Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dơnload Grimm (Iron Horse Legacy Book 7) 1st Edition Elle James Full Chapter
Dơnload Grimm (Iron Horse Legacy Book 7) 1st Edition Elle James Full Chapter
Dơnload Grimm (Iron Horse Legacy Book 7) 1st Edition Elle James Full Chapter
https://ebookmeta.com/product/murdock-iron-horse-legacy-8-1st-
edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/grimm-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/saving-jenna-brotherhood-
protectors-yellowstone-book-7-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/breaking-point-delta-force-strong-
book-7-1st-edition-elle-james/
Breaking Dawn (Delta Force Strong Book 8) 1st Edition
Elle James
https://ebookmeta.com/product/breaking-dawn-delta-force-strong-
book-8-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/saving-peyton-brotherhood-
protectors-yellowstone-book-8-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/saving-amanda-brotherhood-
protectors-yellowstone-book-3-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/saving-kyla-brotherhood-protectors-
yellowstone-book-1-1st-edition-elle-james/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/utah-1st-edition-elle-james/
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
corresponding to those of the maxilla can be clearly traced in the
labium.
The compound, or facetted, eyes are the most remarkable of all the
structures of the Insect, and in the higher and more active forms,
such as the Dragon-flies and hovering Diptera, attain a complexity
and delicacy of organisation that elicit the highest admiration from
every one who studies them. They are totally different in structure
and very distinct in function from the eyes of Vertebrata, and are
seated on very large special lobes of the brain (see Fig. 65), which
indeed are so large and so complex in structure that Insects may be
described as possessing special ocular brains brought into relation
with the lights, shades, and movements of the external world by a
remarkably complex optical apparatus. This instrumental part of the
eye is called the dioptric part in contradistinction from the percipient
portion, and consists of an outer corneal lens (a, Fig. 53), whose
exposed surface forms one of the facets of the eye; under the lens is
placed the crystalline cone (b), this latter being borne on a rod-like
object (c), called the rhabdom. There are two layers of pigment, the
outer (e), called the iris-pigment, the inner (f), the retinal-pigment;
underneath, or rather we should say more central than, the
rhabdoms is the fenestrate membrane (d), beyond which there is an
extremely complex mass of nerve-fibres; nerves also penetrate the
fenestrate membrane, and their distal extremities are connected with
the delicate sheaths by one of which each rhabdom is surrounded,
the combination of sheath and nerves forming a retinula. Each set of
the parts above the fenestrate membrane constitutes an
ommatidium, and there may be many of these ommatidia in an eye;
indeed, it is said that the eye of a small beetle, Mordella, contains as
many as 25,000 ommatidia. As a rule the larvae of Insects with a
complete metamorphosis bear only simple eyes. In the young of
Dragon-flies, as well as of some other Insects having a less perfect
metamorphosis, the compound eyes exist in the early stages, but
they have then an obscure appearance, and are probably
functionally imperfect.
In the interior of the head there exists a horny framework called the
tentorium, whose chief office apparently is to protect the brain. It is
different in kind according to the species. The head shows a
remarkable and unique relation to the following segments. It is the
rule in Insect structure that the back of a segment overlaps the front
part of the one following it; in other words, each segment receives
within it the front of the one behind it. Though this is one of the most
constant features of Insect anatomy, it is departed from in the case
of the head, which may be either received into, or overlapped by, the
segment following it, but never itself overlaps the latter. There is
perhaps but a single Insect (Hypocephalus, an anomalous beetle) in
which the relation between the head and thorax can be considered
to be at all similar to that which exists between each of the other
segments of the body and that following it; and even in
Hypocephalus it is only the posterior angles of the head that overlap
the thorax. Although the head usually appears to be very closely
connected with the thorax, and is very frequently in repose received
to a considerable extent within the latter, it nevertheless enjoys great
freedom of motion; this is obtained by means of a large membrane,
capable of much corrugation, and in which there are seated some
sclerites, so arranged as to fold together and occupy little space
when the head is retracted, but which help to prop and support it
when extended for feeding or other purposes. These pieces are
called the cervical sclerites or plates. They are very largely
developed in Hymenoptera, in many Coleoptera, and in Blattidæ,
and have not yet received from anatomists a sufficient amount of
attention. Huxley suggested that they may be portions of head
segments.
Thorax.
We have described briefly and figured (Fig. 55) the sclerites of the
mesothorax, and those of the metathorax correspond fairly well with
them. In addition to the sclerites usually described as constituting
these two thoracic divisions, there are some small pieces at the
bases of the wings. Jurine discriminated and named no less than
seven of these at the base of the anterior wing of a Hymenopteron.
One of them becomes of considerable size and importance in the
Order just mentioned, and seems to be articulated so as to exert
pressure on the base of the costa of the wing. This structure attains
its maximum of development in a genus (? nondescript) of Scoliidae,
as shown in Fig. 56. The best name for this sclerite seems to be that
proposed by Kirby and Spence, tegula. Some writers call it
paraptère, hypoptère, or squamule, and others have termed it
patagium; this latter name is, however, inadmissible, as it is applied
to a process of the prothorax we have already alluded to.
Fig. 56.—Head and thorax of wasp from Bogota: t, tegula; b, base of
wing.
The appendages of the thorax are (a) inferior, the legs; (b) superior,
the wings. The legs are always six in number, and are usually
present even in larvae, though there exist many apodal larvae,
especially in Diptera. The three pairs of legs form one of the most
constant of the characters of Insects. They are jointed appendages
and consist of foot, otherwise tarsus; tibia, femur, trochanter, and
coxa; another piece, called trochantin more or less distinctly
separated from the coxa, exists in many Insects. The legs are
prolongations of the body sac, and are in closer relation with the
epimera and with the episterna than with other parts of the crust,
though they have a close relation with the sternum. If we look at the
body and leg of a neuropterous Insect (Fig. 58) we see that the basal
part of the leg—the coxa—is apparently a continuation of one of the
two pleural pieces or of both; in the latter case one of the prolonged
pieces forms the coxa proper, and the tip of the other forms a
supporting piece, which may possibly be the homologue of the
trochantin of some Insects. In some Orthoptera, especially in
Blattidae, and in Termitidae, there is a transverse chitinised fold
interposed between the sternum and the coxa, and this has the
appearance of being the same piece as the trochantin of the anterior
legs of Coleoptera.
It has been suggested that the claws and the terminal appendage of
the tarsus ought to be counted as forming a distinct joint; hence
some authors state that the higher Insects have six joints to the feet.
These parts, however, are never counted as separate joints by
systematic entomologists, and it has recently been stated that they
are not such originally.
The parts of the foot at the extremity of the last tarsal joint proper are
of great importance to the creature, and vary greatly in different
Insects. The most constant part of this apparatus is a pair of claws,
or a single claw. Between the two claws there may exist the
additional apparatus referred to above. This in some Insects—
notably in the Diptera—reaches a very complex development. We
figure these structures in Pelopaeus spinolae, a fossorial
Hymenopteron, remarking that our figures exhibit the apparatus in a
state of retraction (Fig. 59). According to the nomenclature of Dahl
and Ockler[24] the plate (b) on the dorsal aspect is the pressure plate
(Druck-Platte), and acts as an agent of pressure on the sole of the
pad (C, e); c and d on the underside are considered to be extension-
agents; c, extension-plate; d, extension-sole (Streck-Platte, Streck-
Sohle). These agents are assisted in acting on the pad by means of
an elastic bow placed in the interior of the latter. The pad (e) is a
very remarkable structure, capable of much extension and retraction;
when extended it is seen that the pressure plate is bent twice at a
right angle so as to form a step, the distal part of which runs along
the upper face of the basal part of the pad; the apical portion of this
latter consists of two large lobes, which in repose, as shown in our
Figure (f), fall back on the pad, something in the fashion of the
retracted claws of the cat, and conceal the pressure-plate.
The legs of the young Insect are usually more simple than those of
the adult, and in caterpillars they are short appendages, and only
imperfectly jointed. If a young larva, with feet, of a beetle, such as
Crioceris asparagi be examined, it may be seen that the leg is
formed by protuberance of the integument, which becomes divided
into parts by simple creases; an observation suggesting that the
more highly developed jointed leg is formed in a similar manner. This
appears to be really the case, for the actual continuity of the limb at
the chief joint—the knee—can be demonstrated in many Insects by
splitting the outer integument longitudinally and then pulling the
pieces a little apart; while in other cases even this is not necessary,
the knee along its inner face being membranous to a considerable
extent, and the membrane continuous from femur to tibia.
Turning to the wings, we remark that there may be one or two pairs
of these appendages. When there is but one pair it is nearly always
mesothoracic, when there are two pairs one is invariably
mesothoracic, the other metathoracic. The situation of the wing is
always at the edge of the notum, but the attachment varies in other
respects. It may be limited to a small spot, and this is usually the
case with the anterior wing; or the attachment may extend for a
considerable distance along the edge of the notum, a condition
which frequently occurs, especially in the case of the posterior
wings. The actual connexion of the wings with the thorax takes place
by means of strong horny lines in them which come into very close
relation with the little pieces in the thorax which we have already
described, and which were styled by Audouin articulatory epidemes.
There is extreme variety in the size, form, texture, and clothing of the
wings, but there is so much resemblance in general characters
amongst the members of each one of the Orders, that it is usually
possible for an expert, seeing only a wing, to say with certainty what
Order of Insects its possessor belonged to. We shall allude to these
characters in treating of the Orders of Insects.
The only great Order of Insects provided with a single pair of wings
is the Diptera, and in these the metathorax possesses, instead of
wings, a pair of little capitate bodies called halteres or poisers. In the
abnormal Strepsiptera, where a large pair of wings is placed on the
metathorax, there are on the mesothorax some small appendages
that are considered to represent the anterior wings. In the great
Order Coleoptera, or beetles, the anterior wings are replaced by a
pair of horny sheaths that close together over the back of the Insect,
concealing the hind-wings, so that the beetle looks like a wingless
Insect: in other four-winged Insects it is usually the front wings that
are most useful in flight, but the elytra, as these parts are called in
Coleoptera, take no active part in flight, and it has been recently
suggested by Hoffbauer[25] that they are not the homologues of the
front wings, but of the tegulae (see Fig. 56), of other Insects. In the
Orthoptera the front wings also differ in consistence from the other
pair over which they lie in repose, and are called tegmina. There are
many Insects in which the wings exist in a more or less rudimentary
or vestigial condition, though they are never used for purposes of
flight.
The abdomen, or hind body, is the least modified part of the body,
though some of the numerous rings of which it is composed may be
extremely altered from the usual simple form. Such change takes
place at its two extremities, but usually to a much greater extent at
the distal extremity than at the base. This latter part is attached to
the thorax, and it is a curious fact that in many Insects the base of
the abdomen is so closely connected with the thorax that it has all
the appearance of being a portion of this latter division of the body;
indeed it is sometimes difficult to trace the real division between the
two parts. In such cases a further differentiation may occur, and the
part of the abdomen that on its anterior aspect is intimately attached
to the thorax may on its posterior aspect be very slightly connected
with the rest of the abdomen. Under such circumstances it is difficult
at first sight to recognise the real state of the case. When a segment
is thus transferred from the abdomen to the metathorax, the part is
called a median segment. The most remarkable median segment
exists in those Hymenoptera which have a stalked abdomen, but a
similar though less perfect condition exists in many Insects. When
such a union occurs, it is usually most complete on the dorsal
surface, and the first ventral plate may almost totally disappear: such
an alteration may involve a certain amount of change in the sclerites
of the next segment, so that the morphological determination of the
parts at the back of the thorax and front of the abdomen is by no
means a simple matter. A highly modified hind-body exists in the
higher ants, Myrmicidae. In Fig. 60 we contrast the simple abdomen
of Japyx with the highly modified state of the same part in an ant.
Fig. 60.—Simple abdomen of Japyx (A) contrasted with the highly
modified one of an ant, Cryptocerus (B). The segments are
numbered from before backwards.
Placed along the sides of the body, usually quite visible in the larva,
but more or less concealed in the perfect Insect, are little apertures
for the admittance of air to the respiratory system. They are called
spiracles or stigmata. There is extreme variety in their structure and
size; the largest and most remarkable are found on the prothorax of
Coleoptera, especially in the groups Copridae and Cerambycidae.
The exact position of the stigmata varies greatly, as does also their
number. In the Order Aptera there may be none, while the maximum
number of eleven pairs is said by Grassi[26] to be attained in Japyx
solifugus: in no other Insect have more than ten pairs been recorded,
and this number is comparatively rare. Both position and number
frequently differ in the early and later stages of the same Insect. The
structure of the stigmata is quite as inconstant as the other points we
have mentioned are.
Systematic Orientation.
Terms relating to position are unfortunately used by writers on
entomology in various, even in opposite senses. Great confusion
exists as to the application of such words as base, apex, transverse,
longitudinal. We can best explain the way in which the relative
positions and directions of parts should be described by reference to
Figure 62. The spot 3 represents an imaginary centre, situated
between the thorax and abdomen, to which all the parts of the body
are supposed to be related. The Insect should always be described
as if it were in the position shown in the Figure, and the terms used
should not vary as the position is changed. The creature is placed
with ventral surface beneath, and with the appendages extended,
like the Insect itself, in a horizontal plane. In the Figure the legs are,
for clearness, made to radiate, but in the proper position the anterior
pair should be approximate in front, and the middle and hind pairs
directed backwards under the body. The legs are not to be treated as
if they were hanging from the body, though that is the position they
frequently actually assume. The right and left sides, and the upper
and lower faces (these latter are frequently also spoken of as sides),
are still to retain the same nomenclature even when the position of
the specimen is reversed. The base of an organ is that margin that is
nearest to the ideal centre, the apex that which is most distant. Thus
in Fig. 62, where 1 indicates the front tibia, the apex (A) is broader
than the base (B); in the antennae the apex is the front part, while in
the cerci the apex is the posterior part; in the last abdominal
segment (2) the base (B) is in front of the apex (A). The terms
longitudinal and transverse should always be used with reference to
the two chief axes of the body-surface; longitudinal referring to the
axis extending from before backwards, and transverse to that going
across, i.e. from side to side.
CHAPTER IV
Many of the anatomical structures have positions in the body that are
fairly constant throughout the class. Parts of the respiratory and
muscular systems and the fat-body occur in most of the districts of
the body. The heart is placed just below the dorsal surface; the
alimentary canal extends along the middle from the head to the end
of the body. The chief parts of the nervous system are below the
alimentary canal, except that the brain is placed above the beginning
of the canal in the head. The reproductive system extends in the
abdomen obliquely from above downwards, commencing anteriorly