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Dơnload Essentials of Tourism 4th Edition Chris Cooper Full Chapter
Dơnload Essentials of Tourism 4th Edition Chris Cooper Full Chapter
Dơnload Essentials of Tourism 4th Edition Chris Cooper Full Chapter
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a stone roller for threshing rice and a shovel for winnowing. Manure,
consisting of horse and cow droppings, night soil and ashes, was
bought in the city at the rate of threepence per donkey load, and
used freely on the land, which was a rich alluvial loam; the frequent
storms also deposited layers of dust which were regarded as good
for the crops.
The house, which Isa Haji owned and had built room by room as he
could afford it, at a total cost (including the land) of £50, covered a
square of sixty feet. The guest-room, in which he lived during the
summer and in which the meals were cooked and served, was about
twenty feet square and was lighted by a hole in the roof. A mud
platform covered with felts, on which the family slept, occupied a
prominent position, and the chief piece of furniture was a carved box,
which held clothes and served as a bedstead. Above it was a shelf
full of Russian teapots. Off this room opened the store-room, in
which grain was kept for winter consumption and which served as
the living-room in winter. There was also a courtyard partly roofed in
with matting during the summer, in which grew a shady tree, and this
was the chief working room of the wife and daughters-in-law at that
season. Here we noticed a cradle, a spinning-wheel and various
pans. Two small rooms belonged to two unmarried sons, and the
rest of the square contained stabling, an oven and a store for dry
fodder.
THE SONS OF ISA HAJI PLOUGHING.
Page 304.
The home was managed by the wife and her three daughters-in-law,
who cooked the food, looked after the children and made the
clothes. They did not work in the fields, but spun the cotton into yarn,
which they wove into the rough white calico of which most of the
clothing of the poorer classes is fashioned.
The staple food of the family was bread made from millet, a grain
that is held to be more sustaining than wheat or rice. Isa Haji’s large
family consumed all his share of the crops, except the lucerne and
some of the melons, turnips, carrots and linseed, which were sold.
The oil of the linseed was used for cooking and lighting.
The chief meal of these peasant-farmers was eaten at sunset and
consisted of suyukash, a soup prepared from pieces of paste-like
macaroni and vegetables boiled in water. In the morning they took
tea with cream and salt, and fruit and bread were eaten at odd
hours. Meat, generally beef, appeared on their table only once a
week. There was plenty of this rude fare, supplemented by slices of
pumpkin eaten hot and by other delicacies; and Isa Haji’s sons
appeared healthy, their teeth being noticeably fine and sound. They
said that they suffered a good deal from lack of warmth in the winter,
as charcoal was dear and had to be used sparingly. They placed a
bowl of lighted charcoal under a wooden frame, over which a quilt
was thrown, and the family sat by day and slept by night under this
covering, with their feet towards the centre.
Isa Haji had been the tenant of the farm for more than ten years. It
included three small properties belonging to three Kashgar
merchants. Two-thirds of the lucerne, amounting in value to about
five pounds, and one half of the other crops, were paid over as rent.
He had no security of tenure, and could be turned out at will, but the
prospect of this appeared to him unlikely, and he expressed
satisfaction with his lot.
The farm paid revenue to the extent of 105 lbs. of wheat, a similar
quantity of millet and 2100 lbs. of chopped straw, Isa Haji and his
landlords each paying one half of the whole. There had also to be
met the demand of the Chinese authorities for forced labour on
public works and transport, but this was compounded for in money
and might come to the equivalent of two shillings per annum.
Nothing was paid for the use of irrigation water, and the taxation
represented less than 5 per cent of the two main crops. In the case
of villages situated at some distance from the city double this amount
may be taken by the tax collectors, who are more exacting in
proportion to their distance from headquarters.
To sum up, we have an oasis in which agriculture is not affected by
the rainfall, but depends entirely on the rivers. The peasants have
enough to eat, a good climate and neighbours in abundance. There
are few parts of the world where the people are so contented, and,
although discontent might perhaps bring an improvement of their lot,
it is pleasant to see such cheerful, friendly tillers of the soil leading a
healthy agricultural life, and to meet them returning home at night
singing their tuneful songs:
When her hour was come, no one was allowed to leave the house
unless upon business that was urgent, in which case no harm was
anticipated, provided that some article of dress was left behind. The
women of the neighbourhood assembled to help, and during the
delivery cried out with the idea of keeping the birth a secret, a
custom adopted from the Chinese. The newly born infant, too, was
carefully concealed from visitors.
If former children belonging to the parents have all died, which is,
alas, a frequent occurrence, the father, dressed as a beggar, takes
the baby to the bazar and begs from the shopkeepers small pieces
of calico, which are made into a shirt, the idea being to avoid
misfortune by thus humbling himself. Special names signifying “solid”
or “stay” or “may he stay!” are in such cases given to the child when
he is named, between the third and seventh day, by a mulla, who
first whispers the azan or call to prayer into his ear. On the fortieth
day the head of the infant is shaved and the hair buried. A sheep is
sacrificed and eaten on this occasion, while its bones, which must
not be broken, are buried.
The rite of circumcision, one of the most important of the “five
foundations” of Islam, is performed between the third and eighth
years. The barber operates, and in the case of the rich the event is
celebrated by a feast lasting two or three days, at which the boy
receives presents including hard-boiled eggs, with which he plays a
game by knocking them together.
Children of both sexes are sent to school very young, the idea being
that they will gradually pick up their letters. Education in Kashgar
merely consists of learning by heart a chapter of the Koran and its
Turki equivalent. The letters are taught, penmanship is encouraged,
and lessons are given in the forms of prayer and of ablution.
Geography, history (as distinct from legend), mathematics and
foreign languages are utterly neglected, and the girls leave school at
about ten and most of the boys a year or two later. The teachers are
narrow-minded bigots, and the parents are content to have it so, with
the result that there is not much progress in Kashgar.
We visited the chief boys’ school in Kashgar, where the master bade
his favourite pupils recite passages from the Koran. This they did in
a lugubrious sing-song, swaying backwards and forwards as if in
pain. The pedagogue and his scholars were then photographed,
holding imposing leather-bound and silver-embossed books, which
on enquiry proved to be commentaries on the Koran.
A KASHGAR SCHOOL.
Page 316.
The visitor places his verses secretly in the house and then
decamps. If the owner of the house catches him he beats him, paints
his face like a girl and leads him through the streets calling out, “This
is the punishment for the man who throws snow”; and the visitor is
then bound to give an entertainment. But if the owner of the house
does not catch the visitor, he himself must prepare a banquet. If he
fails to do so within a week, bulrushes are tied on the top of his door,
and if this hint is not sufficient, the bier from the cemetery is placed
outside his house.
Owing to Chinese influence, there is no Moslem country where
respect for parents and for superiors is so strong as in Kashgar.
During the lives of the parents they are never referred to by name by
their children, but are always addressed as “My Lord.” A son will
never sit in the presence of his father without special permission, but
will stand with the head bowed and hands folded in token of humility.
He would never dream of retiring to sleep before his father, nor of
smoking in his presence. To superiors deference is shown by
dismounting from horseback, and by always prefacing an answer
with taksir or “fault,” which has come to be the equivalent of our “Sir.”
Upon receipt of a robe of honour, the recipient bows low, sweeping
the arms in a circle to stroke the beard. Women courtesy by bowing
low with folded hands.
The Kashgaris have few games, but kite-flying, an elementary form
of rounders, pitch-and-toss into a hole with walnuts or coins, and a
kind of tip-cat are favourite amusements. Grown-up men indulge in
ram-fighting and partridge-fighting, heavy bets being made on the
contests.
Music is extremely popular, the Kashgar peasants being distinctly
musical, and their refrains, sung in unison on returning from work,
are pleasing to the European ear. The usual instruments are the
tambourine, the mandoline and the four-stringed rubab. In Kashgar
dancing is regarded as improper, and is indulged in only by
professional women or boys; but in the Khotan oasis, among the
Dulanis of Merket, the Sarikolis and the Kirghiz, men and women
dance together at weddings. At entertainments the men and women
sit on opposite sides and, when the music commences, a woman
rises and places a handkerchief in front of a man, who thereupon
rises also, sings a song and returns the handkerchief. This is done
by all present, and men and women then dance together.
During my stay in Chinese Turkestan I sought for any custom which
might be a survival from the days of the Nestorian Christians. One
such is that horse-dealers, when a bargain is not concluded, make
the sign of the cross on the horse to avert the evil eye. It is
interesting to note that, owing to Chinese influence, black and dark
grey are the favourite colours for horses, whereas few people care to
buy a roan, whose colour is deemed unlucky.