ECC584

INTEGRATED DESIGN PROJECT: PROFESSIONAL TALK

INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE ENGINEERING

19 May 2024
School of Civil Engineering, UiTM

Ir Dr LOW Hin Foo

PhD.Eng (Monash)
PEPC, MIEM, C.Eng MIStructE,
MIEAust, CPEng, MIES, ACPE,
APEC Eng, ASEAN Eng

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 1

 INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE ENGINEERING

• BRIDGE = A structure built to span physical

obstacles such as a river, valley, or roadway, for the
purpose of providing passage over these obstacles.
• A Bridge can be designed as a simple form of
structure consisted of structurally determinate beam
and slab system; eg simply supported precast beams
on bearings to allow it free to rotate and move.
• A Bridge can also be advanced to an extremely
complicated structure which involves multiple spans
with precast beams made integral with piers
(columns), box girder bridge built by balanced
cantilever construction, cable stay and suspension
bridge.

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 2

BASIC BRIDGE COMPONENTS

Crosshead Bearing

In general form, bridge structures are consisted of

the following basic components:-
• Bridge Deck (or Super-Structure) is formed by
precast beams, deck slabs and diaphragm beams.
• Substructure made up of Crosshead, and Bridge
Pier/ Column
• Bridge Foundation consisted of Pilecap and
Piles/ Footing
• Abutments and approach slabs

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 3

BASIC BRIDGE COMPONENTS

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 4

BRIDGE VS. BUILDING
As compared to building, BRIDGES require
more rigorous analysis and more stringent design.
• Bridges have much longer span (common
range 20m~50m) than building column grids
(typically 8.0~9.0m).
• Bridges are subjected to much higher load
from various types of vehicle compared to
building. Apart from Uniformly Distributed Load
(UDL), line loads with varying intensity,
moving loads with dynamic effect, and point
loads for localised effect shall be considered
in Bridge analysis.
• Bridges are exposed to open environment
and extreme weather; direct wind, driving
rain, and hydraulic forces. Bridges also
experience significant effect of temperature
variation (afternoon and night)
• Bridge structures are required to design for
higher performance in terms of durability and
crack width control.
UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 5
BRIDGE VS. BUILDING
• Bridge construction involves different stages
(eg. precast beams with cast in-situ deck slab;
cantilever construction) as compared to
building cast in-situ construction. Thus, bridge
designers need to consider all locked in
stresses from the construction stages during
bridge analysis and design.
• Most of the bridges in Malaysia are
constructed with prestressed concrete.
Prestressing force in Bridge structures are
high, and thus the restraint moment from
creep and shrinkage effect may become
inherent to such an extend that it cannot be
disregarded in any bridge analysis.
• Bridge substructure and Foundation are
designed to resist huge horizontal force due
to braking and vehicle collision.
• In Malaysia, Code of Practice for bridge design
is BS5400 (or EC) while building design to
BS8110
Elastic Creep & Shrinkage
Shortening, ∆1 Effect, ∆2

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 6

BRIDGE LOADING
BRIDGE LOADS

PERMANENT TRANSIENT
(VARIABLE)

DEAD SUPERIMPOSED MATERIAL DIFFERENTIAL LOAD DUE TO

LOAD DEAD LOAD Creep, SUPPORT BACK-FILL
Self-Weight Premix, Parapet, etc Shrinkage SETTLEMENT MATERIAL

TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRUCTION

Wind, Temperature, Plant, Machinery,
Hydraulic, Earthquake Erection Method

PRIMARY LIVE LOAD SECONDARY LIVE LOAD

Gravity Load due to Horizontal Load due to
Traffic Mass Change in Speed or Direction

NORMAL ABNORMAL LONGITUDINAL SKIDDING CENTRIFUGAL IMPACT LOAD

BRAKING Any Direction Due to Curve Vehicle Collision

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 7

BRIDGE LOADING (PERMANENT LOADS)
• Dead Load = weight of materials that form
part of the bridge structural elements; eg deck
slab, precast beams, diaphragm beams,
crossheads, pilecaps, abutments, etc.
**Concrete Density for Bridge taken as 25kN/m3
• Super-Imposed Dead Load (SDL) = loads
from other materials that are not part of bridge
structural elements; eg road surfacing (premix),
parapets & handrail, utility pipes, lamp posts etc.
• Load due to Backfill Material; eg soil weight
above pilecap, earth pressure behind abutment
• Long Term Material Effect; eg. prestress
beam creep and shrinkage effect, redistribution
of stresses from construction stages, etc. Weight of
Backfill

• Differential Support Settlement;

Soil
Pressure

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 8

BRIDGE LOADING (TRAFFIC LOAD)

11,400
500 3500 3500 500
3500
Walkway Marginal Traffic Lane Traffic Lane Marginal Walkway
Carriageway
Strip Strip
Notional Lane Notional Lane Notional Lane
50mm Premix 200THK SLAB

Typical Bridge Section

CONCEPT OF NOTIONAL LANES

• CARRIAGEWAY = part of the running surface which includes all traffic lanes, hard
shoulders and marker strips. Generally, carriageway width is the width between raised kerbs.
• TRAFFIC LANES = lanes that marked on the running surface of the bridge and are
normally used by traffic
• NOTIONAL LANES = a rational way of dividing the carriageway width into equal
parts, measured between the raise kerbs. They are notional parts of the carriageway used
solely for the purpose of applying the specified live loads.

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 9

TRAFFIC LOAD (NOTIONAL LANES)

11,400
500 3500 3500 500
3500
Walkway Marginal Traffic Lane Traffic Lane Marginal Walkway
Carriageway
Strip Strip
Notional Lane Notional Lane Notional Lane
50mm Premix 200THK SLAB

Typical Bridge SectionUiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 10

TRAFFIC LOAD (NOTIONAL LANES)

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 11

LOAD MODEL LM1 (NORMAL TRAFFIC LOAD)

Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, covers most of the effects of

the traffic of lorries and cars
Normal Loading is considered as Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) together 4
Tandem Concentrated Load. Double axle Concentrated Load (Tandem
System representing vehicle type) and uniformly distributed loads (UDL
System)

(BS EN 1991-2:2003 Clause 4.3.2 + UK NA.2.12)

For determination of general effects, the tandems travel along the axis of the
notional lanes
UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 12
LOAD MODEL (NORMAL TRAFFIC LOAD) - EC

5.5kN/m2
For local verifications,
the heaviest tandem
should be positioned
5.5kN/m2 to get the most
unfavourable effect.

5.5kN/m2

5.5kN/m2

9.0 x 0.61 = 5.5kN/m2

2.5 x 2.2 = 5.5kN/m2
2.5 x 2.2 = 5.5kN/m2
2.5 x 2.2 = 5.5kN/m2
2.5 x 2.2 = 5.5kN/m2

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 13

LOAD MODEL (ABNORMAL TRAFFIC LOAD) - EC

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 14

LOAD MODEL (ABNORMAL TRAFFIC LOAD) - EC
The UK National Annex describes two groups of vehicles, SV and SOV vehicles (Load Model 3, LM3):

(i) Special Vehicle, SV model vehicles (SV80, SV100 and SV196)

Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)

varies from 1.2 to 1.07 for axles loads
from 100kN to 225kN respectively

(ii) Special Order Vehicle, SOV model vehicles (SOV250, SOV350, SOV450 and SOV600)

(BS EN 1991-2:2003
Clause 4.3.4 + UK NA.2.16)

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 15

BRIDGE LOADING (COMBINED TRAFFIC LOAD) - EC
Table N.A.3 of the UK NA

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 16

BRIDGE LOADING (SECONDARY LIVE LOAD)

• Longitudinal Load due to acceleration or braking of vehicles applied at the

road surface and parallel to the lane in one notional lane only.

• Accidental Load due to Skidding. A single point load

shall be considered in one notional lane only, acting in any
direction on the surface of the bridge.

• Centrifugal Loads. Bridge with horizontal radius of

curvature less than 1000m, centrifugal loads shall be applied
in any 2 notional lanes in each carriageway at 50m center.
UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 17
BRIDGE LOADING (SECONDARY LIVE LOAD)

1.25m

• Vehicle Collision Load on Bridge Supports

Nominal impact load parallel to carriageway below taken as main component
1000kN (depending on type of road below) acting at 1.25m above carriageway.
Nominal load normal to the carriageway below shall be taken as 50% of those
impact load parallel to the carriageway below.

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 18

BRIDGE LOADING (ENVIRONMENTAL)

• Wind Load on a bridge depends on the geographical location, local topography, height of
bridge above ground, and the horizontal dimensions and cross section of the bridge. In
Malaysia, the basic hourly mean wind speed can be taken as 25m/s (or 30m/s for 3s gust)
• Maximum wind load shall be applied to bridges without live load. Lower wind load is
allowed for bridge structure with live load (but larger area of exposure with live load taken
as 2.5m above carriageway).
• Wind Load to be applied in all directions;
- Transverse
- Longitudinal
- Vertical
• Hydraulic Forces on bridge substructures shall be considered if piers are located within a
river channel. Hydraulic force depends on the speed of river current and the shape of the
substructures (drag coefficient). It should be applied in the direction parallel to river flow.

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 19

BRIDGE LOADING (ENVIRONMENTAL)
• Temperature Load. Daily and seasonal fluctuations in shade air temperature, solar
radiation, re-radiation, etc causes the following:-
(i) Changes in effective temperature of a bridge superstructure which in turn governs its
movement, eg restraint to expansion/ contraction of bridge, or temperature restraint.
Effective Temperature Range in Malaysia = 20oC to 40oC with mean as 30oC

(ii) Difference in temperature between top surface and other levels in the superstructure.
These temperature difference/ gradient effect result in load effects within the superstructure.
+13.5oC -8.4oC

-0.5oC
+3.0oC

-1.0oC
+2.5oC -6.5oC

POSITIVE GRADIENT NEGATIVE GRADIENT

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 20

UNDERSTANDING A BRIDGE STRUCTURE
Abut Abut
A B

30m
Precast Beams

FREE FIX

30000

FREE FIX Dowel

Bars
Dowel
Bars

PLAN SECTION AT ABUTMENT (FIXED END)

• A basic form of bridge is consisted of Precast Beams with Cast In-Situ Deck Slab,
Simply-Supported on Bearings at Abutment.
• Two RC End Diaphragms are designed to tie the beams at abutment only; with no
intermediate diaphragms – a modern design to avoid expensive formwork over river.
• Dowel bars are installed at Fixed End with shear blocks.
UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 21
UNDERSTANDING A BRIDGE STRUCTURE
Abut Abut
A B

30m
Precast Beams 8000 Carriageway
Walkway Notional Lane Notional Lane Notional Lane Walkway
FREE FIX

200mm Slab

Precast Prestressed I17 Beams @ 1.4m c/c

BRIDGE MIDSPAN SECTION

• This bridge has 8 nos of precast prestressed I17 spanning longitudinally between
abutments with a deck slab (200mm) spanning transversely across the beam top.
• For longitudinal bending, the slab acts as top flange of the beams, and since the slab has a
bending stiffness much lower than that of a beam, it flexes much more transversely than
longitudinally, to span between beams  a straightforward beam-and slab scheme.
• For UDL (uniformly distributed load), eg. self weight, all the bridge beams deflect
simultaneously and support those loads belong to their own tributary.

 Similar to the
1.4m
1.4m beam-and-slab
Tributary
1.4m
behavior of a building
if subjected to UDL
Precast Beam @ 1.4m c/c

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 22

UNDERSTANDING A BRIDGE STRUCTURE

• Even though, bridge beams are

more rigid (deeper section) than
deck slab, they are still flexible
and subjected to deflection.
• Under eccentric load, eg vehicle,
those beams directly or closest
to the load will be subjected to
more deflection compared to
their further neighbor.

• Load Distribution between directly loaded members and other members further away
will occur as a consequence of the rigidity or stiffness of the transverse deck slab.
• The stiffer (or thicker) the slab, the more beams will be able to share the loads. The
maximum load to the nearest beam will also be reduced because the same amount of the
load is now shared by more beams.
• This structural interaction between beams and slabs depend greatly on their relative
stiffness and it requires a more rigorous analysis in 3-dimensional environment. Nowadays,
this is carried out by computer programme and software.

UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 23

FURTHER READING

• THE MANUAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING; MJ RYALL, PARKE & JE HORDING

• CONCRETE BRIDGE DESIGNER’S MANUAL; E. PENNELLS

• CONCRETE BRIDGE DESIGN; L. A. CLARK

MY CONTACT EMAIL:
lowhf@osdconsultants.com.my

Learn Prestress Design

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UiTM Guest Lecture: Intro to Bridge Engineering 24