232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS

II SEMESTER

Unit 2 - REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES

1. State and discuss the design principles of balanced cantilever Bridges.

Design Principles of Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Balanced cantilever bridges are a type of bridge where the segments of the bridge are
cantilevered out from piers in a balanced manner, and are typically used for medium to
long spans. Here are the design principles and considerations involved in the design of
balanced cantilever bridges:
1. Structural Configuration
Balanced cantilever bridges are characterized by segments extending outward from piers,
with a central suspended span that connects the cantilevers from adjacent piers.
• Main Components:
o Cantilever Arms: Extending from each pier.
o Suspended Span: The central portion between the ends of the cantilever
arms.
o Piers: Vertical supports from which the cantilever arms extend.
o Anchor Span: May be provided to balance the cantilever moments.
2. Load Distribution and Analysis
• Dead Load:
o The self-weight of the structure, including the cantilever arms and the
suspended span.
o Calculated based on the material densities and cross-sectional areas of the
segments.
• Live Load:
o Loads from traffic (vehicles, pedestrians) and other dynamic loads.
o Defined by the relevant codes (e.g., IRC, AASHTO).
• Construction Load:
o Loads experienced during the construction phase, especially critical in
balanced cantilever construction.

Page 1 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

• Environmental Loads:
o Wind loads, temperature effects, and seismic loads.
o Designed according to environmental conditions and relevant codes.
3. Cantilever Construction Method
Balanced cantilever bridges are typically constructed using a segmental construction
method, where segments are cast in place or pre-cast and then added symmetrically
around the piers.
• Construction Sequence:
o Segments are added alternately on either side of the pier.
o Post-tensioning is applied to maintain stability and structural integrity.
4. Moment and Shear Distribution
• Moment Distribution:
o The cantilever action creates significant bending moments at the piers.
o Moment distribution is critical to ensure stability and strength.
o The design must account for the maximum positive moment at mid-span
and maximum negative moment at the supports.
• Shear Distribution:
o Shear forces are highest near the supports (piers).
o Proper shear reinforcement is necessary to handle these forces.
5. Deflection Control
• Deflection Criteria:
o Deflection limits are imposed to ensure serviceability and comfort.
o Calculations are performed to ensure deflections remain within permissible
limits under all load combinations.
6. Post-Tensioning
• Tendon Layout:

Page 2 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Tendons are arranged to counteract tensile forces and improve structural

performance.
o Tendons are post-tensioned progressively as segments are added.
• Tendon Profiles:
o Tendons are profiled to follow the moment diagram, ensuring maximum
efficiency.
7. Material Selection
• Concrete:
o High-strength concrete is typically used for its durability and load-carrying
capacity.
• Reinforcement:
o Both mild steel and high-tensile steel reinforcements are used.
o Corrosion-resistant materials may be employed depending on
environmental conditions.
8. Support and Foundation Design
• Pier Design:
o Piers must be designed to handle the cantilever moments and shear forces.
o Stability and stiffness of the piers are critical to the overall stability of the
bridge.
• Foundation Design:
o Foundations must be designed based on soil conditions and load
requirements.
o Deep foundations (piles) or shallow foundations (spread footings) are
chosen based on geotechnical investigations.
9. Aesthetic and Functional Considerations
• Aesthetics:
o The appearance of the bridge, especially in urban areas, is considered in the
design.

Page 3 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Smooth curves and uniformity are often preferred.

• Functionality:
o The bridge design must accommodate utilities, drainage, and maintenance
access.
o Proper alignment and gradient are essential for functionality and safety.
10. Design Codes and Standards
• IRC Codes:
o Design of balanced cantilever bridges in India follows IRC:112 (Concrete
Road Bridges) and IRC:6 (Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges).
• International Standards:
o Designs may also follow international standards such as AASHTO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) or Eurocodes.
Summary of Design Steps
1. Preliminary Design:
o Determine the span arrangement, type, and number of piers.
o Initial sizing of structural elements based on empirical formulas and
experience.
2. Load Calculation:
o Calculate dead, live, construction, and environmental loads.
o Analyze the load combinations as per relevant codes.
3. Structural Analysis:
o Perform detailed analysis to determine moments, shears, and deflections.
o Use methods like finite element analysis for accurate results.
4. Detailing:
o Design reinforcement detailing for cantilever arms, piers, and suspended
span.
o Detail post-tensioning tendons and profiles.
Page 4 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

5. Serviceability and Durability:

o Ensure deflections and vibrations are within acceptable limits.
o Consider long-term durability against factors like corrosion and fatigue.
6. Construction Planning:
o Plan the construction sequence to maintain balance and stability.
o Ensure quality control and adherence to design specifications during
construction.

2. State and explain in detail about the design of Box culvert

Design of Box Culvert
Box culverts are structures used to allow water to flow under a road, railway, or similar
obstruction. They are typically rectangular in shape and made from reinforced concrete.
The design of box culverts involves several steps, which include determining the loads,
analyzing the structure, and detailing the reinforcement. Here is a detailed explanation of
the design process for a box culvert:
1. Site Investigation and Hydraulic Design
• Site Investigation:
o Conduct a thorough site survey to understand the topography, soil
conditions, and water flow patterns.
o Determine the size of the drainage area and the peak discharge using
hydrological methods.
• Hydraulic Design:
o Calculate the design flow (discharge) based on rainfall data and catchment
area characteristics.
o Use hydraulic formulas (e.g., Manning’s equation) to determine the size and
number of cells required to handle the design flow.
2. Structural Analysis
• Load Calculations:
o Determine the various loads acting on the culvert, including:

Page 5 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

▪ Dead Load (DL): Weight of the concrete structure itself.

▪ Live Load (LL): Loads due to traffic passing over the culvert, as per
relevant codes (e.g., IRC Class A, Class AA loading).
▪ Soil Pressure: Lateral earth pressure from the surrounding soil.
▪ Water Pressure: Hydrostatic pressure from the water inside the
culvert.
▪ Impact Load: Additional dynamic effects due to moving vehicles.
▪ Surcharge Load: Additional loads from overburden soil or other
structures above the culvert.
• Load Combinations:
o Combine the loads appropriately as per the relevant codes to get the design
load cases.
3. Structural Design
• Design of Slab:
o Top Slab: Designed to resist bending moments and shear forces due to live
load, dead load, and soil pressure.
o Bottom Slab: Designed to resist uplift pressure from water and bending
moments due to dead load and soil pressure.
The bending moment M and shear force V are calculated using standard structural analysis
methods. For a simply supported slab, the maximum bending moment is given by:

where w is the load per unit area and L is the span length.
Design of Walls:
• Side walls are designed to resist lateral earth pressure and water pressure. The
walls act as vertical cantilevers fixed at the base.
• The bending moment and shear force for the walls can be calculated using:

Page 6 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

4. Reinforcement Detailing
• Slab Reinforcement:
o Reinforcement bars are provided based on the bending moment
calculations.
o Longitudinal reinforcement is provided to resist bending, while transverse
reinforcement is provided to resist shear and distribute the load.
• Wall Reinforcement:
o Vertical and horizontal reinforcement bars are provided based on the
bending moment and shear force calculations.
o Adequate anchorage length is provided at the junctions with the slabs to
ensure proper load transfer.
• Typical Detailing:
o The reinforcement details are shown in the design drawings with bar sizes,
spacing, and cover specified as per the relevant standards (e.g., IS
456:2000).
5. Checks and Verification
• Serviceability Checks:

Page 7 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Check for deflections to ensure they are within permissible limits.

o Check for crack width to ensure durability and prevent leakage.
• Strength Checks:
o Ensure that the design meets the strength requirements for all load
combinations.
o Perform a stability check to ensure the structure is safe against overturning,
sliding, and flotation.
6. Construction Considerations
• Formwork and Concrete Placement:
o Ensure proper formwork is provided to maintain the shape and dimensions
of the culvert.
o Concrete is placed and compacted in layers to avoid honeycombing and
ensure uniform strength.
• Curing:
o Adequate curing is provided to achieve the desired strength and durability
of concrete.
• Quality Control:
o Quality control measures are implemented during construction to ensure
materials and workmanship meet the specified standards.

3. List the various steps involved in the design of balanced cantilever bridge with neat
sketch of the cross-sectional details.
The design of a balanced cantilever bridge involves several critical steps to ensure
structural stability, safety, and efficiency. Below are the key steps typically involved in the
design process:
1. Preliminary Design and Planning
1. Site Investigation:
o Conduct a thorough site survey to understand the topography, geology, and
hydrology.

Page 8 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Assess the environmental conditions and any constraints that may affect the
bridge design.
2. Feasibility Study:
o Evaluate different bridge types and configurations to determine the most
suitable option.
o Consider factors such as span length, height, foundation conditions, and
construction feasibility.
3. Preliminary Design:
o Develop initial design concepts and layouts.
o Estimate preliminary dimensions and structural member sizes based on
empirical formulas and engineering judgment.
2. Detailed Design
1. Load Analysis:
o Calculate all relevant loads, including dead loads, live loads, wind loads,
seismic loads, and temperature effects.
o Consider construction loads and the effects of staged construction.
2. Structural Analysis:
o Perform detailed structural analysis using software tools (e.g., finite element
analysis) to determine internal forces, moments, and deflections.
o Analyze the bridge in its completed state as well as during different
construction stages.
3. Section Design:
o Design the cross-sectional dimensions of the bridge components, including
the deck, piers, and foundations.
o Ensure that the sections are capable of carrying the calculated loads with
adequate safety margins.
3. Design of Components
1. Deck Design:
o Design the deck slab for bending, shear, and deflection.
Page 9 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Provide adequate reinforcement to resist the calculated moments and shear

forces.
2. Pier Design:
o Design the piers to carry the vertical loads from the deck and resist lateral
forces from wind and seismic activity.
o Ensure stability against overturning and sliding.
3. Foundation Design:
o Choose an appropriate foundation type (e.g., spread footings, pile
foundations) based on soil conditions and load requirements.
o Design the foundation to transfer loads safely to the ground.
4. Cantilever Arm Design:
o Design the cantilever arms to handle the moments and shear forces during
construction and in the final configuration.
o Provide adequate reinforcement and post-tensioning tendons.
5. Suspended Span Design:
o Design the central suspended span to connect the cantilever arms from
adjacent piers.
o Ensure proper connection details and reinforcement.
4. Construction Design and Planning
1. Construction Sequence:
o Develop a detailed construction sequence to ensure stability at all stages.
o Plan the placement of segments and the application of post-tensioning in a
balanced manner.
2. Temporary Works:
o Design temporary works such as formwork, falsework, and scaffolding.
o Ensure that temporary structures are capable of carrying construction loads
safely.
3. Post-Tensioning:

Page 10 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Design the post-tensioning layout and tendon profiles to counteract tensile

forces and improve structural performance.
o Determine the sequence and force of tensioning operations.
5. Serviceability and Durability
1. Serviceability Checks:
o Check for deflections and vibrations to ensure comfort and serviceability.
o Limit crack widths to prevent water ingress and corrosion.
2. Durability Considerations:
o Select materials and design details to ensure long-term durability.
o Provide adequate cover to reinforcement and consider environmental
exposure conditions.
6. Final Design and Documentation
1. Final Calculations:
o Perform detailed calculations for all bridge components and connections.
o Ensure compliance with relevant design codes and standards (e.g., IRC,
AASHTO, Eurocodes).
2. Detailing:
o Prepare detailed design drawings showing all dimensions, reinforcement
details, and construction sequences.
o Include specifications for materials, construction methods, and quality
control measures.
3. Review and Approval:
o Review the design internally and seek approval from relevant authorities.
o Address any comments or concerns raised during the review process.
7. Quality Assurance and Control
1. Construction Monitoring:
o Monitor construction activities to ensure compliance with design
specifications.
Page 11 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

o Conduct regular inspections and testing of materials and workmanship.

2. Post-Construction Inspection:
o Inspect the completed bridge to verify that it meets design requirements.
o Address any defects or deficiencies before the bridge is opened to traffic.

4. List the advantages of balanced cantilever bridge

Balanced cantilever bridges offer several advantages, making them a popular choice
for certain bridge construction scenarios. Here are the primary advantages of balanced
cantilever bridges:
1. Suitable for Long Spans
Balanced cantilever bridges are ideal for spans ranging from 50 to 250 meters,
making them suitable for crossing wide valleys, rivers, or other obstacles where
intermediate supports are impractical or impossible.
2. Minimal Disruption to Traffic or Waterways
Because construction typically progresses from the piers outward, there is minimal
disruption to the traffic or waterways below. This method is particularly advantageous in
urban areas, over busy highways, or over navigable rivers.
3. Adaptability to Difficult Terrain
Balanced cantilever bridges are adaptable to difficult or inaccessible terrains where
it would be challenging to construct scaffolding or falsework. This is particularly beneficial
in mountainous regions or over deep gorges.
4. Segmental Construction Benefits
The segmental construction method used in balanced cantilever bridges allows for
efficient use of materials and resources. Segments can be precast or cast-in-situ, and
construction can proceed without waiting for long curing times.
5. Structural Efficiency
The balanced cantilever design is structurally efficient because it minimizes
bending moments at the supports. The structure can effectively handle both the dead
loads during construction and the live loads during service.

Page 12 of 13
 232SEE07 - DESIGN OF INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES – 16 MARKS
II SEMESTER

6. Reduced Foundation Requirements

By reducing the number of piers and intermediate supports, balanced cantilever
bridges can have reduced foundation requirements, which can lead to cost savings,
especially in areas with challenging foundation conditions.
7. Aesthetic Appeal
Balanced cantilever bridges often have a sleek and modern appearance, which can
be aesthetically pleasing. The clean lines and lack of extensive supports can make these
bridges attractive landmarks.
8. Construction Flexibility
The construction of balanced cantilever bridges can be halted and resumed with
relative ease, offering flexibility in project scheduling.
This flexibility can be particularly useful in areas with seasonal construction
constraints or in complex projects where coordination with other infrastructure is
required.
9. Material Efficiency
The use of prestressed concrete in balanced cantilever bridges allows for efficient
material usage, leading to lighter and more durable structures. Prestressing reduces the
amount of concrete and reinforcement needed, which can lower costs and enhance the
bridge's lifespan.
10. Minimized Environmental Impact
Since balanced cantilever bridges require fewer piers and foundations in the water
or sensitive environmental areas, they have a lower environmental impact compared to
other types of bridges. This can be particularly important in protected or environmentally
sensitive areas.
Summary
Balanced cantilever bridges offer a combination of structural efficiency,
adaptability to challenging construction conditions, minimal disruption to underlying
areas, and aesthetic appeal.
These advantages make them a preferred choice for a wide range of bridge
construction projects, especially where long spans or difficult terrain are involved.

Page 13 of 13