CHAPTER-2

2. AREA AND PEOPLE

2.1. Area
India is an important southeast Asian Country of the world and is a part of the oldest
Gondwana land. This second-most populous country in the world has also crossed the one billion
mark even after experiencing a sharp decline in its decadal growth after independence.
According to the provisional reports released on 31 March 2011, the Indian population increased
to 1.21 billion with a decadal growth of 17.70%. The adult literacy rate increased to 74.04%,
with a decadal growth of 9.21% (Census of India, 2011).
Maps-1 Map of India showing the Percentage of Scheduled Tribe Population

Source: Census of India, 2011.

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 2.1.1. Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is a southern state of India and is bordering by the Union Territory of Pondicherry
and Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Chennai is the capital of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu
is the most urbanizing state in India. This southern state is also famous for its Hindu Temples of
Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, and numerous UNESCO World Heritage
Sites. Tamil Nadu has a population of 72,147,030 (2011 census) and covers 130,058 km sq.
Tamil Nadu has 32 districts divided into ten city corporations, 125 municipalities, 529 town
panchayats, and 12,524 village panchayats. Each district of Tamil Nadu is governed by a District
Collector, an official from the Indian Administrative Service, responsible for the district's
smooth running, law and order, and revenue collection.

Maps-2District Map of Tamil Nadu

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 Maps-3 Map of DistrictVillupuram,Tamil Nadu

2.1.2. Villupuram District

Villupuram is Tamil Nadu's largest district (with 22 blocks than the average of 13-14 blocks in
the other districts), but it is also one of the state's least industrialized. Agriculture is the primary
source of income for the majority of the population. Cuddalore District used to be a part of
Villupuram District. On September 30, 1993, it was separated from Cuddalore and established as
a separate district. As a result, the history of the Villupuram district is very similar to that of
Cuddalore. Early rulers were the Cholas. Karikala Chola was the most prominent and influential
of these rulers. Simha Vishnu Pallava deposed the Cholas for a brief period, and the Pallavas

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ruled the region. Vijayalaya Chola resurrected Chola's rule. This marked the start of the Chola
Empire. Later, Chola rulers were weak, and power was transferred to the Eastern Chalukyas.
Chola's dominance was restored with the emergence of JatavarmanSundara Pandya1 (1251
A.D.), but it was short-lived.

Pandya rule lasted more than 50 years, followed by Muslim rule from 13341378 A.D. By
1378, the area had fallen under the control of the Vijayanagar Kingdom, and the Nayaks had
been chosen as the region's rulers. With the aid of the assistance of Golkonda forces, Shivaji
conquered Ginjee in 1677. The Mughals followed. Both the English and the French founded
settlements in South Arcot during the Mughal reign. The entire district was turned into a
battleground during the Anglo-French rivalry. After some time, the East India Company took
possession of the entire area. It was ruled by the British until 1947, when India gained
independence. (www.msme-chennai.gov.in).

2.1.3. Administrative Set-up

On September 30, 1993, the Villupuram district was formed by the bifurcation of the South
Arcot district and became a separate district. Cuddalore district was formed from the remnants of
the former South Arcot district.

Table 2. 1 List of Blocks in Villupuram District.

Name of the Blocks Town Name of the Blocks Villages

Gingee 73
Gingee 2 Melmalayanur 79
Vallam 84
Mailam 59
Tindivanam 2 Marakkanam 82
Olakkur 78
Vanur 1 Vanur 79
Kanai 60
Kandamanglam 53
Viluppuram 4
Koliyanur 59
Vikkiravandi 54
Tirukkoyilur 4 Thirukkoyilur 61

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 Thiruvennainallur (Part) 27
Mugaiyur 84
Kallakkurichi(part) 16
Kalrayan Hills 50
Sankarapuram 1 Rishivandiyam (part) 55
Sankarapuram (part) 52
Thiyagadurgam (part) 3
Chinnasalem 59
Kallakkurichi (part) 35
Kallakkurichi 4 Rishivandiyam (part) 2
Thiyagadurgam (part) 43
Sankarapuram (part) 1
Thiruvennainallur (part) 32
Tiruvnavalur 65
Ulundurpettai 1
Ulundurpettai 77
Not under any CD Block 64
Total 19 Total 1486
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
The above table 2.1 explains the number of taluks with towns and community development
of blocks with villages. Currently, the Villupuram district is divided into four revenue divisions.
8 Taluks, 3 Municipalities, 15 Town Panchayats, 1 Census Town, 22 Community Development
Blocks, and 1099 Village Panchayats. Revenue Village has 1486 residents. One thousand four
hundred thirty-one villages have been identified as being inhabited. The district constitutes 11
Legislative Assembly Constituencies, Viz., Gingeee, Mailam, Tindivanam, Vanur, Villupuram,
Vikravandi, Tirukkoyilur, Ulundurpettai, Rishivandiyam, Sankarapuram. Out of this,
Tindivanam, Vanur, and Kallakkurichi are reserving for Scheduled Castes. The district falls in
two Parliamentary Constituencies, namely Villupuram and Kallakkurichi (Statistical Handbook
of Tamil Nadu, 2011).

2.1.4. Demographic Feature of Villupuram District, Tamil Nadu

Table 2. 2 Taluk-wise Population in Villupuram District of Tamil Nadu.

S.No Name of the Taluk Total Male Female

1 Gingee 423942 213509 210433
2 Kallakkurichi 466136 234833 231303

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 3 Sankarapuram 407970 206075 201895
4 Tindivanam 446682 223525 223157
5 Tirukkoyilur 446531 226065 220466
6 Ulundurpettai 373621 188584 185037
7 Vanur 196422 98822 97600
8 Villupuram 697569 349406 348163
Total 3458873 1740819 1718054
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
The above table 2.2shows that the Sub district-wise population of Villupuram District of
Tamil Nadu. Out of the eight taluks, Viluppuram taluk has returned with the highest population
of 697569. Male comprises 213509 and female comprises 210433 and the lowest population
recording in Vanur taluk with 196422 of which male of 98822 and female of 97600.

Table 2. 3 Taluk-wise Sex Ratio of Villupuram District.

S.No Name of the Taluk Total Rural Unban

1 Gingee 986 986 977
2 Kallakkurichi 985 981 997
3 Sankarapuram 980 979 1004
4 Tindivanam 998 997 1003
5 Tirukkoyilur 975 972 999
6 Ulundurpettai 981 981 984
7 Vanur 988 981 1022
8 Villupuram 996 993 1009
Total 987 984 1002
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.

The above table 2.3shows the district rural and urban sex ratio of various sub-districts of
Villupuram District. Out of the eight, Tindivanamhas the highest sex ratio, 998, which is even
higher than the district sex ratio of 987. Tirukkoyilur is having the least sex ratio of 975. District
rural sex ratio comes out to be 984, and urban sex ratio comes out to be 1002. Tindivanamhas the
highest rural sex ratio of 993, and Tirukkoyilur has the least rural sex ratio of 972. Vanur comes
out with the highest urban sex ratio as 1022, and Gingee has the least urban sex ratio as 977.

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Table 2. 4 Literacy Rate of Villupuram District.

State/District Person Male Female

2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
Tamil Nadu 73.5 80.1 82.4 86.8 64.4 73.4
Villupuram 63.8 71.9 75.1 80.5 52.4 63.2
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
Above table 2.4 explains the literacy rate of people in the Villupuram District of Tamil
Nadu. The literacy rate increased from 2001 to 2011. The district's literacy rate was 71.9 percent,
lower than the State's 80.1 percent literacy level. The literacy rate for males was higher than
females. The male literacy was 80.5 percent, and female literacy was 63.2 percent while both
gender literacy rate has also increased, but the gap between male and female literacy has 17.3
percent.

Table 2. 5 Population Density and Sex Ratio of Villupuram District, Tamil Nadu.
State/District Population Total Sex
Child Sex Ratio
Density Ratio
2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
Tamil Nadu 480 555 987 996 942 943
Villupuram 412 481 984 987 961 941
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
Above table 2.5 explains the population density and sex ratio of Villupuram District. The
population density is an indicator used to evaluate the growth of a region and its inhabitants. In
2011, the district's population density was 481 per square kilometer, lower than the state's
density of 555. The district's population density was 412 in 2001. The population's sex ratio is
measured as females per 1000 males, regardless of age. For children under the age of six, the
child sex ratio is determined in the same way. The district's sex ratio was 987, while the states
were 996.

Table 2. 6 Block-wise Population of Rural STs in Villupuram District of Tamil Nadu.

Total Total STs
S.No Name of the CD Block
Population Population %of STs
1 Chinnasalem 133892 349 0.26
2 Gingee 139580 3586 2.57
3 Kallakkurichi 149579 155 0.1
4 Kalrayan Hills 56327 45176 80.2
5 Kanai 139738 2465 1.76
6 Kandamangalam 145181 219 0.15
7 Koliyanur 144247 678 0.47

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 8 Mailam 117439 1624 1.38
9 Marakkanam 147713 2103 1.42
10 Melmalayanur 141155 2375 1.68
11 Mugaiyur 196414 1533 0.78
12 Not under CD Block 2493 4 0.16
13 Olakkur 86700 1839 2.12
14 Rishivandiyam 143242 423 0.3
15 Sankarapuram 151374 1564 1.03
16 Thirukkoyilur 127746 398 0.31
17 Thiruvennainallur 135304 277 0.2
18 Thiyagadurgam 102612 238 0.23
19 Tirunavalur 132567 245 0.18
20 Ulundurpettai 150054 236 0.16
21 Vallam 109270 2201 2.01
22 Vanur 164696 2513 1.53
23 Vikkiravandi 122462 1169 0.95
Total 2939785 71370 2.43
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
The above table 2.6 explains the distribution of STs Population in the rural area of
Villupuram District of Tamil Nadu. Out of the 13 community Development Block, Kalrayan
Hills has the largest STs Population (80.2 percent), followed by Gingee (2.57 percent), Olakkur
(2.12 percent), Vallam (2.01 percent), and the rest of the area has only less than two percent.

Table 2. 7 Block-wise Population of Urban STs in Villupuram District of Tamil Nadu.

Total Total STs % of STs Sex

S.No Town Area
Population Population STs Ratio
1 Ananthapuram (TP) 6892 3 0.04 2000
2 Arakandanallur (TP) 5713 117 2.05 857
3 Chinnasalem (TP) 25106 14.6 0.72 820
4 Gingee (TP) 27045 303 1.12 1119
5 Kallakurichi (M) 52507 142 0.27 1058
6 Kottakuppam (TP) 31726 106 0.33 1120
7 Manalurpet (TP) 8523 0 0 0
8 Marakkanam (TP) 22034 245 1.11 992
9 Salamingu (CT) 20854 136 0.65 971
10 Sankarapuram (TP) 15664 87 0.56 1122
11 Thiagadurgam (TP) 18605 131 0.7 985
12 Thiruvennainallur(TP) 9623 46 0.48 917
13 Tindivanam (M) 72796 354 0.49 1058
14 Tirukkoyilur (TP) 30212 417 1.56 1151
15 Ulundurpettai (TP) 23734 19.77 0.11 1500

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 16 Vadakkanandal (TP) 23034 611 2.65 621
17 Valavanur (TP) 16745 109 0.65 1271
18 Vikravandi (TP) 12022 145 1.21 1042
19 Viluppuram 96253 276 0.29 1044
Total 519088 17.5 0.67 959
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
The above table 2.7 shows the distribution of STs Population in the town area of Villupuram
District of Tamil Nadu. Out of the total, more than one percent of the population has found in the
following town area namely vadakkanandal (2.65 percent), Arakandanallur (2.05 percent),
Tirukkoyilur (1.56 percent), Gingee (1.12 percent), Marakkanam (1.11 percent), and rest of the
town area have less than one percent of Scheduled tribe Populations.

2.1.5. Physical Features: Location and size

Villupuram district is located between 110 and 350 Northern Latitude and 780 38’ and
800 Eastern Longitude. It is bordered on the north by Kancheepuram district and Tiruvannamalai
district, south by Cuddalore district, and cast by Union Territory of Puducherry. According to
district authorities, the total geographical area of the district is 7194 sq km. (Source: Statistical
Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).

2.1.6. Physiographic
Villupuram district's more significant part is covered by metamorphic rocks forming by
pressure and heat belonged to the granite-like genesis family. There are three major groups of
sedimentary rocks, layers of particles that settled in different geological periods. Plains
characterize the entire district except for Klrayan and Gingee hills. A significant area of the
district is a flat plain sloped gently from the west to the east's sea. The kallakkurichi taluk and the
neighboring areas with the kalrayan hills and their undulating valleys are found with dense
woods and green forest cover on the west. The eastern part was found with ring soil tracts and
widespread paddy fields, fruit-bearing trees, and open tanks. The land in the north around Gingee
hills is located with numerous hills and hillocks. The Southern region of the district is
comparatively green and fertile. The coastline covers a distance of about 32kms in Marakanam
and Vanur blocks. The seashore is fringing with a belt of blown sand of varying width (Source:
Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).

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 2.1.7. Rivers
Ponnaiyar, Malattar, and Gadilar are the major rivers draining the district. Ponniyar river
flows from northwest to east in the district. ManimuktaNadi originates in Kalrayan hills and
drains the southern part of the district. Nambiar and Varaganadhi develop in the uplands of the
district and join the Bay of Bengal. Varaganadhi is also known as the Gingee river and drains the
Gingee and Vanur taluks of this district. Malattar and Gadilam rivers also originate in the
uplands within the district and flow eastwards to Cuddalore district. All the rivers are temporary
and carry the only floodwater during the monsoon period. The drainage pattern is mainly parallel
to sub-parallel, and drainage density is very low. There are small reservoirs across rivers, namely
Gomukhi, Vingur, and Mahanathur. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.8. Forestry
The district's two most prominent hills are Gingee and Kalrayan. The district's forest
areas cover about 14% of its entire territory. They are divided into reserve forest, interface forest,
and social forest, with Teak rose and sandal trees growing in the hills. Some medicinal plants are
cultivated in the Kalrayan and Gingee regions. Trees are primarily grown for firewood and paper
production in social forest areas. The area is known for growing Babul Eucalyptus and
Casuarina. The forest department's primary responsibilities include the conservation and
restoration of existing natural forests and wild animals such as spotted deer, antelope, sloth bear,
and the growth of degraded forests. The forest's topography ranges from flat to gently sloping
plains. From topography, soil conditions, and flora, the forest areas are divided into three
regions. The coastal regions, including casuarina plantations, dunes, mangroves, and scrub
jungle, are among them. Pitchavaram as a whole is included in this. (Source: Statistical
Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.9. Forests.
The lateritic area of Kangiruppu Bit I and II, Velangulam, AmmeriNarimanam,
Semakottai and Extension, and KallaeduadKuttady Reserved Forests contains an extensive
cashew plantation and dry evergreen forest. At Alwarmalai, Varanjaram, Porasakurichi,
Magarur, Kattumailur, Nangur, Krishnapuram, Thottpadi, Kottalamalai, Melplangur,
Mallapuram, and Poosapadi Reserved Forests, there are eucalyptus and various fuel plantations,
as well as thorny scrub jungles. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).

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 2.1.10. Minerals and Mining
The central portion of the Viluppuram district is covered by mineral deposits like silica
sand, limestone, black granite, and blue metal. Silica sand is found in Agaram reserve forest in
Tindivanam taluk. Fine clay deposits are found in large numbers in Tindivanam taluk. Inferior
grade sedimentary limestone deposit is found inner taluk, Gingee, Kallakkurichi, Tindivanam,
Tirukkoyilur, Ulundurpettai, Vanur, and Viluppuram taluks has rich sources of the export
quantity of black granite. Multicolouringgranites found in Gingee, Kallakkurichi, and
Viluppuram taluks (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.11. Soil
The soils in the district are mainly ring soil, sandy loam, and black cotton soil. Alluvial
soils are found in the eastern side bordering coastal areas. Black soils are confined to the low
ground in select pockets in Vanur taluk. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.12. Land use and Land Pattern
According to the information given by revenue authorities during the data collection
process for the village and town directories, the district's total is 723895.69 hectares (rural
703761-69 and urban 20134 hectares). Out of the total rural land area of 703761.69 hectares, the
net area sown was 338285.47 hectares. The forest area was 102714.09 hectares, and the area
under non-agricultural uses accounted for 81727.61 hectares. (Source: Statistical Handbook of
Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.13. Agriculture
Agriculture is the mainstay of the district's people except for Gingee and Kalrayan hills;
plains characterize the entire district. A significant portion of the plains is utilized for agricultural
purposes. The major crops in the district are paddy, groundnut, cotton, sugarcane, tapioca, and
cumbu. Paddy is the vital food crop cultivating 148454 hectares in the district during 2009-10.
Black grams and ring grams are the most important varieties grown over 17276 and 519 hectares
among pulses. During 2009-10nearly 19763 hectares were used for the production of pulsing in
the district. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).

2.1.14. Horticulture
Horticulture production has much potential in the district. The essential horticultural
crops are tapioca and cashew, which account for most of the district's horticultural land. Through

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the integrated Horticulture Development Programme, the Department of Horticulture is covered
more areas under horticultural crops. Mango is grown in about 1614 hectares. Under Central
Government aiding cashew Development Programme, the plan has been chalking out to increase
the area under cashew cultivation. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.15. Sericulture
Sericulture is being practiced at Adukkam, Avalurpet, Manandal, Athipattu, Kolappalur,
Kanai, Kedar, Olakkaur, Melvalai, Sembimadevi, and Chinnasalem. The Department of
Sericulture provides disease-free silkworm eggs to farmers and instruction in mulberry
cultivation and cocoon rearing. (Source: Tamil Nadu Statistical Handbook, 2011).
2.1.16. Irrigation
Intensive and extensive cultivation of land depends mainly on the availability of water. The
rivers in the Viluppuram district are not perennial. Therefore, the significant sources of irrigation
are tube wells and open dug wells, Lower anaicut, Tirukkoyilurannaicut, Ellis Chuoltryanaicut,
and reservoir are the essential irrigation projects in the district. (Source: Statistical Handbook of
Tamil Nadu, 2011).
2.1.17. Trade and Commerce
Granite, food products, sugar, fish, chemicals and fertilizers, mango pulp, etc., are the major
exportable item of the district. There are 18 regulated markets in the district for the benefit of
farmers. There are several banks, both the public sector and cooperative sector, in the district to
cater to the needs of the trading community. There are 1932 fair price shops in the district, of
which 53 are run by women /Self Help Groups. (Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu,
2011).
2.1.18. Transport and Communication
Viluppuram has the longest national roads of any district in Tamil Nadu, connecting it to
most of the state and the rest of the country.
The following are the leading national highways in the district:
 NH45 connects from Chennai to Theni via Viluppuram, Tiruchirappalli, Indigul,
and Periyakulam.
 NH 45A, which connects Viluppuram and Nagapattinam, is a major thoroughfare.
Cuddalore and Puducherry.

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  NH 234 runs from Viluppuram to Mangalore, passing through Tiruvannamalai,
Vellore, and Gudiyatham.
 NG 45C, which runs via Pnruti-Neyveli-Kubakonam from (Viluppuram)
Vikravandi to Thanjavur.

2.2. People
The enhancement of deprived people has become an important research area in
Anthropological Research. In recent years, this has become very important in the global
platform. The practical support of many national and international agencies and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) functioning for "Indigenous peoples" has become an
important issue worldwide. Besides, the 1994 UN Declaration as "the International Day of the
World's Indigenous Peoples" provides constitutional evidence of concern for developing the
world's indigenous peoples.

2.2.1. Meaning of Tribe

The word “Tribes” is taken from the “Greek” during the early formation of the Roman
Empire. In the Latin word "Tribes," ‘is calling "Tribus,” which means “a division of within the
state.” According to Indian perspectives, the term “Scheduled Tribes” can be seen as ‘Original
Inhabitants’ or ‘Indigenous People.’. Merriam Webster Dictionary “a social group comprising
numerous families, clans, or generations together with slaves, dependents, or adopted strangers.”

2.2.2. Definition of Tribe

D.N Majumdar defines that "A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation,
endogamous, with no specialization of function, ruling by tribal officers, hereditary or otherwise,
uniting in language or dialect, recognizing social distance with other tribes or caste, without any
social obloquy attaching to them, as it does in the caste of structure, following tribal traditions,
beliefs, and customs, illiberal naturalization of an idea from alien sources, above all conscious
homogeneity of ethics and territorial integration" (Hasnain, 2019).
I.M. Lewis argues, "Ideally tribal societies are small in scale, are restricting in the spatial
and temporal range of their social, legal, and political relations and possess a morality, a religion,

73
and world-view of corresponding dimensions. Characteristically too, tribal language is unwritten,
and hence, the extent of communication both in times and space is inevitably narrow. At the
same time, tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design and have compactness and
self-sufficiency lacking in modern society" (Hasnain, 2019).

Imperial Gazetteers of India 2011 says, "Tribe is a collection of families bearing a

common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common
territory and is not usually endogamous; though originally it might have been so" (Hasnain,
2019).
Ralph Linton: is emphasizing that “In its simplest form the tribe is a group of bands,
occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving from
numerous similarities in culture, frequent contacts, and a certain community of
interest” (Hasnain, 2019).

Lucy Mair argues, "A tribe is an independent political of a population with a common
culture.”G.W.B. Hunting Ford says: "A tribe is a group uniting by a common name in which the
members take pride by a common language, by a common territory, and by a feeling that all who
do not share this name are outsiders” in fact, G.S. Ghurye says that "The Scheduled Tribes are
neither calling the ‘Aborigines,' nor the ‘Adivasis' nor are they treating as a category by
themselves. By and large, they are treating together with the Scheduled Castes and further
envisaging as one group of the Backward Classes" (Hasnain, 2019).
P.G. Krishnan argues, "a tribe is a social group of simple and kind, the members of which
speak a common dialect, have a single government act together for common purposes and have a
common name, a contiguous territory, a relatively uniform culture or way of life and a tradition
of common descent” (Hasnain, 2019).

2.2.3. Who is the tribal?

According to the Census of India 2011, the Scheduled tribes population, numbering 104
million, constitutes 8.6 percent of the country's total population. The Indian Constitution and the
laws enacted under it recognize the special status of the tribal community. At the same time,
sociologists and Anthropologists continue to discuss the definition of tribal characteristics. The

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Constitution recognizes that tribal communities need and deserve special protection guaranteed
through political administration. Therefore, the programming device is adapted to facilitate
identifying tribal communities and tribal areas that fall within the scope of this dispensation.

Article 342 of the Indian Constitution defines "Scheduled Tribes" as the "tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups with tribal communities which the President of India may
specify bey public notification."

As the Constitution did not define the criteria for recognizing Scheduled Tribes, the
Lokur Committee was set up in 1960 to look into this issue. In its report, the committee
recommended five criteria for identification as STs as they are as follow:

1 Primitive Trait

2 Distinct Culture

3 Geographical Isolation

4 The shyness of contact with the community at large

5 Backwardness

2.2.4. Heterogeneity
Historically there has been a tendency to view tribal people as a homogenous entity, yet;
there is enormous variation in the history, Lifestyle, health situation, beliefs, and behaviors
across tribal communities. At present, there are 705 scheduled tribes in the country. These can be
divided into four major categories. (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2013).

I. Schedule V of the constitution indicating the Tribal dominated blocks and districts
(excluding PVTGs).
II. Schedule VI of the constitution indicating Tribal population in North-Eastern India. The
most concentrated tribal population is in the northeastern states. The local community's
problems and its health and development are very different from those of other areas.
III. Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). In 1975-76 and later in 1993, a
particular group considered the poorest in STs had identified as a primitive tribal group,

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 now known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). The identification of
such groups as follows,
 Preagricultural level of technology
 Low literacy levels
 Declining or stagnant population
 Subsistence level of economy
IV. Tribal people are living outside Schedule areas.

2.2.5. Characteristics of Scheduled Tribes

The Scheduled tribes have been divided into a large number of subgroups in India. The
Scheduled tribes are being mutually exclusive; each group is endogenous and exogamous. They
have many clans, which are representing in terms of names, cultures, traditions, and physical
practice, etc. The study below has different explained characteristics of tribal groups in India
(Hasnain, 2019).
1. Geographical Locations: They inhabit inaccessible locations such as hill areas, forests,
and islands.
2. Backwardness: They depend for their livelihood on primitive agriculture, the economy
depends on a low level of technology, and the literacy rate is abysmal.
3. Culture, Language, and Religion: Each tribe follows a specific tradition different from
each other in terms of culture, language, and religion.
4. The shyness of Contact between Social Groups: Due to the shyness of contact, there
are no close relationships between tribal groups and other social groups in society.

2.2.6. Classification of Scheduled Tribes

The Scheduled tribes are classified based on language, geographical location, economic
structure, and cultural practices. The tribal welfare committee has pointed out various
characteristics for groups qualified as Scheduled tribes in India (Hasnain, 2019).
I. Linguistically Classifying Groups: Based on the language, the Scheduled tribes have been
classified in the following ways.
1. Austro-Asiatic Family: This group is found in the Munds region of central and eastern India,
including Khasis and Nicobarese.

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2. Dravidian Family: This group is found in central and southern India, and groups include
Gonds, Badaga, Toda, Yarava, Korwa, etc.
3. Tibeto-Chinese Family: This group is found in the Himalayas, Punjab, and Assam, and it
includes the Nagas, Kui and, Khasi, etc.
II. Geographically Classified Group: Based on the geographical distribution, the Scheduled
tribes live in the regions, namely southern, central, and north and northeastern regions.
1. Southern region: The southern part lies between the latitudes 80 to 200 in the north and 750
to 850 longitudes in the east. The southern region consists of peninsular India. India's high
ancient tribal people have been identified in this region, and now they are called the Todas,
Paniyars, Kurumbas, Kotas, Soligas, Malayalees and Chenchus, etc.
2.Central region: The central part lies between the latitudes 210 to 250 in the north and 730 to
900 longitudes in the east. In the central region, the tribal groups are represented by the Jurigas,
Baiga, Gonda, Ho, Bill, etc.
3. North and northeastern regions: The north and northeastern regions lie between 260 to350
latitudes in the north and 730 to 970 longitudes in the east. The tribal groups found in this region
are Nagas, Chase, Khasis, Limbus, and Abors, etc.
According to Vidyarthi (1977), the Indian tribes can be found inhabited in five folds of
geographical regions, attributed to ecological, social, economic, administrative, ethnic, and racial
factors. Those tribal regions are:
1. Himalayan Region: The three sub-regions present here are a) North-Eastern Himalayan
region B), Central Himalayan region and c), NorthWestern Himalayan region.
2. Middle Indian Region: This includes states such as Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, and Madhya
Pradesh, where more than 55% of tribes live in these states.
3. Western-Indian Region: It includes states such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Dadra, and Nagar Haveli, where nearly one crore of tribes inhabit in these states.
4. South India Region: It includes Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, which
roughly have one-sixth of the tribes in India.
5. Island Region: It comprises Islands likes Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep.

77
 2.2.7. Distribution of Tribal Population in India
India is the second-largest country with a different tribal population after Africa. (Rao,
2013). According to the 2011 census, the total population of Scheduled Tribes in India is 104
million, which constitute 8.6 percent of the total population in the country in which 89.97 percent
of them living in rural area 10.03 percent of them in the urban area. There is around 705
prominent Scheduled tribe enlisted in which75 tribes/subgroups in the county are classified as
PVTG. They represent less than 0.6 percent of the country's households. The maximum number
of PVTGs in Andhra Pradesh is 12. Orissa (62) has the highest number of reported STs, followed
by Karnataka (50), Maharashtra (45), Madhya Pradesh (43), and Chhattisgarh (42). Sikkim has at
least four tribes, followed by Nagaland, Daman and Diu, and Uttarakhand. Among the southern
states of India, Karnataka has the most significant number of registered tribes (50), followed by
Tamil Nadu (36) and Kerala (36) (Report of High-Level Committee, 2014). The majority of
these tribal groups or communities live in various geographical isolated areas like hill areas,
forests, inaccessible interior locations, sea, and islands. The majority of the tribal communities
depend on hunting and food gathering, shifting cultivation, and settled agriculture for their
livelihood (Census of India, 2011).

Table 2. 8 Scheduled Tribe Population in India, States/UnionTerritories from2001 to 2011.

Scheduled Tribe Population

% of STs Populations
India/State/UT (in numbers)
2001 2011 2011 2001
INDIA 8,43,26,240 10,42,81,034 8.6 8.2
New Delhi # NST NST NST NST
Andaman & Nicobar Islands # 29,469 28,530 7.5 8.3
Andhra Pradesh 50,24,104 59,18,073 7 6.6
Arunachal Pradesh 7,05,158 9,51,821 68.8 64.2
Assam 33,08,570 38,84,371 12.4 12.4
Bihar 7,58,351 13,36,573 1.3 0.9
Chandigarh # NST NST NST NST
Chhattisgarh 66,16,596 78,22,902 30.6 31.8
Dadra & Nagar Haveli # 1,37,225 1,78,564 52 62.2
Daman & Diu # 13,997 15,363 6.3 8.8
Goa 566 1,49,275 10.2 10
Gujarat 74,81,160 89,17,174 14.8 14.8
Haryana NST NST NST NST
Himachal Pradesh 2,44,587 3,92,126 5.7 4
Jammu & Kashmir 11,05,979 14,93,299 11.9 10.9
Jharkhand 70,87,068 86,45,042 26.2 26.3
Karnataka 34,63,986 42,48,987 7 6.6
Kerala 3,64,189 4,84,839 1.5 1.1

78
 Lakshadweep # 57,321 61,120 94.8 94.5
Madhya Pradesh 1,22,33,474 1,53,16,784 21.1 20.3
Maharashtra 85,77,276 1,05,10,213 9.4 8.9
Manipur 7,41,141 9,02,740 35.1 34.2
Meghalaya 19,92,862 25,55,861 86.1 85.9
Mizoram 8,39,310 10,36,115 94.4 94.5
Nagaland 17,74,026 17,10,973 86.5 89.1
Orissa 81,45,081 95,90,756 22.8 22.1
Puducherry # NST NST NST NST
Punjab NST NST NST NST
Rajasthan 70,97,706 92,38,534 13.5 12.6
Sikkim 1,11,405 2,06,360 33.8 20.6
Tamil Nadu 6,51,321 7,94,697 1.1 1
Tripura 9,93,426 11,66,813 31.8 31.1
Uttar Pradesh 1,07,963 11,34,273 0.6 0.1
Uttarakhand 2,56,129 2,91,903 2.9 3
West Bengal 44,06,794 52,96,953 5.8 5.5
Source: Census of India 2001 &2011.
Note: @’ – Excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati District of Manipur, NST- No
Scheduled Tribe, # - Union territory.

Above the table, 2.8 shows the distribution of Scheduled Tribes population in the
State/Union Territory. More than half of the Scheduled tribal populations concentrating in the
Central and Northeastern states.
In the central regions, tribal groups highly focus on the state of Chattisgarh (30.6
percent), Jharkhand (26.2 percent), and Madhya Pradesh (21.1 percent).
In the Western part of India, only Orissa (22.8 percent) has the highest tribal population.
In the eastern part of India, Mizoram (94.4 percent), Nagaland (86.5 percent), Meghalaya (86.1
percent), and Arunachal Pradesh (68.8 percent) and the union territory regions like Lakshadweep
(94.8 percent) and Dadra Nagar Haveli (52 percent).
In southern regions like Telangana (9.3 percent), Karnataka (7.0 percent), Andhra
Pradesh (5.3 percent), and Tamil Nadu (1.1 percent) are the predominant states that have the
tribal population.
As per the Census of India 2011, there are no notified tribal groups in union
territories/States of Haryana and Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi, and Pondicherry.

79
Table 2. 9 Scheduled Tribe Population from 1951 to 2011.

STs % of
Total Population
S.No. Year Population STsPopulation to
(in millions)
(in millions) Total Population
1 1961 439.24 29.88 6.86
2 1971 548.16 38.02 6.94
3 1981 683.33 51.63 7.83
4 1991 846.42 67.76 8.08
5 2001 1028.74 84.3 8.2
6 2011 1210.19 104.3 8.61
Source: Census of India Reports, 1961 -2011.

The above table 2.9 depicts the population details of the Scheduled Tribe from 1961 to
2011. As per the 1961-census report, the total population was 439.24 million, and Scheduled
Tribe Population was only 29.88 million. The percentage of the total population of Scheduled
Tribes was 6.86 percent. As per the 2011 census, the total population has to increase by 1210.19
million, and Scheduled Tribe Population has 104.30 million. The percentage of the total
Scheduled Tribe Population has only 8.61 percent.

Table 2. 10 State-wise Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Group in India.

S.No. List of States PVTGs

Bodo Gadaba, Bondo Poroja, Chenchu, Dongria Khond,
1 Andhra Pradesh GutobGadaba, Khond Poroja, Kolam, Konda ringdis, Konda
Savaras, Kutia Khond, ParengiPoroja, Thoti
Asurs,Birhor, Birjia, Hill Kharia, Korwas, Mal Paharia, Parhaiyas,
, Bihar
SauriaPaharia, Savar
3 Gujarat Kathodi, Kotwalia, Padhar, Siddi, Kolgha
4 Karnataka JenuKuruba, Koraga
Cholanaikayan (a section of Kattunaickans)
5 Kerala
Kadar, Kattunayakan, Kurumbas, Koraga
6 Madhya Pradesh Abujh Marias, Baigas, Bharias, Hill Korbas
7 Maharashtra Katkaria (Kathodia), Kolam, Maria Gond
8 Manipur Marram Nagas
Birhor, Bondo, Didayi, Dongria-Khond, Juangs,Kharias,
9 Orissa
KutiaKondh, LanjiaSauras, Lodhas, Mankidias, PaudiBhuyans,

80
 Soara, ChuktiaBhunjia
10 Rajasthan Seharias
KattuNayakans, Kotas, Kurumbas, Irulas, Paniyans
11 Tamil Nadu
Todas
12 Tripura Reangs
13 Uttar Pradesh Buxas, Rajis
14 West Bengal Birhor, Lodhas, Totos
Andaman & Nicobar Great Andamanese, Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese
15
Islands Shom Pens
Source: Ministry of Tribal’s Affairs, 2013.
The above table 2.10shows the distribution of the list of PVTG in India state/Union Territory.
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). In 1975-76 and later in 1993, a particular group
considered the poorest in STs had identified as a primitive tribal group, now known as
Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). The identification of such groups I)
Preagricultural level of technology II) Low literacy levels III) Declining or stagnant population
IV) Subsistence level of economy (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2013).

2.2.8. Population Growth, TotalFertility Rate, Sex Ratio and Mean Family
Size of Scheduled Tribes
Between 1991 and 2011, Scheduled Tribes increased more rapidly than the general
population. In the above case, the general population recorded a growth of 17.64 percent, while
the Scheduled Tribe population increased at a rate of 23.66 percent over the same period.
Overall, the proportion of ST people in India's population rose from 8.2 percent in 2001 to 8.6
percent in 2011 (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014).

The tribal population increased by 2.1 percent between the 2001 and 2011 census, while
some states experienced negative growth (Nagaland and Andaman & Nicobar Islands). Sikkim
(5.2 percent), Bihar (5.7 percent), and Himachal Pradesh have seen the most decadal rise (4.7
percent). Due to the identification of new tribes as scheduled tribes in two states (Goa and Uttar
Pradesh), the tribal population has increased significantly. A similar occurrence has occurred in
several other nations (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014).

The IIPS has recently estimated that the TFR for STs is 2.5, based on the NFHS-4 of the
TFR. The median TFR for STs was about 3.1, compared to an estimated 2.4 for the rest of the
population, according to NFHS-3. The expected or wanted fertility rate, on the other hand, was
81
comparable to the replacement level of fertility. The tribal population's fertility rate is decreasing
and is within acceptable bounds.

The Sex Ratio among STs is much better than the All India average of 933 per 1000
males, at 990 per 1000 males. It is also a step forward towards 978. States with a positive sex
ratio include Goa (1046), Kerala (1035), Arunachal Pradesh (1032), Odisha (1029), Meghalaya
(1013), and Chhattisgarh (1020). The child sex ratio among STs, on the other hand, has
decreased from 972 in 2001 to 957 in 2011. While this is still better than the national average of
914, it does indicate a concerning trend. It can be due to better tribal community dispersion and,
as a result, improved ultrasound technology access (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014).

In rural and urban areas, the tribal population's average family size is smaller than that of
non-STs. The average length of an STs Family in urban areas is 3.3 members, compared to 4.8
for Non-STs Families, a difference of 1.5 people per family. In rural areas, the disparity is much
lower. According to Census 2011, the average family size among STs Households is larger than
the national average in almost all Northeastern states (Ministry of Tribal Affairs, 2014).

2.2.9. Scheduled Tribe Population in Tamil Nadu

As per the Census of India 2011, Tamil Nadu has 0.76% of the total STs Population in
India. The tribal population in Tamil Nadu is 794,697. 6,60280 STs population has been
inhabited in a rural area and 134,417 population inhabited in an urban area. The tribal population
has been raised from (1.04 percent) in 2001 to (1.1 percent) of the total population. The below
table provides detailed information on the STs Population of Tamil Nadu as per the Census of
India (2011). There are 36 Scheduled tribe has been notified by Tamil Nadu Scheduled Caste,
and Scheduled Tribe Act, 1976 the name of the Scheduled tribe and their population has been
mentioned below the table.

Table 2. 11 List of Scheduled Tribes and their Population in Tamil Nadu.

S.No Name of the Tribe Male Female Population %

1 Malayali 181,704 176,276 357,980 45.05
2 Irular 94,521 95,140 189,661 23.87
3 Kattunayakan 23,360 23,312 46,672 5.87
4 Kurumans 15,949 15,016 30,965 3.90
5 Malakkuravan 10,013 9,632 19,645 2.47

82
 6 Uraly 6,491 6,495 12,986 1.63
7 Paniyan 4,898 5,236 10,134 1.28
8 Kondaringdis 5,028 4,819 9,847 1.24
9 MalaiVingan 3,701 3,514 7,215 0.91
10 Kurumbas 3,380 3,443 6,823 0.86
11 Malasar 3,259 3,172 6,431 0.81
12 Kurichchan 3,181 2,919 6,100 0.77
13 Sholaga 3,066 2,899 5,965 0.75
14 Palliyar 2,643 2,645 5,288 0.67
15 Adiyan 2,247 2,179 4,426 0.56
16 Kanikaran 1,879 1,958 3,837 0.48
17 Eravallan 1,438 1,433 2,871 0.36
18 Palliyan 1,146 1,106 2,252 0.28
19 Kaniyan, Kanyan 1,042 1,095 2,137 0.27
20 Toda 957 1,045 2,002 0.25
21 MalaiPandaram 710 729 1,439 0.18
22 Modular, Muduvan 661 589 1,250 0.16
23 Kammara 537 515 1,052 0.13
24 Kadar 325 325 650 0.08
25 Konda Kapus 265 256 521 0.07
26 Muthuvan 200 190 390 0.05
27 Kota 155 153 308 0.04
28 Palleyan 114 117 231 0.03
29 Mannan 99 112 211 0.03
30 Malayekandi 107 103 210 0.03
31 MalaiArayan 75 97 172 0.02
32 Aranadan 72 66 138 0.02
33 Koraga 61 40 101 0.01
34 MahaMalasar 43 34 77 0.01
35 Kudiya, Melakudi 36 30 66 0.01
36 KochuVelan 4 3 7 0.00
Total 401,068 393,629 794,697 100.00
Source: Census of India, 2011.

83
The above table 2.11 explains the tribal populations in Tamil Nadu as per 2011. The total
population of STs is 794,697, of which males of 401,068 and females of 393,629. Among the 36
STs, nearly four-sixth (68.92 percent) of STs is Malayali and Irular tribe in which Little more
than three- seventh (45.05 percent) of Malayali Tribe and little more than two-ninth (23.87
percent) of STs are Irular Tribe. Todas, with a population of about 2002 people, and Kotas, with
a population of fewer than 500 people, are PVTGs with a small population. While they can be
found throughout the state, they are most common in the north, central, and western regions. The
majority of Tamil Nadu's tribal population lives in hilly areas.

Table 2. 12 Distribution of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group Population in Tamil Nadu From
1961 to 2011.

Name of the
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
PVTG
Irular 79,835 89,025 1,05,757 1,38,827 1,55,606 1,89,661
Kattunayakan 6,459 5,042 26,383 42,761 45,227 46,672
Paniya 4,779 6,093 6,393 7,124 9,121 10,134
Kurumba 1,174 2,754 4,354 4,768 5,498 6,823
Toda 714 930 875 1,100 1,560 2,002
Kota 833 1,188 604 752 925 308
Total 93,794 1,05,032 1,44,366 1,95,332 2,17,937 2,55,600
Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Statistical profile of Scheduled Tribes in India, 2011.

The above table 2.12 shows the distribution of particularly vulnerable tribal groups in
Tamil Nadu. Out of the six (PVTGs), Irular has the largest population, followed by
Kattunayakan, Paniya, and Kurumba, but in the very least population as Kota and Toda. Among
the six PVTGs, four tribes increased gradually in 1961-2011, namely Irular, Kurumbas, Paniya,
and Todas. Subsequently, the population of Kattunayakan decreased from 6459 to 5042 in the
year 1971; at the same time, Kattunayakan rapidly increased to 26,383 in the year 1981.
Similarly, the Kota population rose from 833 to 1188 in 1971 and then slowly raised in 1991 and
2001. More than six-tenths of the Kota population decreased from 2001 to 2011.

84
Table 2. 13 District-wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population in Tamil Nadu.

% STs to the
total
S.No India/State Total Rural Urban Populations
India 104,281,034 93,819,162 10,461,872 8.6
Tamil Nadu 794,697 660,280 134,417 1.1
1 Ariyalur 10,722 9,946 776 1.4
2 Chennai 10,061 0 10,061 0.2
3 Coimbatore 28,342 19,622 8,720 0.8
4 Cuddalore 15,702 9,923 5,779 0.6
5 Dharmapuri 63,044 60,385 2,659 4.2
6 Dindigul 8,064 4,521 3,543 0.4
7 Erode 21,880 20,025 1,855 1
8 Kancheepuram 41,210 27,057 14,153 1
9 Kanniyakumari 7,282 3,741 3,541 0.4
10 Karur 575 191 384 0.1
11 Krishnagiri 22,388 21,041 1,347 1.2
12 Madurai 11,096 4,866 6,230 0.4
13 Nagapattinam 3,756 2,210 1,546 0.2
14 Namakkal 57,059 55,326 1,733 3.3
15 Nilgiris 32,813 22,752 10,061 4.5
16 Perambalur 2,584 2,156 428 0.5
17 Pudukkottai 1,283 835 448 0.1
18 Ramanathapuram 1,105 501 604 0.1
19 Salem 119,369 110,233 9,136 3.4
20 Sivaganga 790 491 299 0.1
21 Thanjavur 3,561 1,340 2,221 0.1
22 Theni 1,835 1,377 458 0.1
23 Thiruvallur 47,243 35,044 12,199 1.3
24 Thiruvarur 3,034 939 2,095 0.2
25 Thoothukkudi 4,911 1,264 3,647 0.3
26 Tiruchirappalli 18,198 13,784 4,414 0.7
27 Tirunelveli 10,270 3,822 6,448 0.3
28 Tiruppur 5,458 2,650 2,808 0.2
29 Tiruvannamalai 90,954 86,775 4,179 3.7

85
 30 Vellore 72,955 65,015 7,940 1.9
31 Viluppuram 74,859 71,370 3,489 2.2
32 Virudhunagar 2,294 1,078 1,216 0.5
Source: Census of India, 2011.

As per the census of India 2011, the total population of Tamil Nadu was 7,21,47,030,
with 794,697 tribal people. The majority of Tamil Nadu's ST population lives in rural areas.
Other parts of India have seen more urbanization among STs than Tamil Nadu. According to the
2011 Census, the following table shows the existence of STs in Tamil Nadu by the district wise
and their population.

Table 2. 14 District-wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population of Tamil Nadu From 1981
to 1991.

1981 1991
S.No Name of the District
Population % Population %

1 Chengalpattu 46050 8.85 57872 10.08

2 Chidambaranar # # 3174 0.55
3 Coimbatore 22358 4.3 26158 4.56
4 Dharmapuri 46074 8.86 47684 8.3
5 Dindigul # # 9511 1.66
6 Kamarajar # # 2978 0.52
7 Kanniyakumari 6358 1.22 5223 0.91
8 Madras 5373 1.03 7930 1.38
9 Madurai 13646 2.62 12737 2.22
10 Nilgiri 20874 4.01 25048 4.36
11 North Arcot 93690 18.01 49857 8.68
12 PasumponThevarThirumagan # # 1198 0.21
13 Periyar 15191 2.92 19194 3.34
14 Pudukottai 1516 0.29 769 0.13
15 Ramanathapuram 6617 1.27 1570 0.27
16 Salem 122444 23.54 136126 23.71
17 South Arcot 53775 10.34 58009 10.1
18 Thanjavur 6012 1.16 9812 1.71
19 Tiruchchirappalli 48294 9.28 28302 4.93
20 Tirunelveli 11954 2.3 8975 1.56
21 Tiruvannamalai # # 62067 10.81

86
 Sambuvarayar
Total 520226 100 574194 100
Source: Census of India 1981-2011.
Table 2.14 compares the picture of district-wise tribal population in the State of Tamil
Nadu in 1981 and 1991. As per 1981 Census counts, Scheduled Tribes had the strength of 5.20
lakhs in Tamil Nadu. They are constituted 1.07 percent of the population of the State. Many
Scheduled Tribe people live in hitherto inaccessible hilly areas, and only a few live in plain
areas. These Scheduled Tribes are widely dispersing over 16 districts in the State. During 1991,
some of the districts were b~furcating and trifurcating for better administration. Hence, the
number of communities where tribals are found increasing from 16 to 21. The tribal population
rose from 5.20 lakhs in 1981 to 5.75 lakhs in 1991, i.e., 10.6 percent.

Table 2. 15 District-wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population of Tamil Nadu From 2001
to 2011.
2001 2011
S.No Name of the District
Population % Population %

1 Ariyalur 8529 1.31 10,722 1.35

2 Chennai 6728 1.03 10,061 1.27
3 Coimbatore 29103 4.47 28,342 3.57
4 Cuddalore 11773 1.81 15,702 1.98
5 Dharmapuri 59549 9.14 63,044 7.93
6 Dindigul 6484 1 8,064 1.01
7 Erode 17693 2.72 21,880 2.75
8 Kancheepuram 26508 4.07 41,210 5.19
9 Kanniyaumari 5443 0.84 7,282 0.92
10 Karur 1450 0.22 575 0.07
11 Krishnagiri # # 22,388 2.82
12 Madurai 5972 0.92 11,096 1.4
13 Nagapattinam 3420 0.53 3,756 0.47
14 Namakkal 51416 7.89 57,059 7.18
15 Peramabalur 3307 0.51 2,584 0.33
16 Pudukottai 792 0.12 1,283 0.16
17 Ramanathapuram 1078 0.17 1,105 0.14
18 Salem 103921 15.96 119,369 15.02

87
 19 Sivaganga 1083 0.17 790 0.1
20 Thanjavur 3641 0.56 3,561 0.45
21 The Nilgiri 28373 4.36 32,813 4.13
22 Theni 1686 0.26 1,835 0.23
23 Thiruppur # # 5,458 0.69
24 Thiruvallur 37858 5.81 47,243 5.94
25 Thiruvannamalai 72760 11.17 90,954 11.45
26 Thiruvarur 2673 0.41 3,034 0.38
27 Thoothukkudi 3494 0.54 4,911 0.62
28 Tiruchirappalli 18912 2.9 18,198 2.29
29 Tirunelveli 8358 1.28 10,270 1.29
30 Vellore 63040 9.68 72,955 9.18
31 Villupuram 63920 9.81 74,859 9.42
32 Virudhunagar 2357 0.36 2,294 0.29
Total 651321 100 794,697 100
Source: Census of India,2001 and 2011.

The above table 2.15 compares the picture of the district-wise distribution of STs
Population of Tamil Nadu in 2001-2011 As per the 2001 Census. STs had the strength of 651321
in which little less than five-sixth (82.36 percent) were living in North-eastern District, namely
Salem (15.96 percent), Thiruvannamalai (11.17 percent), Villupuram (9.81 percent), Vellore
(9.68 percent), Dharmapuri (9.14 percent), Namakkal (7.89 percent), Thiruvallur (5.81 percent),
Coimbatore (4.47 percent), The Nilgiri (4.36 percent) and Kancheepuram (4.07 percent) and
remaining all the district had the least number of STs Population, For better administration
purpose some of the districts were bifurcated. As per (2011) census, the Population size of STs is
(794697) of which More than seven-ninth (78.71 percent) of the STs are mainly inhabiting the
north-eastern district of Tamil Nadu. In which four-ninth of the people have found in the
following districts, namely Thiruvallur (15.93 percent), Kancheepuram (14.65 percent), and
Tiruvannamalai (12.74 percent) district of Tamil Nadu.

88
Table 2. 16 District-wise Distribution of Irular Tribe Population From 1981 to 1991.
1981 1991
S.No Name of the District
Population % Population %
1 Chengalpattu 33943 32.1 39426 28.4
2 Chidambaranar # - 28 0.02
3 Coimbatore 11272 10.66 11828 8.52
4 Dindigul # - 206 0.15
5 Dharmapuri 8245 7.8 11251 8.1
6 Kamarajar # - 15 0.01
7 Kanniyakumari 19 0.02 53 0.04
8 Madras 499 0.47 762 0.55
9 Madurai 20 0.02 28 0.02
10 Nilgiri 7045 6.66 8242 5.94
11 North Arcot 27692 26.18 8451 6.09
12 Periyar 1238 1.17 214 0.15
13 Pudukottai NA - 6 0
14 Ramanathapuram 5 0 28 0.02
15 Salem 639 0.6 953 0.69
16 South Arcot 15045 14.23 15294 11.02
17 Thanjavur 94 0.09 181 0.13
18 Tiruchchirappalli NA - 4466 3.22
19 Tirunelveli NA - 77 0.06
Tiruvannamalai
20
Sambuvarayar # - 37311 26.88
21 PasumponThevarThirumagan # - 7 0.01
Total 105757 100 138827 100
Source: Census of India,1981 and 1991.

The above table 2.16 compares the district-wise distribution of the Irular Tribe
Population of Tamil Nadu in 1981-1991 As per the 1981 Census. Irular Tribe had the strength of
105757, of which the majority of Irular Tribe were living in Chengalpattu District followed by
North Arcot and South Arcot Region of Tamil Nadu. Moreover, the rest of the District had the
least number of Irular Tribe Populations. For better administration purposes, some districts were
bifurcated and triturated in 1991, where tribals are found increased. As per the 1991 Census,

89
Irular Tribe had a Strength of 138827. More than half of the population had found in
Chengalpattu and Thiruvannamalai District of Tamil Nadu rest of the district had the least
population of Irular Tribe.

Table 2. 17 District-wise Distribution of Irular Tribe Population in Tamil Nadu From 2001 to
2011.
S.No 2001 2011
Name of the District
Population % Population %
1 Ariyalur 8201 5.27 9,747 5.14
2 Chennai 823 0.53 794 0.42
3 15554 10 14,508 7.65
Coimbatore
4 5940 3.82 9,176 4.84
Cuddalore
5 16756 10.77 8,156 4.3
Dharmapuri
6 30 0.02 5 0
Dindigul
7 Erode 158 0.1 306 0.16
8 Kancheepuram 20457 13.15 27,785 14.65
9 1 0 11 0.01
Kanniyaumari
10 4 0 24 0.01
Karur
11 # NA 15,437 8.14
Krishnagiri
12 22 0.01 19 0.01
Madurai
13 Nagapattinam 310 0.2 431 0.23
14 Namakkal 525 0.34 689 0.36
15 370 0.24 566 0.3
Peramabalur
16 4 0 6 0
Pudukottai
17 0 - 0 -
Ramanathapuram
18 810 0.52 817 0.43
Salem
19 Sivaganga 10 0.01 17 0.01
20 Thanjavur 435 0.28 740 0.39
21 8677 5.58 9,480 5
The Nilgiri
22 0 - 4 0
Theni
23 # NA 181 0.1
Thiruppur
24 24874 15.99 30,218 15.93
Thiruvallur
25 Thiruvannamalai 19556 12.57 24,157 12.74
26 Thiruvarur 41 0.03 146 0.08
27 32 0.02 20 0.01
Thoothukkudi
28 464 0.3 760 0.4
Tiruchirappalli
29 3 0 7 0
Tirunelveli

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 30 15527 9.98 17,738 9.35
Vellore
31 16017 10.29 17,705 9.34
Villupuram
32 Virudhunagar 5 0 11 0.01
Total 155606 100 189,661 100
Source: Census of India, 2001 and 2011.

The above table 2.17 compares the district-wise distribution of the Irular TribePopulation
of Tamil Nadu in 2001-2011 As per the 2001 Census. Irular Tribe had the strength of 155606 in
which majority of Irular Tribe were living in Thiruvallur District followed by Kancheepuram,
Thiruvannamalai, Dharmapuri, Villupuram, Coimbatore and Vellore District of Tamil Nadu and
remaining all the district had a minimum number of Irular Tribe Population, Some of the district
were bifurcated for better administration for that number of districts where are found
increased. As per the (2011) census, the Population size of the Irular tribe is (1, 89,661) of which
male comprises (94,521), and female comprises (95,140). More than seven-ninths of the Irular
populations are mainly inhabiting the north-eastern state of Tamil Nadu. In which four-ninth of
the Irular populations have been found in the following districts, namely Thiruvallur (15.93
percent), Kancheepuram (14.65 percent), and Tiruvannamalai (12.74 percent) district of Tamil
Nadu.

Table 2. 18 Taluk-wise Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population in Villupuram District.

Name of the Total Total ST % of STs
S.No Sub District Population Population Population
1 Sankarapuram 407970 47344 11.6
2 Gingee 423942 8468 2
3 Tindivanam 446682 6165 1.38
4 Villupuram 697569 5197 0.75
5 Tirukkoyilur 446531 2758 0.62
6 Vanur 196422 2619 1.33
7 Kallakkurichi 466136 1718 0.37
8 Ulundurpettai 373621 590 0.16
Total 3458873 74859 2.16
Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu, 2011.

The above table 2.18 shows that the sub-district-wise Scheduled Tribe Population of
Villupuram District of Tamil Nadu. Out of eight-sub districts in which the Sankarapuram sub-
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district has the highest STs Population, Gingee, Tindivanm, Vanur, Viluppuram, Tirukkoyilur,
Kallakkurichi, and Ulundurpettai.

Table 2. 19 Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population in Villupuram District.

Scheduled Tribe
S.No Rural Urban Total
Population
1 Malayali 44,848 797 45,645
2 Irular 16,580 1,125 17,705
3 Kattunayakan 1,962 628 2,590
4 Malakkuravan 1,152 652 1,804
5 Adiyan 305 17 322
6 MalaiPandaram 154 14 168
7 Toda 19 6 25
8 Kondaringdis 13 9 22
9 Malayekandi 22 0 22
10 Kurichchan 4 4 8
11 Kurumans 1 3 4
12 Kadar 2 1 3
13 MalaiVingan 3 0 3
14 Malasar 3 0 3
15 MalaiArayan 1 0 1
16 Palliyar 1 0 1
Source: Census of India, 2011.
Note: Malayali (in Dharmapuri, NorthArcot, Pudukottai, Salem, South Arcot, and Tiruchirapalli districts).
Note: Toda (excluding Kanyakumari and Shenkottah taluk of Tirunelveli district).

The above table 2.19 shows that the Scheduled Tribe Population in Villupuram District of
Tamil Nadu. They are sixteen tribal people group have found in Villupuram District namely,
Adiyan, Irular, Kadar, Kattunayakan, Kondaringdis, Kurichchan, Kurumans, MalaiArayan,
MalaiPandaram, MalaiVingan, Malakkuravan, Malasar, Malayali, Malayeandi, Palliyar, and
Toda. in which Malayali is the largest tribal population followed by Irular, Kattunayakan and
Malakkuravan rest of them have found very less number.

2.2.10. Tribal population in Villupuram District

Villupuram district is one of the principal areas for tribal habitation. According to the
2011 census, it has 74857 Tribal populations. It is 2.16 percent of the total population of the

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district. In this, 71370 are rural, and 3489 are urban. It is the second-largest Scheduled tribe of
Tamil Nadu.

2.2.11. Irular Tribe

Irular is the second-largest Scheduled Tribe of Tamil Nadu. After the Malayali tribe. The
name signifies in Tamil word as irul, meaning darkness or night. Thurston (1909) suggests that
the term could be referred either to the darkness of their skin or to the jungles they inhabit and
hunt in another common name for the Irula of Chennai MGR, south Arcot, Salem, North Arcot
Ambedkar, Dharmapuri, Thiruchchirapalli, and Thanjavur Districts is Villian. Villian is derived
from Pambupidikkiravan (snake-catcher), or simply pamkbukaran (shaieman) is also used. Other
names cited by anthropologists are Iraliga, Iruliga, anniya (South Arcot), Venupalli (South
Arcot), Pujari Chenchu (west of North ArcotAmbingkar)), and Arava.

Irular can be classified into various subgroups based on linguistic and social variations.
Their subgroups are Melenadu Irular, Kasaba, Vetakkarairular, Urali Irular, and Villian. The first
four subgroups share similar ethnic and linguistic features but with slight variations. The Villian
is ethnically and linguistically different. The Villian speak a Tamil Dialect, whereas the other
groups speak different dialects of the Irula language. Melenadu Irular is found in the fourth
settlements in Kotagiri taluk of Nilgiri District; they are the most numerous and most advanced
group among the lrular tribes. They consider themselves socially and linguistically superior to
the Vettakkara Irular because the latter group has the habit of eating rats. The Vettakkara Irular,
who are Specially the mountainous also called Irular Pallar, inhabit, in small numbers, the
Coonoor taluk o the Nilgiri District. They are largely concentrated in more than a hundred
settlements in the Coimbatore and Mettupalayam taluk of Coimbatore District, especially the
mountainous and forest areas of the Vellangiri hills and Siruvani hills and the adjoining plains of
the contiguous Western Ghats. (Thurston 1909).

2.2.12. Language
Earlier, they have their Irular dialect but replaced with the local language where they
settle, for example, Kannada in Karnataka, Malayalam in Kerala, and Tamil Nadu Puducherry.

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 2.2.13. Dress Pattern
They do not have any of their traditional attire, nor for festivals, males wear a lungi, or
Pancha and shirt, and females wear sarees.no headwear. Daily females wear ornaments like
earrings, nose rings, and thali by married women.

2.2.14. Physical Features

Irula peoples are black in complexion, and they are short in stature, thin, and small in the
body built. They have prominent cheekbones and short noses.

2.2.15. Food Habits

The primary being of any individual is food, shelter, and cloth. Among these, food is the
most important. In the olden days, they mainly depend on natural forest resources for food. Irular
is non-vegetarian; their staple foods are ragi and Jowar. Consumption of rice is somewhat
limited, frequently men drink liquor, but women do not drink alcohol but drink tea, coffee, and
milk. Smoking cigarettes is a common habit of man and all chew tobacco and betel leaf. Their
staple food is now replaced by rice and curry. They eat all kinds of meats except beef. They eat
rice, ragi, and all kinds of pulses. Groundnut and Palm oil are the cooked medium. The non-
Vegetarian protein of Rat, Cat, Squirrel, Birds, and meats of chicken, goat, pig, and fish are
favorites. They cook twice a day in the morning and night. Changed food habit is due to the free
supply of rice through the public distribution system, however, from tradition to the modern ling
to a low quality poorly nutritious diet. Irula is black, and they are short in stature, thin, and small
in the body built. They have prominent cheekbones and short noses.

2.2.16. Family
Irula tribe follows the nuclear family system; according to the household data, it is also
revealing the same; families among Irula are generally of the nuclear type consist of father,
mother, and their unmarried children. Joint families are also not uncommon, consisting of
fathers, mothers, sons, daughters-in-law, and unmarried children. The Head of the family usually
is a father, his decision is final in all matters, and inheritance is patrilineal. In the Irular family, a
husband has the supreme authority in all the important economic, social, and ritual matters. But
the role of the wife is in no way insignificant. She enjoys complete freedom in her domain in all

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the matters related to household management. The maximum number of Irula families are
nuclear type. They live independently and lead a peaceful life. After marriage, it’s their wish to
stay with their father’s family or stay separately, and most of the Irula people stay separately
after marriage.

2.2.17. Marriage
The Irular people follow the Monogamous marriage structure. One man marries only one
woman; however, a few polygamous marriages do exist, in which one man marries more than
one woman. Irula men may marry the sisters of their deceased wives on rare occasions. Marriage
begins when the young man's parents visit the prospective bride's home after confirming that she
belongs to a marriageable community. The Irula refuse to marry outside of their clan. On the
wedding day, the bride is escorted to the groom's house by her family and the groom's band. The
groom, in an actual act of the marriage ceremony and under widespread practice, in the house or
within a temporary shelter erected near the house, The groom's family then prepares a feast.

Following that, the groom bows to the guests' feet to receive their blessing, and his wife
follows suit. The guests also give the couple money in addition to their blessing. All of them then
go to the bride's house for another feast (this time of rice and curry), which lasts all night. Both
feastings are followed by male and female dancing. If his first wife is unable to conceive, an
Irula man can marry another woman. After that, he married both sisters. Unfaithfulness or a
husband's failure to provide for his wife are the most common reasons for divorce. The bride's
price and any gift jewelry must be returned to the groom's family.

2.2.18. Political Organization

Irula people do not have any structured political system. They are egalitarian. They select
one among them as a leader, the knowledgeable and older adult in the settlement. If there are any
disputes in the settlement, they will go to this older adult. Most of the disputes are solved within
the settlements; they never visit the police station for this purpose. This settlement has the village
panchayat, but that post is vacant due to an administration problem in Tamil Nadu's local
government.

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 2.2.19. Religion
Irula people worship their tribal goddesses called kannimar (seven virgin goddesses),
their traditional deities. Seven virgin goddesses are 1) periyakanni (elder one), 2) then kanni, 3)
angaikanni 4) andanakanni 5) nag kanni 6) poon kanni 7) ilayakanni (little one and very
aggressive). They also worship ayyanar, the younger brother of kannimar, and Munishwaran
elder brother of kannimar. Earlier they are used to worship only stones, but later figures came
into existence. Kannimar temple is situated on hilltop nearby village. Only Irula tribal people
worship kannimar, and they only visit the temple; even other people are not allowed to visit the
temple. Subbarayan is the main priest of this village. Daily, he opens the temple and cleans the
surrounding areas, and he worships the deities. This main priest is not trained in bringing the
goddesses here on earth; he depends upon the other priests from nearby villages at the time of the
festival. They celebrate the big celebration in Bhattarai month (may).during that festival they
used to make kuzh (ragi paste). Each house brings one bowl of kunzh, and they assemble at the
temple, and they share this kunzh with others. They also make kodukalti; this is also one type of
food variety. Mid-day, no one is allowed us to visit the temple. They believe that if anyone is
visited a temple at midday, they will be affected by illness. During the menstrual cycle, women
are not allowed to visit the temple. During the festival, time wearing a black dress is also not
allowed. The priest will wear a yellow shirt (normally to white dress they apply turmeric). Even
during the festival time, god will only be there in the temple if it does not move anywhere.
During the pooja time, they make sounds with the palaga (it is a wooden instrument). During
pooja time, priests say, Govinda Govinda. They will light the lamps on top of the hill during the
Kartika Masam. After childbirth, they cut the umbilical cord of the bay and wrap it in white
cloth, and they hang this near the karumariyamma temple tree. It is called the fertility tree. If we
cut the tree, milk will come automatically; that is why they select the people tree. Apart from
their religion, they worship Hindu gods like Shiva and other gods, etc.

2.2.20. Economic Organization

They will also gather honey from the forest and capture snakes. Irula is well-known for
its snake-catching abilities. When the Indian Parliament passed the Wildlife Protection Act in
1972, Irula's economic foundation became illegal and punishable by imprisonment. For many, it
seemed like the end of the line for this highly qualified tribe. Irula had to learn to work as farm

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laborers, while others moved to cities and towns, searching for work in harsh conditions. Today's
culture is generally ignored. They do not have a reliable source of income, and the living
conditions in the villages are deplorable. The government's extreme apathy causes society to
change. At the same time, the internal situation (lack of hygiene and prevalence of various
diseases) exacerbates the problem.
Furthermore, the traditional characteristics of Irula culture and identity are steadily
eroded as their way of life is increasingly shaped by modern India's neoliberal dynamics. They
now work in fields for a daily wage or lease land to grow groundnuts, pumpkins, wheat, and
other crops. They do not have their land to cultivate. Due to work, many people from the village
have relocated to various locations.

2.2.21. Health and Hygiene

The Irula are not aware of current health and hygiene, and they don’t give much
importance to this. They clean their houses daily and, once a week, smear the house with cow
dung. Washing clothes is done daily. Bathing habit is worst among them. They take a bath
irregularly. They use collecting plant medicine for simple health problems. They are not relying
on traditional medicine. For all health problems, these Tribes are utilizing the nearest
Government Hospital. Infant mortality and maternal mortality rate are also higher among them.
Many children and women are malnourished in the settlement.

2.2.22. Life Cycle Ceremonies

The life of an individual in any society is a series of passages from one age to another. Every
people come across various events, and there are ceremonies whose essential purpose is to
enable the individual to pass from one defined position to another. Irula passes through various
ceremonies in every stage of their life, equally well deployed from birth to death.

2.2.23. Delivery Pattern

Delivery is regarded as a woman's second birth. However, in the case of the Irula tribe,
deliveries were made at home with the assistance of a local old lady who had seen numerous
deliveries. The infant is bathed in warm water shortly after birth. The mother secludes herself in
a seclusion home for ten days, taking hot water baths after adding turmeric paste and coconut oil

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to her body. On the tenth day, she is transferred to another seclusion hut, where she will stay for
80 days, forbidden from doing manual labour, even in the kitchen, while her father takes care of
all household chores.

2.2.24. Naming Ceremony

They will celebrate the naming ceremony on the 21st day of childbirth. They usually
celebrate this at kannimar temple, where all relatives gather and worship God and sacrifice a goat
to the goddess, and then they give the name to the child. Usually, they prefer to give god’s name
or elders' names in the house. If it is a girl child, they give grandmother name. If it is the male
child, they give grandfathers name. Later they can change that name according to their choice
with time.

2.2.25. Puberty
When a girl reaches puberty, she is confined to seclusion in the house for seven days,
where she is helped by a few younger girls from her settlement. The girl is bathed every day after
adding turmeric paste and coconut oil to her body. The girl is taken to the bathing after the
seventh day, accompanied only by women. Her bloody clothes will be burned at the river, and
the girl will take a Purification bath. A function will be held if the girl's family has enough
money. The girl will be ritually bathed once more at this function.

2.2.26. Death
They bury the dead person. If the dead person is the head of the family, they burn the dead
body. If anyone in the tribe commits suicide by taking any poison, that person’s body will burn.
On the eleventh day, they organize a big feast for all relatives.

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