Chapter 2

Transformers
2.1 Concept of inrush currents and harmonics in 3-phase transformers
2.2 Parallel operation of transformers: satisfactory conditions for parallel
operation of transformers
2.3 Design aspect of power transformers
2.4 Special transformers and their application

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2.1 Concept of inrush currents and harmonics in 3-phase
transformers
❑ Transformer is a static electromagnetic energy conversion device that transfers
electrical energy from one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction without
change in frequency.
❑ In power systems, power transformer is the main component.
❑ Transformer construction contains two main materials: magnetic materials and
conductors.
❑ The magnetic material consists of laminated iron core and carries flux linked to
windings.
❑ The magnetic field produced in the windings is used to transfer electrical energy
from one circuit to another.
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❑ The iron core provides a low reluctance path to themagnetic flux thereby
reducing magnetizing current.
❑ An inrush current is a transient current with high amplitude that may occur
when a transformer is energized under no load or lightly loaded conditions.
❑ Inrush currents can exceed the nominal current and may achieve the rated value
of the short-circuit current of the power transformer and result in false operation
of protective devices.
❑ In actual practice, a transient phenomenon in the form of inrush current is
unavoidable since the instant of switching in three phase transformer cannot be
easily controlled and the instant of switching favorable to one phase is not
favorable to the other two phases.
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❑ From the figure, as the
transformer is switched off, the
excitation current drops to
zero following the hysteresis
curve. Whereas, flux density
stays at some non-zero
residual value Br.
❑ The dotted lines shows the
curves for current and flux
density if the transformer is
not switched off.
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❑ When the transformer is
switched in, the flux density
starts from residual value
instead of the negative
minimum and reaches the
peak value of Br + 2Bmp which
drives the core into saturation.
❑ Similarly the current also rises
from zero to peak value which
is above the nominal value.

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❑ A typical waveform of an inrush current is shown in the figure below for a
phase switched on at the most unfavorable instant (i.e., at zero crossing of
the applied voltage wave).

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Types of Transformer Inrush Currents
❑ Transformer inrush currents are categorized under one of the following types.
i. Energization inrush: results from the reapplication of system voltage to a
transformer which has been previously de-energized.
ii. Recovery inrush: occurs when transformer voltage is restored after having
been reduced by a nearby short circuit on the system.
iii. Sympathetic inrush: can occur when two or more transformers are
operated in parallel. Offsets in inrush currents can circulate in transformers
already energized, which in turn causes a mild inrush.

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❑ Large inrush may cause an excessive momentary dip in the supply voltage
affecting operation of other interconnected electrical equipment and already
energized transformers.
❑ A transient magnetizing inrush current reaching magnitudes as high as six to
eight times the rated current flows in a transformer switched on to an electric
power network.
❑ The other transformers already connected to the network near the
transformer may also have a transient magnetizing current of appreciable
magnitude at the same time.

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❑ When transformer B is switched on to the network which is already connected
to transformer C in the neighborhood, the transient inrush current of
transformer also flows into transformer C and produces a DC flux in the
transformers.
❑ This results in rise to flux density and corresponding to higher magnetizing
currents in the other transformer C.

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Factors affecting inrush currents
a. Switching-on angle (α)
❑ Inrush currents decrease as switching-on angle (of the voltage wave)
increases. It will be maximum for α = 0⁰ and minimum for α = 90⁰.
❑ Assume residual flux is constant for all switching angles, and the source
resistance is considered to be zero; the following fig. shows the relationship
between switching angle and inrush current magnitude.

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 α = 0⁰
α = 45 ⁰
α = 90 ⁰
α = 135 ⁰

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b. Residual flux density
❑ Inrush current is significantly aggravated by residual flux density, which
depends upon core material characteristics and the power factor of the load
at interruption when a transformer was switched off.
❑ As can be seen from the figure, the first cycle peak current has large change
when the remnant flux varies. Switching at 90 ⁰ or Br = 0 may not necessarily
reduce the magnitude of inrush current.
❑ Hence, in order to reduce inrush current, appropriate switching angle by
considering remnant flux must be selected.

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The effect of remnant flux on the first cycle peak current value at different switching angles

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c. Series resistance
❑ The resistances of source and the line between the source and transformer
have a predominant effect on the inrush phenomenon.
❑ Due to the damping effect, series resistance between the transformer and
source not only reduces the maximum initial inrush current but also hastens
(speed up) its decay rate.

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 R1
R2
R3 R1 < R2 < R3 < R4
R4

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d. Inrush current under load
❑ If a transformer is switched on with load, the inrush current peaks are
affected to some extent by the load power factor. When it is switched on
under heavy load with the power factor close to unity, the peak value of
inrush current is smaller, and as the power factor reduces, the inrush current
peak is higher.

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Mitigation of inrush currents
❑ During the inrush phenomena, inrush current in the saturated core condition is
limited by the air core reactance of the windings and hence it is usually lower than
the peak short circuit current due to faults.
❑ Since transformers are designed to withstand mechanical effects of short circuit
forces, inrush current may not be considered to be dangerous, although they may
unnecessarily cause operation of protective devices like relays and fuses.
❑ One of the ways of reducing inrush current is to switch in transformers through a
closing resistor. The voltage at the transformer terminals is lower than the rated
value (50%) reducing the inrush current. The resistor is subsequently by-passed to
apply full voltage.

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❑ If possible, a transformer should be switched from its high voltage winding,
which is usually the outer winding in core type transformers and therefore has
a higher air core reactance resulting in a lower value of inrush current.
❑ Since residual flux is one of the main reasons for high inrush currents, any
attempt to reduce it helps in mitigating the inrush phenomenon. A capacitor of
suitable size is connected across it.

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2.2 Parallel operation of transformers
❑ The parallel operation of transformers becomes necessary due to the
following reasons:
i. With two or more transformers operating in parallel, the power system
becomes more reliable. For instance if one transformer develops fault, it
can be removed and the other transformers can maintain the flow of power,
though at a reduced level.
ii. Transformers can be switched off or on, depending upon the power
demand. In this manner, the transformer losses decreases and the
system becomes more economical and efficient in operation.
iii. The cost of standby (spare) set is reduced when two or more
transformers are installed.

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Conditions for satisfactory operation of transformers in parallel:
i. Transformation or turn-ratios and voltage ratings are same.
ii. Polarities of the transformers are same.
iii. Percentage impedances of the transformers are same.
iv. Ratios of resistance to reactance are same.
v. Phase displacement between primary and secondary windings of the
transformers are the same.
vi. Phase sequences of the transformers are same.

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 Input Output

Two single-phase transformers connected in parallel

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For single phase transformers:
❑ Only the first four conditions apply due to no phase sequence and phase
displacement.
❑ If the turn-ratios or voltage ratings are not the same, a circulating current will
flow even at no-load.
❑ If the percent impedance or the ratios of resistance to reactance are not the
same, the sharing of load between the transformers when applied will no
longer be proportional to their KVA ratings. Hence the capacities of the
transformers can not be utilized to a full extent.

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For single phase transformers:
❑ The total capacity of two paralleled transformers that have unequal percent
impedances is expressed by the relation.
ZB
Total capacity = S A + SB
ZA

where, SA and ZA are the respective capacity and percent impedance of

transformer of larger percent impedance, and SB and ZB are the respective
capacity and percent impedance of transformer of smaller percent impedance.

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For three phase transformers:
❑ The same conditions hold true for three-phase transformers except in this case
the questions of phase displacement and phase sequence must be considered.
❑ Phase sequence refers to the order in which the terminal voltages reach their
maximum values. In paralleling those terminals whose voltages reach their
maximum simultaneously are paired.
❑ Certain transformer connections as the Wye-delta or delta-Wye produce a
phase displacement of 30° between the line voltages of primary and secondary
sides.
❑ Transformers of such connections can not run in parallel with the transformers
not having this phase displacement such as Wye-Wye, or delta-delta.
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 Circuit diagram for three-phase transformers connected in parallel
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2.3 Design aspect of power transformers
❑ Design is a creative physical realization of theoretical concepts.
❑ Engineering design is application of science, technology and invention to
produce a machine that can perform a specific task with optimum economy
and efficiency.
❑ The major considerations to develop a good design are:
a. cost
b. durability
c. compliance with performance criteria as per the specification
❑ These requirements are conflicting and usually it is difficult to meet all of
them. It is impossible to design cheep and durable machine at the same time.
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❑ Basic structural parts of a transformer that engineers should design carefully
are:
▪ Magnetic parts (iron core)
▪ Conductor parts (windings)
▪ Insulating parts (dielectrics)
▪ Ventilation and cooling parts (thermal)
▪ Mechanical parts

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1. Specifications
❑ To design a transformer, a designer needs to know the following important
specifications:
1. Capacity ( power rating) of the transformer, in KVA
2. Voltage ratings of primary and secondary windings, in KV
3. Number of phases, 1 - phase or 3 – phase
4. Working Frequency, in Hz
5. Type of connections in 3-phase transformers , STAR or DELTA
6. Tapping, if any
7. Type of iron assembly, Core or Shell type

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 8. Type of transformer, Power or Distribution
9. Operating average ambient temperature, in ⁰C (generally 40 ⁰ C)
10. Type of cooling to be used
➢ Cooling medium; air, Oil, water
➢ Circulation type; Natural, forced
➢ Simple cooling, mixed cooling
11. Temperature rise above ambient, depending on insulation class
12. No – load current;
➢ Amperes
➢ % 0f rated current at rated voltage and rated frequency

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 13. Voltage regulation;
➢ % or P.U. at full load at 75oC unity P.F. or 0.8 P.F. lag
➢ impedance, % or P.U.
➢ reactance, % or P.U.
14. Efficiency, in % or P.U. at full load, ½ load, ¾ load at unity P.F. and
0.8 P.F

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2. Basic principles
❑ The design of dielectric, thermal, and mechanical parts is based upon
knowledge of decades of experience and practice.
❑ However, the design of both electric and magnetic circuits is based upon
well-established basic laws: induction, interaction and alignment laws.
❑ Transformer action is based on induction laws where the coil is
stationary and the flux is varying.
d
e=− volts, Faraday's Law
dt
d
e = −N volts, for N number of turns
dt

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❑ Let the basic quantities required for transformer design are designated as
follows
S – output , KVA
ɸm – main flux, wb
Bm – max. flux density, wb/m2
δ – current density, A/m2
Agi – gross core area, m2
Ai – net core area = staking factor * gross core area, m2
Ac – area of copper in the window, m2
Aw – window area, m2
D – distance between core centers, m
d – diameter of circumscribing circle, m
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 Kw – window space factor
f – frequency, Hz
Et – emf per turn, v
Tp, Ts – number of turns in prim. & second. windings respectively.
Ip, Is – current in prim. & second. windings respectively, A
Vp, Vs – terminal voltage of prim. &second. windings, V
ap, as – area of conductors of prim. & second. windings, m2
li – mean length of flux path in iron, m
Lmi – length of mean turn of transformer windings, m
Gi, Gc – weight of active iron and copper, kg
Pi – loss in iron per kg, w (specific iron loss)
Pc – loss in copper per kg, w (specific copper loss)
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 Single-phase transformer components

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a. Single-phase transformer
❑ Voltage induced per turn of a single-phase transformer with N-turns
E
Et = = 4.44 f m , volts
N

❑ Total copper area in single phase transformer window (one primary & one
secondary)
Ac = copper area of prim. windings + copper area of second. windings
Ac = N p a p + N s as

❑ Taking the current density δ to be the same in prim. & second. windings,
then Ip Is
ap = , as =
 
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❑ Total copper (conductor) area in single phase transformer core window
becomes Ip Is N p I p + Ns Is 2 AT
Ac = N p + Ns = =
   
❑ Because, neglect magnetizing m.m.f,
N p I p = N s I s = AT (Ampere-Turn)

❑ The window space factor Kw is: Ac conductor area in window

Kw = =
Aw total area of window
❑ Then Ac = K w Aw
2 AT
= K w Aw

K w Aw
AT =
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2 36
❑ Rating of single-phase transformer in KVA

S = V p I p  10−3 = E p I p  10−3 , let V p  E p

S = Et N p I p  10−3 = Et AT  10−3
K w Aw K w Aw
S = Et  10 = 4.44 f m
−3
 10−3
2 2
S = 2.22 f m K w Aw  10−3
S = 2.22 fBm K w Aw Ai  10−3 , in KVA , where m = Bm Ai

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Three-phase transformer components

Assembled iron core of a 3-phase transformer

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b. Three-phase transformer
❑ Total copper area in each window (each window accommodates two primary
& two secondary):
 N p I p N s I s  4 AT
Ac = 2  +  =
    

❑ Then the m.m.f through each winding becomes:

4 AT
= K w Aw

K w Aw
AT =
4

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❑ Rating of three-phase transformer in KVA:

S = 3V p I p  10−3 = 3E p I p  10−3 = 3Et N p I p  10−3 = 3Et AT  10−3

K w Aw K w Aw
S = 3Et  10 = 3  4.44 f m
−3
 10−3
4 4
S = 3.33 f m K w Aw  10−3
S = 3.33 fBm K w Aw Ai  10−3 , in KVA

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3. Output equation: EMF per turn of a winding
❑ Consider the output of a single transformer.
S = E  I  10−3 = 4.44 f m N  I  10−3
❑ Here, flux ɸm is roughly measure on the cross section area of the iron core
and NI gives the measure on the cross section of the winding.
❑ Thus, the designer has to relate the dimensions and material in such a way
so as to obtain the desired output and performance at the lowest cost.
❑ Since ɸm determines the core section and NI fix the total copper area, the
ratio ɸm/NI will be constant for a transformer of a given type, service
condition and method of construction.

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❑ Let m
=r
NI

❑ Then m 2 Sr r  10 −3
S = 4.44 f  10−3 , m =  10−3 =  S
r 4.44 f 4.44 f
r  10−3
Et = 4.44 f m = 4.44 f  S = 4.44 f  r  10−3  S
4.44 f
Et = K  S , K = 4.44 f  r  10−3

❑ As r is constant, K is also a constant depending on type, service conditions

and method of construction, etc. It can be taken from catalogue tables.

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Optimum design: A transformer may be designed to make one of the following
quantities as minimum as possible:
➢ Total cost
➢ Total weight
➢ Total volume
➢ Total losses
❑ In general these requirements are contradictory and normally it is possible to
satisfy only one of them. All these quantities vary with the ratio of ɸm/NI = r.
❑ To Design for minimum cost, the cost of iron must be equal to the cost of
conductors.
❑ To design for minimum loss or maximum efficiency, variable losses (I2R loss)
must be equal to constant losses ( Iron loss).
❑ Design work can now be started by suitably choosing values of Bm, δ, and Kw
and determining Ai and Aw.

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4. Design of core section (limb and yoke)
❑ For small-size transformers, the simple rectangular core section can be used
having circular or rectangular coils.
❑ As the transformer's size increases, circular coils are usually used because
of their superior mechanical stability during short circuit situations.
❑ For circular coils, the shape of the core section has to be selected so that no
useful space is wasted and the amount of copper used is minimum
(minimum perimeter). This could be achieved if the core section is a circle.
❑ Since transformer iron cores are assembled from large number of
laminations, the approximate circular shape of the core is achieved by using
stepped core sections. (square, two stepped, three stepped, etc)
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❑ Transformer core is prepared by stacking together thin sheets of laminations
giving the required core section.
❑ These laminations are insulated on both sides by varnish and the assembled
area includes the insulation as well.
❑ Thus, the gross area (Ai) is related to the net area by a factor Ks ( 0.85 – 0.9)
called stacking factor.

Square section
Agi = a 2 , a = d = 0.707d Four stepped core
2
Agi = 0.5d 2 Agi = 87% of the circumcircle
Ai = K s Agi Ai = 78% of the circumcircle
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 Assembled magnetic core

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5. Selection of design constants
❑ Designing work depends on proper selection of design constants.
a. Choice of flux density (Bm): depends on
➢ Type of iron: hot rolled silicon steel 1.1 – 1.5T, cold rolled silicon steel 1.5 –
1.7T
➢ Power rating of the transformer: higher values for higher ratings
➢ Service condition: higher values of Bm for power transformers, lower values of
Bm for distribution transformers
✓ Note: - If higher flux density values are chosen, the net core area Ai reduces,
which helps to reduce the diameter of the core and the length of the mean turn.
This results in the saving of cost of iron and copper. However, the max value of
flux density is limited by the saturation character of the selected iron type. Higher
values of Bm cause increased iron losses which may require intensive cooling.
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b. Choice of current density (δ): Higher values of current density help to design
a transformer with lower dimensions. However, it is mainly limited by
➢ heat produced during nominal operation and efficiency of the transformer.
➢ type of transformer ( power or distribution) because of different requirements
of ohmic and iron losses. Permissible values can be taken from catalogs
considering cooling system to be employed.
c. Choice of window space factor (Kw): It is the ratio of the copper area in the
window and the total window area. The total window area includes the copper
area, the insulation and open areas for air or oil. The amount of copper and
insulation used depends on the KVA and voltage rating respectively and
therefore, the choice of Kw.
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d. Choice of window dimension (AW): Too narrow window results in
increased height of window where distance between adjacent
limbs/windings is less. This reduces leakage reactance.

❑ If lower height is chosen, the window width increases resulting increased

distance between adjacent limbs/windings and increased leakage reactance.

❑ Thus, height and width of the window are taken considering the desirability of
leakage reactance. Usually, the ratio of height to width of window (HW/WW) is
taken in between 2 and 4.
AW = HW  WW

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6. Design of windings
❑ The number of turns of low voltage side can be found from voltage per turn,Et
VLV
N LV = (approximated to nearest integer)
Et
❑ High voltage side number of turns is calculated from NLV
V
N HV = HV N LV
VLV

❑ Tapping is provided on the high voltage side. Therefore, NHV is to be

increased according to the percentage of tapping required.
❑ Currents in low and high voltage windings are:
KVAph  103 KVAph  103
I LV = , amps I HV = , amps
V ph. LV V ph. HV
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 Cylindrical type winding

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❑ The cross-sectional area for LV and HV windings are:
I LV I HV
aLV = , mm 2
aHV = , mm 2
 
❑ Nearest size is selected from the standard table of conductors.
❑ Choice of type of winding – There are different types of windings employed
in transformers such as cylindrical, helical, cross-over, and continuous disc
type. Choice of type of winding depends on voltage and current ratings.
❑ Once the type is properly selected, the winding is designed to fit to the
window dimension with proper provision for cooling ducts, insulation and
clearances.

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7. Design of insulation
❑ During the design of insulation, voltage between the following parts is
considered.:
➢ Between core and LV winding
➢ Between LV and HV windings
➢ Between HV windings on two consecutive limbs
➢ Between yoke and LV as well as HV windings
❑ Different types of insulators that can be used are pressboard, paper, oil-
immersed paper, oil, Bakelite, etc.
8. Design of cooling systems: For large power transformers, tubes and
radiators are employed to circulate natural or forced cooling medium. ( air,
oil, water etc.)
❑ In addition to the above main parts, tank and other mechanical parts are
designed as required depending on the power and type of the transformer.
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 Core-coil assembly and connections

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2.4 Special transformers and their application
Instrument transformers
❑ They are accurate-ratio transformers employed with standard low-range a.c.
instruments. These instrument transformers are of two kinds:
i. Current transformers for measuring large alternating currents
ii. Potential transformers for measuring high alternating voltages

Current transformers: are used with low-

range ammeters to measure currents in high-
voltage alternating-current circuits where it is
not practically possible to connect instruments
and meters directly to lines.
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❑ They insulate the instrument from the high voltage line and step down the
current in a known ratio.
❑ The current (or series) transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of
thick wire connected in series with the line whose current is to be measured.
❑ The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is connected
across the ammeter terminals. (usually of 5 amps).
Safety precautions
❑ It should be noted that since the ammeter resistance is very low, the current
transformer normally works short-circuited. If for any reason, the ammeter is
taken out of the secondary winding, then this winding must be short-circuited
with the help of short circulating switch S.
❑ If this is not done, then due to the absence of counter amp-turns of the
secondary, the unopposed primary m.m.f. will set up an abnormally high flux in
the core which will produce excessive core loss with subsequent heating and a
high voltage across the secondary terminals.
❑ Hence, the secondary of a current transformer should never be left open.
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 Core-coil assembly and connections

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Potential transformers
❑ These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down transformers and
are used in conjunction with standard low-range voltmeters (usually 150-V)
whose deflection when divided by voltage transformation ratio, gives the true
voltage on the high voltage side.
❑ Potential transformers are usually of the dry type for voltages up to 5,000V,
between 5,000 and 13,800 volts, they may be either dry type or oil immersed
type, and for voltages above 13,800 they are always oil immersed type.
❑ Since their secondary windings are required to operate instruments or relays or
pilot lights, their ratings are usually of 40 to 100 W.

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❑ For safety, the secondary should
be completely insulated from the
high-voltage primary and should
be, in addition, grounded for
affording protection to the operator.

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Rectifier transformers
❑ Their duties are more stringent (demanding) than conventional transformers.
❑ With the rapid development in power electronic converters and switching
devices, transformers with modern static converters (rectifiers) are being widely
used for current as high as hundreds of kilo-amperes.
❑ Design and manufacture of transformers with rectifier duty poses certain
challenges and some of the special characteristics of rectifier transformers are:
➢ Complex winding arrangements
➢ High currents and associated stray field effects due to harmonics
➢ Necessity of maintaining constant direct current

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❑ Example: One of the most popular rectifier circuits is three phase six pulse
bridge circuit as shown in the next figure.
❑ It gives a 6-pulse rectifier operation
with the r.m.s. value of the
secondary current for ideal
commutation ( zero overlap angle)
as:

1 2 2 2
I=
2 
0
i 2 d = I d
3
, since i =
3
I d sin 

Id is direct current.
( )
1 3 2
❑ The average value of direct voltage is Vd = 2 E cos d = E
 
3
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❑ The ratings of the primary and secondary windings are equal and can be
given as:
P = 3EI = 1.047Vd I d = 1.047 Pd

Features of rectifier transformers

❑ used in applications where the secondary voltage is required to be varied over a
wide range at a constant current value.
❑ The taps are either provided on the primary winding, or a separate regulating
transformer is used which can be accommodated in the same tank. Because of
very low number of turns and high current value, it is extremely difficult and
uneconomical to have taps on the secondary winding.
❑ For large rating rectifier transformers, the field due to high current causes
excessive stray losses in structural parts made from magnetic steel. Hence,
these parts are usually made of non- magnetic steel.

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❑ Rectifier transformers are subjected to harmonics due to non-sinusoidal
current duty. Hence, some times the pulse number gets decided by
harmonic considerations. Thus, more elaborate loss calculations are
required for rectifier transformers as compared to conventional transformers.
❑ Because of possibility of rectifier faults, special design and manufacturing
precautions are taken for rectifier transformers. It is generally preferred to
design the rectifier transformers with larger core area with the corresponding
smaller number of turns to reduce short circuit forces

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 An active part of the rectifier transformer with the Inter Phase Transformer

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Converter transformers for HVDC
❑ Because of the many advantages of HVDC transmissions as compared to
HVAC, there is a steady increase. The converter transformer is one of the
most important and costly component of HVDC transmission.
❑ As in the case of rectifier transformers, due to harmonics content in
converter circuits, design and construction of converter transformers needs
special attention to be taken into account. i.e.,
➢ operating flux density in the core is kept lower ( around 1.6 Tesla)
➢ conductor dimensions are smaller
➢ a proper de-rating factor is applied depending upon the magnitude of
various harmonic components.
➢ Insulation design is the most challenging and has to be designed for
combined AC-DC voltage stress
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Furnace transformers
❑ These are used to feed the arc or induction furnace. They are characterized
by a low secondary voltage (80 to 1000 V) and high current ( 10 to 60 KA)
depending on the MVA rating.
❑ It has to be specially designed to withstand frequent short circuits on the
secondary side. Currents drawn in the arc furnace are characterized by wide
fluctuations and unbalance conditions which lead to problems of voltage drops,
harmonics, e.t.c.
❑ Non-magnetic steel is invariably used for the LV lead terminals and tank in the
vicinity of low voltage leads to eliminate hot spots and minimize stray losses.

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❑ The leakage reactance of the furnace transformer affects the furnace operation
since it gets added to the reactance of the high current connection between the
transformer secondary and electrodes. The higher the reactance, the lower the
useful service currents are and reduced efficiency.
❑ Furnace transformers are provided with a separate regulating (tap) windings.
The variable power input requirement is achieved by varying the supply voltage
to electric arc furnace over a wide range continuously by use of OLTC.
❑ Since the current carried by the secondary windings is quite high, a
continuously transposed cable (CTC) conductor is used which minimizes the
eddy losses, gets ride of the transposition problems and improve the winding
space factor.
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Phase shifting transformers
❑ Usually transformers are used to transport electric power between different
voltage levels of the electric grid.

❑ Transformers may also be used to phase angle control between the primary
(source) and the secondary (load) side. Such special transformers are termed
as phase-shifting transformers (phase angle regulating transformers) or simply
phase-shifters.

❑ These transformers create a phase shift between the primary side voltage and
the secondary side voltage. The purpose of this phase shift is usually the
control of power flow over transmission lines.

❑ Both the magnitude and the direction of the power flow can be controlled by
varying the phase shift . The principal use of phase shifters is at major inter-tie
buses where the control of active power exchange is especially important.
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Function of phase shifting transformers
❑ Theoretically, the PST can be considered as a sinusoidal ac voltage source with
controllable amplitude and phase angle. Function of PST can be described
through the current distribution over parallel lines.

❑ The “natural” current distribution depends on the impedance of the lines. This
distribution may be rather inefficient, if Zline1 and Zline2 are extremely different.
With the introduction of an additional voltage source, a circulating current can
be generated, which equalizes the currents.

Without PST With PST

Current distribution over parallel lines

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❑ PST provides a well defined phase shift (advance or retard) between the
primary (source) and secondary (load) terminals.

❑ In the phase advance mode, the voltage vector at the output of the PST is
made to lead the input voltage vector by adding a leading quadrature
voltage to the source voltage.

❑ In the phase retard mode, a lagging quadrature voltage is added to the

source voltage so that the voltage vector at the output of the PST lags the
input voltage.

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❑ Normally this phase shift can be varied during operation in definite steps by
use of an on-load tap changer (OLTC). The sign of phase shift can be
inverted ( advance to retard form and vice versa) with OLTC having the
reversing switch.

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❑ PST can be constructed with many different winding configurations
depending on the rated voltage, power output and amount of phase shift.
❑ The rated design (equivalent) power which decides the size of PST is given
by
 ( 2 )  I
Seq = 3 V ph  2sin  SL ( 2)
= 3V ph  I SL  2sin 

where, Vph is the line to ground (phase) voltage

ISL is the line current from source to load.

❑ Voltage across the winding (between source and load) is expressed using

( 2)
phase shift angle.
V ph  2sin 
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❑ Hence, the maximum value of phase shift angle decides the rating and size of
PST.
❑ Depending on the voltage or power phase shift angle requirement, connected
system’s short circuit capability and OLTC performance, two distinct designs of
PST are used; Single core and double core.

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Single core ,Delta configuration of PST and phasor diagram 73
Impedance matching transformer
❑ Because transformers can step voltage and current to different levels, and
because power is transferred equivalently between primary and secondary
windings, they can be used to “convert” the impedance of a load to a different
level. The following equations show different transformation ratios.
N1
voltage transformation ratio, k =
N2
N2
current transformation ratio, k1 =
N1
2
 N1 
impedance transformation ratio, k2 =  
 2
N
2
 N1 
inductance transformation ratio, k L =  
 2
N
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❑ Recall from our study of network analysis that, the Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem, which states that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by
a load resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Therein/Norton
resistance of the network supplying the power.
Air core transformers
❑ It is used in radio-frequency circuits.

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❑ True to its name, an air core transformer has its windings wrapped around a
nonmagnetic form, usually a hollow tube of some material.
❑ The degree of coupling (mutual inductance) between windings in such a
transformer is many times less than that of an equivalent iron-core transformer,
but the undesirable characteristics of a ferromagnetic core (eddy current losses,
hysteresis, saturation, etc.) are completely eliminated. It is in high-frequency
applications that these effects of iron cores are most problematic.
❑ Air core transformers are used at radio frequencies (frequency range from
around 20 kHz to around 300 GHz) when iron core losses are too high.
Frequently air core transformers are paralleled with a capacitor to tune it to
resonance.
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Saturated reactors
❑ They allow a small electrical signal to exert control over a much larger
quantity of electrical power. In this mode, a transformer acts as an amplifier.
❑ Actually, it is not really a transformer at all, but rather a special kind of
inductor whose inductance can be varied by the application of a DC current
through a second winding wound around the same iron core. Like the Ferro
resonant transformer, the saturable reactor relies on the principle of magnetic
saturation.

❑ When a material such as iron is completely saturated (that is, all its magnetic
domains are lined up with the applied magnetizing force), additional increases
in current through the magnetizing winding will not result in further increases of
magnetic flux.
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❑ The reactor's “power” winding is the one carrying the AC load current, and the
“control” winding is one carrying a DC current strong enough to drive the core
into saturation.

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❑ Increased DC control current produces more magnetic flux in the reactor core,
driving it closer to a condition of saturation, thus decreasing the power winding’s
inductance, decreasing its impedance, and increasing current to the load. Thus,
the DC control current is able to exert control over the AC current delivered to
the load.

❑ Notice the placement of the phasing dots on the two reactors: the power
windings are “in phase” while the control windings are “out of phase.” If both
reactors are identical, any voltage induced in the control windings by load
current through the power windings will cancel out to zero at the battery
terminals, thus eliminating the first problem mentioned.

❑ Saturable reactor technology has even been miniaturized to the circuit-board

level in compact packages more generally known as magnetic amplifier
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Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
❑ LVDT has an AC driven primary, wound between two secondaries on a
cylindrical air core form.
❑ A movable ferromagnetic slug converts displacement to a variable voltage by
changing the coupling between the driven primary and secondary windings.
❑ The LVDT is a displacement or distance measuring transducer. Units are
available for measuring displacement over a distance of a fraction of a
millimeter to a half a meter. LVDT's are rugged and dirt resistant compared to
linear optical encoders.
❑ The excitation voltage is in the range of 0.5 to 10 VAC at a frequency of 1 to
200 kHz.
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❑ A ferrite core is suitable at these frequencies. It is extended outside the body by
an non-magnetic rod.

❑ As the core is moved toward the top winding, the voltage across this coil
increases due to increased coupling, while the voltage on the bottom coil
decreases.

❑ If the core is moved toward the bottom winding, the voltage on this coil
increases as the voltage decreases across the top coil. Theoretically, a
centered slug yields equal voltages across both coils. In practice leakage
inductance prevents the null from dropping all the way to 0 V.

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❑ With a centered slug, the series-opposing wired secondary cancel yielding
V13=0.
❑ Moving the slug up increases V13. Note that it is in-phase with V1, the top
winding, and 180⁰ out of phase with V3, bottom winding.
❑ Moving the slug down from the center position increases V13. However, it is
180⁰ out of phase with V1, the top winding, and in-phase with V3, bottom
winding.
❑ Moving the slug from top to bottom shows a minimum at the center point, with a
180⁰ phase reversal in passing the center.

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 End of Chapter 2

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