232SEE11 – DESIGN OF BRIDGES – 2 MARKS

II SEMESTER

UNIT I – INTRODUCTION
1. IRC Specifications for Road Bridges: The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has established
guidelines and specifications for the design, construction, and maintenance of road bridges
in India. Some key specifications include:
o IRC:5 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section I -
General Features of Design
o IRC:6 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section II - Loads
and Stresses
o IRC:21 - Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section III -
Cement Concrete (Plain and Reinforced)
o IRC:83 - Bearings for Bridges
o IRC:112 - Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges
2. Types of Loads to be Considered in Bridge Design:
o Dead Load: The self-weight of the bridge structure itself.
o Live Load: The weight of the traffic moving over the bridge, including vehicles and
pedestrians.
o Impact Load: Additional load due to the dynamic effects of moving vehicles.
o Wind Load: Load exerted by wind forces on the bridge structure.
o Seismic Load: Forces due to earthquake activity.
o Temperature Effects: Stresses caused by temperature changes and thermal
expansion/contraction.
o Hydraulic Forces: Loads due to water flow, wave action, or buoyancy.
o Longitudinal Forces: Forces due to braking, acceleration of vehicles, and traction from
rail traffic.
o Centrifugal Forces: Forces due to the curvature of the bridge alignment.
o Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure from the soil.
3. Impact Factor and Its Importance: The impact factor, also known as the dynamic load
allowance, is a multiplier applied to the live load to account for the additional forces exerted
by moving vehicles due to dynamic effects like bouncing, vibrations, and impact. It is crucial
for ensuring the bridge can withstand these dynamic loads without excessive deflection or
failure.

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4. Economical Span: The economical span of a bridge refers to the span length that results in
the minimum overall cost of the bridge, including costs of construction, materials, and
maintenance. It is determined based on various factors like site conditions, material
properties, and construction techniques.
5. Types of Culverts:
o Pipe Culverts: Circular, elliptical, or rectangular pipes that allow water to pass under a
road or railway.
o Box Culverts: Rectangular concrete structures that facilitate water flow.
o Slab Culverts: Flat slabs supported on abutments or walls, commonly used for small
water bodies.
6. Advantages of T-beam Bridge:
o Efficient use of materials with reduced self-weight due to the T-shape.
o Provides good structural strength and stability.
o Simplifies construction, especially for longer spans.
o Allows for easy placement of reinforcement and concrete.
7. Classification of Bridges:
o Based on Function: Vehicular, pedestrian, railway, pipeline, aqueduct.
o Based on Material: Concrete, steel, timber, composite.
o Based on Span: Short span, medium span, long span.
o Based on Structure: Beam, arch, truss, cable-stayed, suspension.
o Based on Location: Over water, over land, over other structures.
8. Simple Sketch of Kerb in Slab Bridge: Here is a simple sketch of a kerb in a slab bridge:

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9. Specification of Class 70 R Tracked Vehicle Loading:

o Used for heavy military loading conditions.
o Gross load of 700 kN distributed over a contact length of 4.57 meters.
o Contact width is considered as 2.79 meters.
o Axle load distributions are specified to simulate the impact of heavy tracked vehicles
on bridge decks.
10. Neat Sketch of T-beam Bridge Components:

11. Aspects Influencing the Type of Bridge:

• Span Length: Determines structural type and material selection.
• Site Conditions: Soil properties, topography, hydrology.
• Load Requirements: Types and magnitudes of expected loads.
• Environmental Impact: Effects on local ecosystem and aesthetics.
• Construction Constraints: Available technology, workforce, and equipment.
• Maintenance Needs: Long-term durability and upkeep requirements.
• Cost Considerations: Budget constraints and economic feasibility.
• Regulatory Requirements: Compliance with standards and regulations.
12. Distinguish Between Class ‘A’ Loading and Class ‘B’ Loading as per IRC:
• Class ‘A’ Loading:
o Standard loading for ordinary bridges and roads.
o Includes standard vehicles like cars, trucks, and buses.

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• Class ‘B’ Loading:

o Used for lightly trafficked bridges and roads.
o Typically includes lighter vehicles and lower traffic volumes.
13. Factors Influencing the Selection of Type of Bridges:
• Purpose and Functionality: Determines the design and material requirements.
• Geological and Hydrological Conditions: Affect foundation design and structural stability.
• Economic Factors: Budget constraints and cost-effectiveness.
• Technological Capabilities: Availability of construction methods and materials.
• Environmental and Aesthetic Considerations: Impact on surroundings and visual appeal.
• Traffic Patterns: Volume and type of traffic using the bridge.
• Maintenance and Durability: Long-term performance and upkeep.
14. Two Ways to Classify Bridges:
• By Structural Form: Beam, arch, truss, suspension, cable-stayed.
• By Usage: Vehicular, pedestrian, railway, aqueduct, pipeline.
15. IRC Class AA Loading:
• Used for bridges on major highways with heavy traffic, including industrial and military
routes.
• Consists of two loading types: tracked vehicles and wheeled vehicles.
• Tracked Vehicle Loading: Simulates the load effects of heavy military tanks.
• Wheeled Vehicle Loading: Represents the load from large commercial trucks and trailers.
• Designed to ensure the bridge can safely support heavy, concentrated loads.

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UNIT-II REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES

1. Ideal Situations to Choose a Balanced Cantilever Bridge:
o Long Spans: When there are long spans with no support, such as over wide rivers or
deep valleys.
o Difficult Foundation Conditions: Where it is challenging or expensive to construct
foundations, such as in deep water or unstable soil.
o Navigable Waterways: When uninterrupted passage for ships or boats is required.
o Urban Areas: When minimal disruption to traffic below is needed during construction.
2. Various Forms of Box Girder Bridge:
o Single-cell Box Girder: One box section across the width.
o Multi-cell Box Girder: Multiple box sections across the width.
o Single Box, Multiple Spans: Continuous single-cell box girder over multiple spans.
o Curved Box Girder: Box girder following a curved alignment.
3. Main Components of Balanced Cantilever Bridge:
o Cantilever Arms: Projecting segments of the bridge extending from piers.
o Main Span: The central span connecting the cantilever arms.
o Piers: Support structures from which cantilevers extend.
o Anchor Span: Span connected to the approach spans, stabilizing the cantilevers.
o Deck: The surface of the bridge on which traffic moves.
o Bearings: Components allowing controlled movement and load transfer between the
deck and piers.
4. Types of Loading Considered in Box Culverts:
o Dead Load: Weight of the culvert structure itself.
o Live Load: Traffic load over the culvert.
o Earth Pressure Load: Lateral pressure exerted by the soil around the culvert.
o Water Pressure Load: Hydrostatic pressure from water flow through or around the
culvert.
o Impact Load: Additional load due to dynamic effects of traffic.

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Sketch of Loading in Box Culvert:

5. Define Stringers: Stringers are longitudinal beams in a bridge that run parallel to the direction
of traffic and support the deck. They transfer loads from the deck to the girders or trusses.
6. Cross Guides: Cross guides are transverse members that provide lateral stability to bridge
components, helping distribute loads and resist transverse forces.
7. Situations for Balanced Cantilever Bridges:
o Large span requirements without mid-span supports.
o Challenging topography such as deep valleys or wide rivers.
o Need for minimal disturbance to the area below during construction.
o Areas with difficult foundation conditions.
8. Calculating Concentrated Load in Box Culvert: The concentrated load in a box culvert is
calculated by considering the worst-case live load conditions from the traffic above, including
the impact factor. It involves analyzing the distribution of wheel loads and determining their
effect on the culvert structure.
9. Main Advantages of Having a Diaphragm in Box Girder Bridges:
o Improved Load Distribution: Diaphragms help distribute loads evenly across the
bridge.
o Enhanced Structural Integrity: They provide lateral stability and prevent torsional
movements.
o Reduced Deflections: Diaphragms reduce vertical and horizontal deflections.

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o Better Load Transfer: Facilitate efficient load transfer between different components
of the bridge.
10. Design Loads for Box Culvert:
o Dead Load: Self-weight of the culvert structure.
o Live Load: Traffic load, considering dynamic effects.
o Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure from the surrounding soil.
o Hydrostatic Pressure: Water pressure on the culvert walls.
o Impact Load: Additional load due to dynamic traffic effects.
11. Depth Support to Depth at Mid-span in R.C Balanced Cantilever Bridges: In R.C. balanced
cantilever bridges, the depth of the cantilever arms (at the supports) is typically greater than
the depth at the mid-span to provide necessary bending moment resistance and stability.
12. Equation for Calculating Afflux: Afflux is the rise in water level upstream of a bridge or
obstruction. The equation for calculating afflux (ΔH) is:

13. Box Culvert: A box culvert is a rectangular-shaped structure used to convey water or provide
passage for vehicles and pedestrians under a road, railway, or embankment. It is constructed
from reinforced concrete or other materials and is designed to handle various loads from
traffic, soil, and water pressure.
14. Advantages of Box Culvert:

• Cost-effective: Economical compared to other culvert types.

• Easy Installation: Simple and quick to construct.

• High Strength: Strong and durable, capable of withstanding significant loads.

• Versatile: Suitable for a variety of applications, including drainage and underpasses.

• Low Maintenance: Requires minimal upkeep after installation.

• Efficient Water Flow: Provides smooth and efficient passage for water, reducing risk of
clogging.

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UNIT-III PRESTRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL BRIDGES

1. Critical Loading Stages in Pre-stressed Concrete Bridges:
o Initial Stage: During the application of prestress force.
o Construction Stage: When additional loads such as formwork and equipment are
applied.
o Service Stage: Under the effects of live loads, including traffic loads.
o Ultimate Stage: At ultimate load conditions considering factors like creep, shrinkage,
and relaxation of prestressing steel.
o Transient Stage: Temporary loads during construction, such as those from
construction equipment or temporary structures.
2. Uses of Pigeaud’s Curves: Pigeaud’s curves are used to determine the moments and shear
forces in slab panels subjected to uniformly distributed loads. They help in:
o Calculating bending moments in rectangular slab panels.
o Analyzing slab systems with different support conditions.
o Designing slab bridges by providing moment coefficients based on span dimensions
and load distributions.
3. Functions of End Block in a Prestressed Girder:
o Anchorage Zone: Distributes the high-stress concentrations from prestressing
tendons.
o Stress Dispersion: Ensures the gradual dispersion of the prestressing force into the
concrete girder.
o Prevents Cracking: Reduces the risk of cracking at the ends of the girder due to high
local stresses.
o Structural Integrity: Maintains the overall structural integrity of the girder by
providing a robust end section.
4. Basic Difference Between Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning:
o Pre-tensioning: Tendons are tensioned before the concrete is cast. The concrete is
poured and allowed to cure, and then the tension is released, transferring the
prestress to the concrete.

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o Post-tensioning: Tendons are tensioned after the concrete has cured. Ducts are
embedded in the concrete, and once the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the
tendons are tensioned and anchored.
5. Stages of Loading to be Considered in Prestressed Concrete Bridge:
o Prestress Stage: Initial tensioning of tendons.
o Construction Load Stage: Loads during the construction process.
o Service Load Stage: Loads from normal use, including traffic loads.
o Long-term Load Stage: Effects of creep, shrinkage, and relaxation over time.
o Ultimate Load Stage: Maximum design loads considering safety factors.
6. Maximum and Minimum Prestressing Forces:
o Maximum Prestressing Force: Determined by the ultimate strength of the
prestressing tendons and the anchorage capacity.
o Minimum Prestressing Force: Ensures that no tensile stress occurs in the concrete
under service loads, maintaining the structure in compression to prevent cracking.
7. When to Adopt Courbon’s Method: Courbon’s method is used to analyze the distribution of
live loads on multi-beam bridges, particularly when:
o The bridge deck consists of multiple parallel girders.
o The spans are relatively short to medium.
o There is a need to determine the load distribution factor for design purposes.
8. Distribution Coefficient: The distribution coefficient is a factor used in structural analysis to
represent how loads are shared among different structural elements. It accounts for the load
distribution due to bending and shear in the members of a structure, helping to simplify
complex load interactions into manageable values for design calculations.
9. End Block in Prestressed Concrete: An end block is a thickened section at the ends of a
prestressed concrete member. Its purpose is to handle the high-stress concentrations where
the prestressing tendons are anchored. It ensures the safe transfer of prestressing forces into
the concrete and prevents local failure around the anchorage zone.
10. Concordant Cable Profile: A concordant cable profile in prestressed concrete bridges refers
to a tendon profile that results in a self-equilibrating system of internal forces, where the
prestressing forces are balanced within the concrete section without causing additional
bending moments. This is typically achieved through parabolic or draped tendon profiles.
11. Two Cross Sections of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Decks:

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12. Advantages of Prestressed Concrete Bridges:

• Higher Load Capacity: Can support larger loads due to the prestressing forces.
• Reduced Material Usage: More efficient use of materials, resulting in lighter structures.
• Greater Span Lengths: Capable of spanning longer distances without intermediate supports.
• Enhanced Durability: Reduced cracking and better performance under cyclic loading.
• Improved Serviceability: Better deflection control and resistance to vibration.
13. Short Term and Long Term Deflection:
• Short Term Deflection: Immediate deflection occurring when loads are first applied to the
structure, including the effects of live loads and prestressing.
• Long Term Deflection: Deflection that occurs over time due to sustained loads, creep,
shrinkage, and relaxation of prestressing tendons.
14. Advantages of Post-Tensioning in Bridge Girder:
• Flexibility: Allows for tensioning after concrete has cured, accommodating construction
sequence and site conditions.
• Improved Structural Efficiency: Can achieve higher prestressing forces and more efficient use
of materials.
• Reduction in Cracking: Helps to control cracking by keeping the concrete in compression.
• Adaptability: Can be used for longer spans and complex geometries.
15. Difference Between Bonded and Unbonded Post-Tension:
• Bonded Post-Tensioning:
o Tendons are encased in a duct and bonded to the concrete by injecting grout.
o Provides better durability and redundancy.
o Tendons are protected from corrosion.
• Unbonded Post-Tensioning:

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o Tendons are coated with grease and enclosed in a plastic sheath, not bonded to the
concrete.
o Allows for easier inspection and replacement of tendons.
o Typically used in applications where flexibility and ease of maintenance are priorities.

UNIT-4 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN

1. Define Bearings: Bearings in bridges are mechanical devices installed between the bridge
superstructure and its substructure to allow controlled movement and transfer loads. They
accommodate movements due to thermal expansion, traffic loads, and other forces,
preventing damage to the bridge components.
2. Condition of Stability of the Abutment of a Bridge: The stability of a bridge abutment is
ensured when:
o It can resist sliding forces.
o It prevents overturning by providing adequate weight and dimensions.
o It maintains structural integrity against bearing pressure.
o It provides adequate resistance to soil pressure and water flow forces.
o The foundation is designed to prevent excessive settlement.
3. Considerations in Selecting the Orientation of Wing Walls in the Design of Bridge
Abutments:
o Alignment with Approach Roads: Wing walls should be oriented to guide traffic
smoothly onto the bridge.
o Hydraulic Efficiency: To minimize water flow disruption and erosion.
o Structural Stability: To resist earth pressure and ensure stability of the abutment.
o Aesthetics: To blend with the surroundings and maintain visual appeal.
o Ease of Construction and Maintenance: Orientation should facilitate easy
construction and future maintenance work.
4. Function of an Expansion Joint: Expansion joints in bridges accommodate movements caused
by temperature changes, traffic loads, shrinkage, and creep of concrete. They allow the bridge
deck to expand and contract without causing damage or stress to the structure, maintaining
the integrity and safety of the bridge.
5. Classify the Expansion Type Bearings:
o Sliding Bearings: Allow translational movement by sliding action.

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o Rocker Bearings: Allow rotational movement by rocking action.

o Roller Bearings: Permit translational movement through rolling elements.
o Elastomeric Bearings: Use rubber pads to allow for both translational and rotational
movements.
o Pot Bearings: Consist of an elastomeric pad confined in a steel pot, allowing rotational
movement.
6. Neat Sketch of a Rocker Roller Bearing:

7. Typical Sketch of an Abutment and Wing Wall:

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8. Forces Acting on a Pier:

o Vertical Loads: Due to the weight of the bridge and traffic.
o Horizontal Loads: Due to wind, water current, and seismic activity.
o Impact Loads: From vehicular collision or floating debris.
o Hydrostatic Pressure: From water on submerged parts.
o Earth Pressure: From surrounding soil.
9. Ideal Foundation for Clay Soil: Pile Foundation: Ideal for clay soils because:
o High Bearing Capacity: Transfers loads to deeper, more stable soil layers.
o Minimal Settlement: Reduces the risk of excessive settlement common in clay soils.
o Better Stability: Provides greater resistance against lateral forces.
10. Distinguish Between Pier and Abutment in Bridge Substructure:
• Pier:
o Supports the middle spans of the bridge.
o Typically vertical structures in water or land.
o Carries loads from the superstructure to the foundation.
• Abutment:
o Supports the ends of the bridge spans.
o Connects the bridge deck to the approach road.
o Retains earth from the embankment.
11. Loads and Forces in the Design of a Bridge Pier:
• Dead Load: Self-weight of the bridge components.
• Live Load: Traffic loads.
• Impact Load: Dynamic effects of moving vehicles.
• Wind Load: Lateral forces due to wind.
• Seismic Load: Forces from earthquake activity.
• Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Forces: Water pressure and flow forces.
• Earth Pressure: Lateral forces from surrounding soil.

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12. Types of Abutment:

• Gravity Abutment: Uses its weight to resist lateral forces.
• Cantilever Abutment: Extends horizontally to provide support.
• Counterfort Abutment: Uses counterforts (reinforced walls) to increase stability.
• Stub Abutment: Small abutment located near the top of the slope.
13. Stability Analysis of Abutments:
• Sliding Stability: Ensuring resistance to lateral sliding forces.
• Overturning Stability: Preventing rotation or tipping over.
• Bearing Capacity: Ensuring foundation can support the loads.
• Settlement Analysis: Ensuring even and acceptable levels of settlement.
14. Considerations for Selection of Bearings:
• Type of Movement: Translational or rotational requirements.
• Load Capacity: Bearing's ability to support design loads.
• Durability and Maintenance: Longevity and ease of maintenance.
• Environmental Conditions: Resistance to weather, temperature, and corrosive elements.
• Cost: Budget constraints and cost-effectiveness.
15. Types of Bearings:
• Fixed Bearings: Restrict all movements, used at one end of the bridge.
• Expansion Bearings: Allow for movements due to thermal expansion.
o Sliding Bearings
o Rocker Bearings
o Roller Bearings
o Elastomeric Bearings
o Pot Bearings
• Seismic Bearings: Designed to absorb and dissipate energy during seismic events.

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UNIT-V CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES

1. What is Falsework: Falsework refers to temporary structures used in construction to support
a permanent structure while it is not self-supporting. In bridge construction, falsework is used
to support the bridge spans and components during the construction phase until the bridge
can support itself. Falsework includes scaffolding, shoring, and formwork necessary to
construct and stabilize the bridge until it reaches its full structural integrity.
2. Maintenance in Bridges: Maintenance of bridges involves a range of activities aimed at
preserving the structural integrity, safety, and functionality of the bridge over its lifespan. Key
maintenance activities include:
o Regular Inspections: Scheduled inspections to identify any damage, wear, or
deterioration.
o Cleaning: Removing debris, vegetation, and corrosive substances.
o Repairs: Fixing any identified damage, such as cracks, spalling, or corrosion.
o Surface Treatments: Applying protective coatings, sealants, and waterproofing.
o Structural Reinforcement: Strengthening weakened components using additional
supports or materials.
o Joint and Bearing Maintenance: Checking and maintaining expansion joints and
bearings to ensure proper movement and load distribution.
o Drainage Maintenance: Ensuring that drainage systems are clear and functional to
prevent water accumulation and damage.
3. When to Fill Out a Bridge Inspection Request for Action Form: A Bridge Inspection Request
for Action Form should be filled out when:
o Significant structural deficiencies or safety hazards are identified during an inspection.
o Immediate repairs or interventions are necessary to ensure the safety and
functionality of the bridge.
o New damage is observed that wasn't previously documented.
o Recommendations from a previous inspection report need to be acted upon.
o There are unusual circumstances or events, such as natural disasters or accidents, that
may affect the bridge's condition.
4. When to Increase Bridge Inspection Frequencies: Bridge inspection frequencies should be
increased when:
o The bridge is showing signs of accelerated deterioration or damage.

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o The bridge is classified as structurally deficient or functionally obsolete.

o There are significant changes in traffic patterns or loads.
o The bridge is exposed to severe environmental conditions, such as flooding, heavy
snow, or salt exposure.
o Previous inspections have indicated a need for closer monitoring.
o The bridge has experienced recent damage from events like accidents or natural
disasters.
5. When to Recommend a Load Rating: A load rating should be recommended when:
o A new bridge is constructed or an existing bridge is significantly modified.
o There is a change in the legal load limits or traffic patterns.
o Regular inspections reveal signs of deterioration that may affect load-carrying
capacity.
o There are plans for changes in the types or volumes of traffic using the bridge.
o The bridge experiences damage from an incident, such as a vehicle collision or natural
disaster.
o Engineering analysis or inspection reports suggest that the bridge’s capacity may be
compromised.
6. When to Recommend Closing a Bridge: A bridge should be recommended for closure when:
o Inspections reveal critical structural deficiencies that pose an immediate safety risk.
o There is evidence of significant damage that could lead to imminent failure, such as
major cracks, severe corrosion, or substantial deformation.
o The bridge can no longer safely carry its intended loads.
o Emergency situations, such as flooding or earthquakes, compromise the bridge's
integrity.
o Load ratings indicate that the bridge cannot safely support even the minimal traffic
loads.
o Repair or replacement activities necessitate the temporary closure of the bridge to
ensure safety.

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