B
100
time
-100
E
-200
A I
-300
C
G
123
S (MPa)
D
H
F
300
200
B B
100
time
-100
E
-200
A I=A
-300 C C
G
124
S (MPa)
D
D
H
F
300
200
B
100
time
-100
E
-200
A
-300
C
G
125
Cycle: F-E-F’
Number of times: 1
S (MPa)
Sm 100 MPa
Sa 200 MPa
D
D
H
F’ F
300
200
B
100
-100 time
E
-200
A
-300
C
G
126
S (MPa)
D
D
H
300
200
B
100
time
-100
-200
A
-300
C
G
127
Cycle: B-A-B’
S (MPa) Number of times: 1
Sm -50 MPa
Sa 150 MPa
D
D
H
F
300
200
B’ B
100
time
-100
E
-200
A
-300
C
G
128
S (MPa)
D
D
H
F
300
200
100
time
-100
E
-200
-300
C
G
129
Cycle: H-C-H’
Sm 50 MPa
Sa 350 MPa
D D
H H’
300
200
100
time
-100
-200
-300
C
G
130
Cycle: D-G-D
Sm 50 MPa
Sa 450 MPa
D D
300
200
100
time
-100
-200
-300
131
Cycle Number of times Mean stress Alternating stress

Sm (MPa) Sa (MPa)
E-F-E’ 1 100 200
A-B-A’ 1 -50 150
H-C-H’ 1 50 350
D-G-D 1 50 450
132
5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD: SUMMARY
133
500
400
300
200
100
134
500
400 Sa: 50
Sm: 300
300
200
100
135
500
400 Sa: 25
Sm: 150
300
200
100
136
500
Sa: 50
400 Sm: 300
300
200
100
137
500
Sa: 225
400 Sm: 225
300
200
100
138
Alternating value Mean value Number of times

Sa Sm
225 225 1
25 150 1
50 300 2
139
5.6. RAINFLOW METHOD: TO APPLY PALMGREN-MINER

In components where there are applied series of different ranges, the breaking
due to fatigue will happen when the sum of the fractions of cycle amount (ni//Ni)
reaches the unit.
With the Rainflow method one calculates the cycle amount for each stress level;
with that cycle amount Palmgren – Miner can be applied.
140
5.7. EXERCISE 1
Characterise the cycles of the following sequence of stress which varies over
time applying Rainflow method.
S (MPa)
500 C E G
400
300
200 A
100 F A
-100 time
-200
-300
-400
-500
B D
141
5.7. EXERCISE 2
time applying Rainflow method.
MPa
400
300
200
100
50
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0
142
5.7. EXERCISE 3
The plate of the figure is subjected to axial forces as it can be shown in the graphic. The
sequence is repeated over time.
The plate geometry is characterised by the following data :
H (height) = 10 cm
E (thickness) = 3,2 mm F H F
F Newton
20000
17500
15000
12500
10000
7500
5000
2500
Time (s)
Determine the stress cycles of the plate and count the cycles. Determine the mean and
alternating stress (Rainflow). 143
5.7. EXERCISE 4
time applying Rain-flow method.
500 E G
400
300
200
100 F
A
-100 H time
-200 C
-300
-400
-500
B D
144
5.7. EXERCISE 5
The plate of the figure is subjected to axial forces as it can be seen in the graphic. The sequence is repeated over time.
The geometry is determined by the following information: r
H = 10 cm
h = 5 cm
e (thickness) = 3,2 mm
r = 2,5 mm F (Newton) H h
F F
30000
20000
10000
time
Determine the stress cycle for the section in which there is a change of the height of the plate and count the cycles
showing the mean and alternating stress.
Supposing that the material of the component is a brittle steel Sult = 792 MPa which is machined, and considering that
the cycles that have been calculated are applied over it, determine the number of cycle repetitions which the component
can resist with a reliability of 90%.
Take into account that the most unfavourable section is the one in which the height modifies its value. kf = 2,95
145
is the concentration factor in this area regarding fatigue failure.
5.7. EXERCISE 6
The piece of the figure is subjected to bending moment as it can be seen in the graphic. The sequence is repeated over
time.
M r M
Geometry is determined with the following information:
H = 10 cm.
h = 5 cm M (Nw.m )
r = 2,5 mm
500 C E G HH hh
400
300
200 A
100 F A
-100 time
-200
-300
-400
-500
B D
Determine the stress cycle for the section in which there is a change of the height of the diameter and count the cycles
showing the mean and alternating stress.
Supposing that the material of the component is a brittle steel Sult = 792 MPa which is machined, and considering that
the cycles that have been calculated are applied over it, determine the number of cycle repetitions which the component
can resist with a reliability of 90%.
Take into account that the most unfavourable section is the one in which the diameter modifies its dimension. 146
kf = 2,95 is the concentration factor in this area regarding fatigue failure.
5.7. EXERCISE 7
The component whose section is circular is subjected to axial forces which lead to stress sequence
which is repeated over time. r
F(kN)
d2 d1
100
40
time
The material is a brittle steel with an ultimate stress 1400MPa.

The geometrical data:
d1 = 20 mm and d2 = 25 mm
r = 1 mm
Surface correction factor = 0,8
Miscellaneous correction factor = 0,65
Stress concentration factor = 2,09
Determine the number of repetitions which the component will support. 147
5.7. EXERCISE 8
The plate of the figure is subjected to a bending moment with irregular cycles, which are repeated. In the graphic
one of this cycles is represented in terms of stress which appears in each section whose height is h. The piece is
made of ductile steel. Determine the number of repetitions of the sequence which the piece can resist before the
failure takes place due to fatigue considering a reliability of 95 %.
Data: Sult = 1.000 MPa Syp = 800 Mpa thickness e = 4 mm.
H = 10 cm h = 5 cm. r = 1 cm.
ka = 0,72 kb = 0,95
S(MPa)
400 M
300
H h
200
100
time
-100
-200
148
5.7. EXERCISE 9
P
The figure shows a component with two
plates which are independent and whose
2mm
sections are rectangular 50x4. 4mm
P 150 mm
50 mm
1000
The load which is applied is a repetition
500 of the sequence of the figure (values in
t
Newtons).
- 500
-1000
It is known that both plates deflect the same when the load is applied. Determine the number of repetitions until failure.
DATA.
Material: Steel
Su = 1000 MPa
Sy = 800 MPa
Se’ = 500 MPa
Fatigue correction factors : Surface finish Ka = 0,405
Temperature 20 ºC
Reliability 99 % Ke = 0,814
When plates are fixed to the wall Kf (stress concentration) = 1,1 (bending)
Because they are elements with rectangular section, to know the influence of the size the following equations will be
used: −0 ,1133 149
 d eq 
K b =   ⇔ d eq = 0,808 anchura.altura
 7,62mm 
5.7. EXERCISE 10
It is known that the component that is shown in the following figure is subjected to a bending moment,
which varies over time. It is known also the stress concentration factor re the notches. e
Determine the fatigue life of the component.
MPa
H h
480
420
360
300 r
240
180
120
60
time
Sequence of the nominal stress values in the section whose

dimension is h.
INFORMATION: Young modulus: E = 2,1x1011 N/m2 // Sult = 900 MPa // Syp = 600 MPa
H = 3 cm // h = 2 cm // r = 0,8 cm // e = 1 cm
Ka = 0,9 // kb = 0,85 // kc = 1 // kd = 1 // ke = 0,85 // kt = kf = 1,2
(surface) (size) (load) (temperature) (reliability) (concentration)
150
5.7. EXERCISE 11
The piece of the figure is used as a joint between the rope and
an elevator. The mass of the elevator is 1500 kg.
The elevator is used in a manufacturing process.

The sequence is always the same:
1.- Lifting a constant load of mass 6000 kg.
2.- Descent without load
4.- Descent without load.
Determine how many times this sequence can be repeated avoiding the fatigue failure in the central
zone of the piece.
151
5.7. EXERCISE 12
Determine the number of pieces which the crane hook can lift before the fatigue failure of the pin which
is machined happens with a reliability of 99%.
φ 20mm
F/2 F/2
φ 18mm
30mm 60mm 30mm
F
152
5.7. EXERCISE 12
The hook is used to lift two types of pieces with different mass value .The 10% of the pieces weigh
90,000 and the rest 70.000N. One piece is lifted each time.
Both the hook and the lateral pieces avoid that the pin can deflect. The only effect that must be take into
account is the shear force. It is supposed that the load are uniformly distributed.
In order to consider the effect of the acceleration and other actions the safety factor which is given is
1,5.
Material information:
Steel : Yield stress: 800 Mpa
Ultimate stress: 1000 MPa
Shear yield stress: 450 MPa
Fatigue endurance limit of the sample: 550Mpa
Diameter of the central section: 20 mm
Small diameter: 18 mm
Radius between the different section: 1 mm
Surface correction factor: 0,723
Size correction factor for shear and small diameter: 0,8
Type of load correction factor: 0,577
Concentration factor for shear in the area where the section dimensions modify their
values: Kf = 1,29
Miscellaneous factor: 0,814
153
5.7. EXERCISE 13
A mechanical element manufactured by a material with ultimate strength 90.000 psi, and fatigue limit
strength 40.000 psi, is subjected to a cyclical load with the following characteristics:
320.000 cycles at: Sm = 45.000 psi.

Sa = 13641 psi.
18.600 cycles at: Sm = 35.000 psi.

Sa = 20.787 psi.
How many cycles are left to reach to the following load-state?

Sm = 48.000 psi.
Sa = 15.000 psi.?
Stress concentration factor is kf = 1,5.
154

3 Fatigue

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3 Fatigue

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MACHINE

1. INTRODUCTION 4. INFLUENCE OF THE MEAN STRESS

3.3. INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES 5.4. EXAMPLE

3.4. PROBABILISTIC MODELS 5.5. RAINFLOW METHOD

1.1. Fundamental concepts

1.2. Breakage process

1.3. Dangerous situations

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

COLLAPSE OF THE MATERIAL

Most unfavorable point

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

FATIGUE  it is the most dangerous way of failure

Criterion to consider in design.

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

• Structures subjected to repeated cyclic loadings can undergo progressive

1.1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Tensile load state Tensile state variable in

High amount of load cycle

1.2. BREAKAGE PROCESS

1.2. BREAKAGE PROCESS

1.2. BREAKAGE PROCESS

1. stage: crack creation

2. stage: crack propagation

1.3. DANGEROUS SITUATIONS

• Fixed component which suffers variable loads.

• Rotating component which suffers loads constant over time.

• Rotating component which suffers variable loads.

2.1. Origin of the loads

2.2. Structures that suffer variable loads

2.3. Load types

2.4. Materials that have been broken by fatigue

2.1. ORIGIN OF THE LOADS

2.2. STRUCTURES THAT SUFFER VARIABLE LOADS

Vehicles and machines

2.2. STRUCTURES THAT SUFFER VARIABLE LOADS

Off shore structures

2.3. LOAD TYPES

2.3. LOAD TYPES

2.4. MATERIALS THAT HAVE BEEN BROKEN BY FATIGUE

3.1. S-N CURVES - ORIGIN

To make the model

3.1. S-N CURVES - ORIGIN

A sinusoidal load with constant

3.1. S-N CURVES - ORIGIN

3.1. S-N CURVES - ORIGIN

3.2. S-N CURVES - PARAMETERS

• maximum stress: σ max σ

• minimum stress: σ min

3.2. S-N CURVES - PARAMETERS

3.2. S-N CURVES - PARAMETERS

𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

The time to collapse has been 484000 sg.

3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

In ferric alloys and titanium,

In non ferric alloys, there is no

3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

The fatigue state of high cycles is revealed by S-N curves.

3.3. S-N CURVES – INTERPRETATION OF THE CURVES

High life (106 cycle)

Low life (103 cycle)