IIUM FYP Civil Engineering Conference, 2024 (Mahamud and Saad)

SEAWATER INFLUENCE ON STRENGTH

DEVELOPMENT AND MICROSTRUCTURE
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO
DIFFERENT CURING REGIME

DAYANA ASYRANI BINTI MAHAMUD, ASST.PROF. ASMAHANI

BINTI SAAD
Department of Civil Engineering Engineering,
International Islamic University Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
dyana.asyrani23@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: One of the most concerning problems the world has been facing over the
last few decades in the rising demand for freshwater due to increasing global population and
depleting sources of freshwater. Therefore, we need to think of alternative uses of water for
concrete construction work. This study aims to compare the mechanical and microstructure
characteristics of concrete using sea water and fresh water mixed with water cement ratio
0.61. Other than that, the influence of curing condition such as freshwater curing and
seawater curing on the strength and porosity of concrete mixed. The size of concrete use in
this project is 150𝑚𝑚3 cube and mortar. There will be 68 sample using cubic mould. The
immersion periods were 7, 14, 28 and 90 days. Mechanical testing of concrete will be
conduct by testing the compressive strength using destructive method to compare the fresh
and hardened properties of freshwater and sea water mixed concretes. Other than that, the
testing of concrete microstructure will be conducted using Scan Electron Microscopy
(SEM). The elucidation of cement paste will be conduct by testing using Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).

ABSTRAK: Salah satu masalah yang paling membimbangkan yang dihadapi dunia sejak
beberapa dekad kebelakangan ini adalah peningkatan permintaan terhadap air tawar akibat
peningkatan populasi global dan sumber air tawar yang semakin berkurangan. Oleh itu,
kita perlu memikirkan penggunaan air alternatif untuk kerja pembinaan konkrit. Kajian ini
bertujuan untuk membandingkan ciri mekanikal dan mikrostruktur konkrit menggunakan
air laut dan air tawar yang dicampur dengan nisbah air simen 0.61. Selain itu, pengaruh
keadaan pengawetan seperti pengawetan air tawar dan pengawetan air laut terhadap
kekuatan dan keliangan campuran konkrit. Saiz penggunaan konkrit dalam projek ini ialah
150𝑚𝑚3 kiub dan mortar. Terdapat 68 sampel menggunakan acuan padu. Tempoh
rendaman ialah 7, 14, 28 dan 90 hari. Ujian mekanikal konkrit akan dijalankan dengan
menguji kekuatan mampatan menggunakan kaedah pemusnah untuk membandingkan sifat
segar dan keras bagi konkrit campuran air tawar dan air laut. Selain itu, ujian mikrostruktur
konkrit akan dijalankan menggunakan Scan Electron Microscopy (SEM). Penjelasan pes
simen akan dijalankan dengan ujian menggunakan Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR).

KEYWORDS: sustainable concrete;seawater concrete;freshwater concrete; seawater curing;

freshwater curing; compressive strength; SEM analysis;FTIR analysis

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1. INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, it has become clear that continuous rising demand for freshwater can
cause the world to be suffering from water scarcity. This is due to underwater crisis and
many in water crisis. The rise in demand for water is driven by factors such as an increasing
world population, higher living standards, changing consumption patterns, and the
expansion of irrigated agriculture. A crucial part of resolving this problem could be the
optimal use of seawater in the manufacturing of concrete. Based on our knowledge of
concrete engineering, we believe there are certain drawbacks to utilising seawater for
mixing and curing concrete, but there are also benefits.(Hamada et al., 2021).
The United Nations World Water Development Report 2019 makes it clear that there
is a serious problem with the availability of freshwater on a worldwide scale that might
affect millions of people by the year 2050. As a result, the notion of substituting seawater
for freshwater in concrete mixes has gained popularity as a possible way to save freshwater
supplies. Seawater is a huge and easily accessible resource since it makes up around 97.6%
of the water surface on Earth (Oki et al., 2009). The construction industry uses a massive
amount of freshwater −1.66𝑥109 𝑚3of water is consumed annually for concrete production
worldwide, which is approximately 18% of global annual industrial water consumption.
(Ebead et al., 2022)
In consideration of these factors, substituting seawater for freshwater in concrete
mixes appears to be a workable solution at sight. It not only solves the imminent freshwater
deficit but also adheres to sustainable principles, potentially having positive effects on both
the environment and the construction sector. To improve mix designs, examine long-term
performance, and guarantee the effective use of seawater mixed concrete in diverse building
applications, more research and development are required.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The experimental program was planned to investigate the effect of seawater for mixing
and curing on the gain in strength and microstructure of concrete at differerent ages. This
study includes determination of compressive strength up to 90 days of 68 specimens made
by using freshwater as well as seawater.

2.1 Materials used

The details of various materials used in the experimental investigation are as following:
1) Cement : Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Type 1 was used in this research,
according to BS EN 197-1 2000.OPC Type 1 was preferred because the observation
on concrete properties can be done in normal hydration process.
2) Aggregates : Crushed aggregate with a maximum size of 20 mm will be used in this
project as coarse aggregate according to BS 812-103.2 1989,. Additionally, the
coarse aggregates will be cleaned before to mixing to create Saturated Surface Dry
(SSD) aggregates. The wet aggregates will then be left outside for 12 hours, sheltered
from the sun. Natural sand classed as Zone 3 with the finest modulus of 2.7 is used
for fine aggregate.

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3) Mixing water : The water used was freshwater and seawater, the fresh water was
gotten from the tap in the laboratory, while seawater collected from Bagan Nakhoda
Omar at Pantai Sungai Lang will be selected as the water supplier for this project.

2.2 Test layout and procedure

Four different group of concrete, namely concrete FF, FS, SF, and SS will be used.
Relevant information of the concrete mixes given in table, where each group will mix and
cure in fresh water (FF), mix and cure in seawater (SS), mix with freshwater cure in seawater
(FS) and mix with seawater and cure in freshwater (SF). Concrete cube of 150 X 150 X 150
(mm) use for the test and analysis. Test specimens will be test periodically after specified
curing periods of 7,14, 28 and 90 days in freshwater as well as seawater. A total specimen
of 68 concrete cubes will be cast in the laboratory and the specimens are kept at 22°C
temperature for 24 hours. After demoulding, all specimens will be cure as per program
schedule indicated in table.

Table 1 The proportion of mixture

Concrete W/C ratio Mixing Curing

category mode mode

FF 0.61 Freshwater Freshwater

FS 0.61 Freshwater Seawater

SF 0.61 Seawater Freshwater

SS 0.61 Seawater Seawater

There are several tests for seawater mixed concrete sample will be conducted to
investigate the strength of seawater as a substituent of a freshwater. Tests conducted based
on the specific standard.
Testing of concrete specimens was conducted for fresh concrete and hardened
concrete. Fresh was analysed for its workability characteristic using slump test. While
hardened concrete tests were conducted to analyse the uniformity of concrete and
compressive strength development of concrete using destructive method compressive
strentgh test. Other than that, setting time analysis also been conducted.

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Workability
The slump test was done in every concrete category.

Table 2 Slump test value

Mixing Mode Average Slump Value (mm)

Freshwater 10

Seawater 5

There are three possible shapes that the slump pattern might take: real slump, shear
slump, and collapse slump. During a genuine slump, the concrete gradually sinks,
maintaining its approximate cone-like structure. In shear slump, the upper section of the
concrete fractures and moves laterally. In contrast, during a collapse slump, the concrete
experiences a full collapse at a height greater than 160mm. According to the acquired
findings, the depression was classified as a genuine slump.
Vicat test was done to determine the setting time of cement. It measures the consistency
and workability of cement paste and helps in assessing the initial and final setting times.
Table illustrates the results of Vicat Test conducted according to different concrete mix.

Table 3 Comparison of setting time of concrete mixed

Mixing mode Initial setting time (min) Final setting time (min)

Freshwater 327 543

Seawater 305 524

During the process of seawater mixed hydration, particularly in the first phase, the
calcium, aluminate, and ferrite ions are used to create Friedal's salt, which in turn enhances
the rate at which 𝐶3 𝑆,𝐶3 𝐴,𝐶4 𝐴𝐹 hydrate. The increased hydration during the first phase is
accountable for the rapid release of heat and more self-induced shrinkage; the proportion of
solid particles is raised to decrease the time required for the cement to set; the cement
solidifies more quickly, resulting in better compressive strength and a more refined pore
structure. (Li et al., 2021). The results of the test are consistent with the findings of
Khatibmasjedi et al., (2020), which stated that the addition of saltwater to cement paste
resulted in an accelerated setting process.

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3.2 Compressive Strength Test

Table 4 Compressive strength of concrete mixed

Based on the analysis of the compression test data shown in table 4.4, it can be concluded
that at the early age of 7 days, the concrete mixture including freshwater and cured in
freshwater exhibits the maximum strength compared to the other mixtures. However, the
differences among them vary little, with a 1% variation. Based on the analysis of the results,
it was shown that saltwater mixed concrete exhibited superior strength compared to other
curing regimes at the age of 14 days. The disparity between saltwater mixed and freshwater
mixed is 9.5%. This is a result of the chloride's ability to accelerate the hydration process
during the early stages.
By the time they are 28 days old, all concrete mixtures have a similar strength, ranging
from 30.55 MPa to 32.30 MPa. Although they may seem similar, concrete that is cured in
saltwater, specifically seawater mixed concrete, has the lowest performance among the four
options. The incorporation of saltwater in concrete leads to a little increase in density, since
the disparity between the densities of seawater and freshwater is just 2%-3%. The citation
"(Ebead et al., 2022)" refers to a publication by Ebead and colleagues in the year 2022.
Based on the observation of the compressive strength test, it is evident that the strength
of freshwater mixed concrete is greater than that of saltwater mixed concrete during a period

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of 90 days of curing. Using seawater for the mixing and curing of concrete leads to around
a 6% reduction in strength compared to concrete that is prepared and cured using freshwater.
This conclusion is consistent with the research conducted by Q. Guo in 2018. According to
Kaushik and Islam (2009), the decrease in long-term strength may be attributed to the
leaching of hydration products. Wegian however suggested that the decrease of strength due
to salt crystallization in concrete. Magnesium sulfates (𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4) in seawater react with
calcium hydroxide (𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2) in the pore solution to form soluble magnesium hydroxide
(𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 ) and gypsum (𝐶𝑎𝑆04 . 2𝐻2 𝑂). These phases may cause expansive crystallization
pressure which results in decrease in the concrete strength. (Younis et al., 2018)

Figure 1 Bar Graph development of the compressive strength of concrete at different

curing regime

3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis (SEM)

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis was done at concrete age of 28 days
and 90 days to describe the microstructure condition of the produced concrete mixed mixing
and curing at freshwater and seawater. SEM images were taken at 1µm and magnified at
10000 times. Figure 4.1 to figure 4.4 illustrated the results obtained in SEM analysis.

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Figure 2 Freshwater Mixing curing in Figure 3 Seawater mixing curing in

fresh water freshwater

Figure 4 Freshwater mixing curing in Figure 5 Seawater mixing curing in

seawater seawater

The presence of seawater decreased the porosity and resulted in the refining of the pore
diameters. The effect on pore diameters is substantial during the first stages and very
negligible during the latter stages, similar to the influence on compressive strength.
Seawater not only alters the pore diameters and porosity by varying the hydration level, but
it also affects the pore properties by modifying the structure of the hydrates. The presence
of saltwater has been proposed to promote the development of a C-S-H matrix phase with a
large surface area, as a result of the production of finely intermixed nanocrystals with the
C-S-H.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures reveal that in freshwater
combinations, the anhydrous grains stay smooth and exhibit little development of calcium-
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H). In contrast, the seawater mixtures show a significant precipitation

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of C-S-H. A more compact and less permeable microstructure is seen using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) imaging of the fractured surface in combinations containing
seawater.
Upon comparing the outcomes of concrete made using freshwater and saltwater, it was
observed that the microstructure of the seawater mixes exhibited a denser arrangement. This
phenomenon was ascribed to the influence of chloride ions on the pores in cement paste and
the expedited hydration of cement. The presence of Friedel's salt was not readily apparent
in the specific SEM pictures of seawater mixes, perhaps owing to the confined sample areas
and the relatively lower concentration of Friedel's salt compared to ettringite in these mixes.

3.4 Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis

Figure 6 Graph of FTIR analysis of concrete mix at 7days

Figure 7 Graph of FTIR analysis of concrete mix at 28days

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Table 5 FTIR spectra data of concrete paste

Frequency (𝑐𝑚−1)
Structural Elucidation
Freshwater paste Seawater paste
682 684 Si-O bond rocking
950 947 Symmetric Si-O bending
1113 1109 Asymmetric Si-O-Si
stretching in 𝑆𝑖𝑂4
tetrahedron
1476 1466 H-O-H bending
3085 3046 O-H stretching and
absorbed water

The cement pastes prepared for Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
analysis. The FTIR was analysed at the wavenumber of 4000-500 𝑐𝑚−1 used to determine
the paste composition of a concrete mix. This analysis aims to find the functional groups of
the chemical compound in the seawater and freshwater concrete mix. The paste ate the age
7 and 28 days used for this analysis.
Based on the figure, the wavenumber of the O-H is between 3000 and 4000 𝑐𝑚−1.
Besides, the Si-O-Si and Al-O-Si stretching vibrations were detected at the wavenumber of
1200-1000 𝑐𝑚−1. However, the increase of C-O stretching at the wavenumber of 1300-1500
𝑐𝑚−1 indicated the 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 . The increase of C-O stretching of the wavenumber 1300-1550
𝑐𝑚−1 because of the high calcite.

4. CONCLUSION
The research you described focuses on the development of an eco-friendly material for
the construction sector by utilizing seawater as a replacement for freshwater in concrete
mixtures. The study aimed to investigate both the microstructure and mechanical properties
of seawater concrete mixes, with a focus on how seawater affects the porosity, pore sizes,
and overall strength of the concrete.In summary, the research suggests that seawater not
only positively influences the mechanical properties of the concrete, such as compressive
strength, but also has a significant impact on the microstructure, reducing porosity and
refining pore sizes. The chemical analysis provides insights into the presence of specific
compounds, including calcite, which may contribute to the observed changes in the concrete
mixtures. Overall, the study supports the feasibility of using seawater in concrete production
as an environmentally friendly alternative.

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