Chapter 1

Electromechanical Energy
Conversion Principles
1.1 Introduction to Electromechanical Energy Conversion Principles
1.2 Force and Torque Developed in Singly Excited Magnetic System
1.3 Force and Torque Developed in Multiply Excited Magnetic Systems

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 Objective
1. To develop the electromechanical energy conversion principles with field
energy as the base
2. To develop expressions for how forces and torques are developed in
terms of field variables

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1.1 Introduction
❑ Conversion of other forms of energy into electrical energy is a common practice
since electrical energy can be transmitted, utilized and controlled more easily,
efficiently and effectively.
❑ Energy conversion devices convert other forms of energy (for instance, heat, sound,
light, mechanical) into electrical energy or vice versa.
❑ Electromechanical energy conversion (EMEC) device is the one that converts
electrical energy (EE) into mechanical energy (ME) or ME into EE.

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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ Types of EMEC devices:
1. Some devices involve small motion and process low energy signals from EE to ME or
ME to EE. Examples: telephone receivers, loud speakers, low-signal transducers
2. Some consists of force or torque producing devices with limited mechanical motion.
Examples: solenoids, relays, actuators
3. Some are used for continuous energy conversion. Examples: motor, generator
❑ Basically energy conversion process is a reversible process. However, devices are
designed and built to suit a particular mode of operation. For instance, a EMEC device
can be used to convert ME to EE and it is motoring mode.
❑ When energy is converted from one form into another form, principle of energy
conservation must be obeyed. It states that “energy is neither created nor destroyed,
it can merely be converted into another form.”
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ Electromechanical energy conversion devices follow this principle.
❑ EMEC process involves 3 main parts:
1. Electrical system
2. Mechanical system
3. Coupling field system
❑ Coupling field is a link between the mechanical and electrical systems, and can be
either magnetic or electric field.
❑ The energy balance equation in any energy conversion device is summarized as
follows:
 Total   Desired   Total   Total 
       
 energy =
  energy +
  energy +
  energy 
(1.1)
 input   output   stored   losses 
       
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ For example, in case of motoring mode, the energy balance equation is written as:
 Total 
 electrical   Mechanical   Total   Total 
  =  energy  +  energy  +  energy  (1.2)
 energy        
    
   output   stored   losses 
 input 
❑ The electrical energy input from the mains is Wei.
❑ Mechanical energy output is Wmo.
❑ Total energy stored is the sum of energy stored in magnetic field (Wes) and energy stored
in mechanical system (Wms).
❑ Total energy losses (dissipated) is the sum of energy dissipated in electric circuit as
ohmic loss (I2R), energy dissipated as magnetic core loss (hysteresis and eddy-current
losses), and energy dissipated as mechanical losses (friction and windage losses).
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ Hence, equation (1.2) is rewritten as:

 2 core mechanical 
Wei = Wmo + (Wes + Wms ) +  I R + + 
 loss loss  (1.3)
❑ By grouping similar terms:
 mechanical   core 
Wei − I R =  Wmo + Wms +
2
 +  Wes +  (1.4)
 loss   loss 

Welec = Wmech + W fld (1.5)

where, Welec is the net electrical energy into the coupling field
Wmech is the total mechanical energy
Wfld is the total energy in the coupling field
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ Equation (1.5) leads to the following EMEC model.

Fig 1.1 Representation of EMEC device

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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ Even though the losses exit, they do not play basic role for the energy conversion
process.
❑ A lossless device is considered to better understand the energy conversion and
action and reaction of the coupling field on mechanical and electrical systems.
i i
Lossless T, ωr Lossless T, ωr
e coupling e coupling
field F, u field F, u

Electrical Mechanical Electrical Mechanical

Terminal Terminal Terminal Terminal
(a) Lossless motoring mode (b) Lossless generating mode

Fig 1.2 Lossless EMEC device

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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
❑ For the lossless conversion system of Fig 1.2 (a), Eq. (1.5) is written in differential
form as
dWelec = dWmech + dW fld (1.6)
where, dWelec is differential EE input to the coupling field
dWmech is differential ME output
dWfld is differential change in energy stored in the coupling field
❑ The differential electrical energy input in time dt, dWei = vt idt
❑ Ohmic loss in resistance r in time dt, ohmic loss = i 2 rdt
❑ Then dWelec = dWei − ( ohmic loss )
dWelec = vt idt − i 2 rdt = ( vt − ir ) idt
dWelec = eidt = dWmech + dW fld (1.7)
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
Coupling-Field Reaction
❑ The coupling field is used as a link between the electrical and mechanical systems.
❑ The energy stored in the coupling field must produce action and reaction on the electrical
and mechanical systems for the conversion of EE to ME (motoring mode) or ME to EE
(generator mode).
❑ If the output is ME (motoring mode), the coupling field must react with counter emf, e.
The coupling field extracts energy proportional to e*i from the electrical system, converts
and delivers energy proportional to T*ωr or F*u to the mechanical system.
❑ If the output is EE (generating mode), the coupling reacts with the mechanical system
counter torque, T. The field extracts energy proportional to T*ωr or F*u from the
mechanical system, converts and delivers energy proportional to e*i to the electrical
system.
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1.1 Introduction (cont…)
Coupling-Field Reaction (cont…)
❑ Hence, from the above two cases, it is easy to say the coupling field serves as
energy conversion region.
❑ Since induced emf, e, and counter torque, T, are associated with the coupling field,
these are called electromechanical coupling terms.

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ The expressions for electrical energy input, magnetic field energy stored,
mechanical work done and the mechanical force are developed for singly excited
magnetic systems.
(a) Electric energy input
❑ Consider a simple magnetic system of a toroid, excited by a single coil.
❑ Applying the KVL, d d
vt = ir + e, e = , vt = ir +
dt dt
❑ Ψ is the instantaneous flux linkage with the circuit.
vt idt = i 2 rdt + id
( vt − ir ) idt = id
eidt = dWelec = id
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Assuming the flux ɸ links all the N turns of the coil, the flux linkages Ψ are
calculated as:  = N Wb-turns
❑ Then, the differential electrical input to the coupling field is given as:
dWelec = id = iNd = Fd (1.8)
❑ F is the instantaneous coil m.m.f.
❑ Hence, the flux linkages must change, so that the toroid can extract energy from
electrical supply. The changing flux linkages cause the generation of reaction emf, e.
❑ As said before, the flow of current against the reaction emf causes the extraction of
energy from the electrical system.

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
(b) Magnetic field stored energy
❑ Consider a magnetic relay system. Initially, the
armature is in the open position.
❑ When the switch is closed, current i flows through the
N-turns coil. This causes the production of flux which
depends on mmf (N*i) and reluctance of the
magnetic path (iron).
❑ Thus, magnetic field is produced which creates north
and south poles as shown. Therefore there will be
magnetic force which tends to shorten the air-gap.
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ If the armature is not allowed to move, mechanical
work is zero. This shows that when a movable part
is kept fixed, the entire EE is stored in the magnetic
field. dWelec = 0 + dW fld
dW fld = dWelec = id = Fd
❑ If the initial flux is zero, then the magnetic field
energy stored is: 1 1
W fld =  id =  Fd
(1.9)
0 0

❑ If the armature is kept in open position, then most of

mmf is consumed in the air-gap and it is likely that
magnetic saturation may not occur as shown in the
graphs
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ From the figures, Area OABO shows energy stored in
the magnetic field.  1 1
W fld =  id =  Fd = Area OABO (1.10)
0 0

❑ The area OACO is called co-energy Wfld’.

i1 F1

W fld ' =  di =   dF = Area OACO

(1.11)
0 0

❑ With no magnetic saturation, Area OABO = Area OACO

W fld = W fld '
W fld + W fld ' =  1i1 = 1 F1

❑ In general, for a linear magnetic circuit

1 1 (1.12)
W fld = W fld ' =  i =  F
2 2
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ The reluctance (Rl) and permeance (Δ) of the magnetic path can be used to express
the magnetic stored energy and co-energy.

❑ Since m.m.f is given by F =   Rl =

❑ Then, 1 2 1 2
W fld = W fld ' =   Rl =
2 2 
1 2 1 F2
W fld = W fld ' = F   =
2 2 Rl
❑ Also, self inductance is used.
1 2 1 2
W fld = W fld ' = = i L since, L =  i
2 L 2
❑ In general, for linear magnetic circuit 1 1 1 2 1 2
W fld = W fld ' =  i =  F =   Rl =
2 2 2 2 
1 2 1 F2 1 2 1 2
W fld = W fld ' = F   = = = i L joules
2 2 Rl 2 L 2
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ The path for the magnetic flux in the simple relay is through iron yoke, air-gap and
armature. Since the air-gap has much larger reluctance than that of the iron,
most of the m.m.f is consumed to overcome the air-gap reluctance.
❑ Hence, most of the energy is stored in the air-gap.
❑ Let Wfld1 and Wfld2 be magnetic stored energies in the iron and air-gap, respectively.
❑ The total magnetic stored energy is
W fld = W fld 1 + W fld 2

❑ The magnetic stored energy density for the iron is given by:
W fld 1
w fld 1 =
( Length of the magnetic path through iron )( Iron area normal to the magnetic flux )
1
F1
2 1  F1     1
w fld 1 = =  = 3

( Length )( Area ) 2  Length   Area  2 1

H B joules/m
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ F1 is m.m.f required to overcome the iron reluctance. H1 is magnetic field intensity in
Ampere-turns/m2 of the iron path. B is flux density in Wb/m2 or tesla.
❑ But, B = 1 H1 2
1 1 B
w fld 1 = 1 H12 = joules/m3
❑ Then, 2 2 1
❑ Similarly for the air-gap, the magnetic stored energy density is given by:
2
1 1 1 B
w fld 2 = H 2 B = 0 H 2 2 = joules/m3
2 2 2 0
❑ μ1 and μ0 are permeability of iron and air-gap, respectively.
❑ Hence, at any point where permeability is μ and magnetic field intensity is H, then
the magnetic stored energy and co-energy densities for a linear magnetic circuit are
2
1 1 1 B
given by: w fld = w fld ' = HB =  H 2 = joules/m3
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
(c) Mechanical work done
❑ Consider a magnetic relay system. Assume the
armature is in the open position.
❑ When the switch is closed, exciting current i

increases from 0 to i1 = vt /r. The flux linkage

increases from 0 to Ψ1.
W fld = Area OABO

❑ r is the coil resistance.

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Assume the armature is in closed position.
❑ When the switch is closed, exciting current i

increases from 0 to i1 = vt /r. The flux linkage

increases from 0 to Ψ2, which is greater than Ψ1
because the reluctance of the magnetic path
decreases due to no air-gap.
W fld = Area OCDO

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ When the armature is in the open position, i1 produces a magnetic field which
creates a magnetic force that moves the armature to the closed position.
❑ As the armature moves, the reluctance decreases due to the decrease in the air-
gap. Thus the flux linkage increases, as a result, the increase in flux linkage induces

a counter emf in the coil (e), which opposes i.

vt − e
i=
coil impdance
❑ The magnitude of the induced emf depends on how fast the armature moves.
❑ Three types of armature motion are considered.
1. Slow movement
2. Instantaneous movement
3. Transient movement
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
1. Slow movement
❑ This causes almost negligible counter emf. Hence,
the exciting current remains substantially constant
during the movement and the operating point A
reaches the new operating point C along the vertical
line AC.
❑ The change in stored energy during the armature
moves from open to closed positions
W fld = W fld −closed position − W fld −open position
W fld = area OA ' CDFO − area OAA ' FO
2
❑ Electrical energy input during this change, Welec =  i1d = i1 ( 2 − 1 ) = area ACDFA ' A
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
1. Slow movement
❑ But, Welec = Wmech + W fld
❑ Then,
Wmech = Welec − W fld
Wmech = area ACDFA ' A − ( area OA ' CDFO − area OAA ' FO )
Wmech = area OACA ' O

❑ This shows that the mechanical energy output is

equal to the area enclosed by two magnetization
curves and vertical Ψ – i locus.

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
2. Instantaneous movement
❑ The armature is assumed to move instantly from
open to closed position.
❑ Since flux linkage doesn’t change suddenly in
inductive circuits, it remains constant during fast
movement of the armature.
❑ The operating point moves from A to A’, But the final
operating point has to be C, hence the operating
point moves from A’ to C after the armature is closed.
W fld = area OA ' FO − area OAA ' FO

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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
2. Instantaneous movement
1

❑ The electrical energy input is Welec =  id = 0

1

Welec = Wmech + W fld

❑ Then,
Wmech = Welec − W fld = −W fld
Wmech = area OAA ' FO − area OA ' FO
Wmech = area OAA ' O
❑ This shows that the mechanical energy output equals
the area enclosed between two magnetization curves
and horizontal Ψ – i locus.
❑ This shows that during fast movement, electrical input is zero and mechanical work is
at the expense of field energy stored. That means, mechanical work output = reduction
in magnetic energy stored.
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
3. Transient movement
❑ The armature movement is neither too slow nor too
fast, but will lie somewhere in between.
❑ The Ψ – i locus lies in between the two loci shown
previously for slow and instantaneous mov’ts.
❑ Initially, the armature mov’t is slow and as it nears the
closed position, the mov’t becomes fast. Hence, the
Ψ – i locus becomes AC’C.
❑ The operating point moves from A to C’, But the final
operating point has to be C. Hence, the operating
point moves from C’ to C after the armature is closed.
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
3. Transient movement
❑ During the armature moves from open position (A) to
closed position (C’)
W fld = area OA ' C ' D ' FO − area OAA ' FO
2 '
❑ and, Welec =  id = area AC ' D ' FA ' A
1

❑ But, Welec = Wmech + W fld

Wmech = Welec − W fld
Wmech = area AC ' D ' FA ' A − ( area OA ' C ' D ' FO − area OAA ' FO )
Wmech = area OAC ' A ' O

❑ Hence, the mechanical work done equals the area enclosed between two magnetization
curves and the Ψ – i locus during the transient movement of the armature.
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
(d) Determination of magnetic force
❑ The magnetic force tending to shorten the air-gap
increases as the gap length decreases. The average
magnetic force can be obtained as
Wmech area OAC ' A ' O
f e( av ) = =
air − gap length g

❑ Mov’t is considered instantaneous. Assume the

armature is at a distance of g1 from open position.
Then a virtual displacement dx in the direction of fe(av)
is considered. And the Ψ – i locus is abc.
❑ Let, dWmech is virtual work output,
dWmech = f e dx = area oabho
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Flux linkage is taken as constant. Hence, electric
1 '
input is dWelec =  id = 0
1'

❑ Then, dWelec = dWmech + dW fld

 dW fld 
fe = −  
 dx  =constant
 dW fld 
fe = −  
 dx  =constant
❑ Wfld is expressed in terms of flux linkage and x or
flux and x. Thus, the parametric equation becomes
W fld ( , x ) W fld ( , x )
fe = − =−
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x x 31
1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Alternatively, slow mov’t is considered over the virtual
displacement. So that the operating point moves
vertically from a to c.
❑ Here, the electrical energy input is
 1 ' + d
dWelec =  i1d = i1d = area acdea
1'

❑ To find dWfld from the figure

area acdea = area ojcdo − area ojaeo
area acdea = ( dW fld + dW fld ') − ( dW fld + dW fld ' )
at position g1 + dx at position g1

❑ This shows area acdea represents the differential

increase in field energy and co-energy.
area acdea = dW fld + dW fld '
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Since, area acdea = dWelec = i1d
i1d = dW fld + dW fld '
dW fld = i1d − dW fld '

❑ And also, dWelec = dWmech + dW fld

❑ Then, i1d = f e dx + i1d − dW fld '
 dW fld ' 
fe = +  
 dx i=constant
❑ Since, co-energy Wfld’ is expressed in terms of i and
x or F and x, therefore
W fld ' ( i, x ) W fld ' ( F , x )
fe = =
x x
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1.2 Singly Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ If the movement of the armature is angular, the
magnitude of the magnetic torque is obtained from
the following parametric equation.
W fld ( , ) W fld ( , )
Te = − =−
 
W fld ' ( i, ) W fld ' ( F , )
Te = =
 
❑ The expressions for fe and Te in terms of the
differential co-energy shows that the current must be
an independent variable.
❑ Hence, they are applicable to current-controlled
systems.
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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ These types of systems have two different sources of excitations.
❑ Examples are synchronous machines, loudspeakers, tachometers, d.c. shaunt
machines, etc.

Fig - simple model for doubly excited magnetic system

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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Stator and rotor have Ns and Nr number of turns of coils, respectively.
❑ The m.m.fs produced by the two windings are in the same direction and magnetic
torque is in anticlockwise direction.
❑ Differential electrical energy input from two sources is dWelec = is d s + ir d r
❑ The instantaneous flux linkages Ψs and Ψr are given below assuming there is no
magnetic saturation.  s = Lsis + M sr ir ,  r = Lr ir + M rsis
❑ Ls and Lr are self inductances of stator and rotor windings, respectively. Msr = Mrs is
mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings.
❑ Initially, the space angle between stator and rotor axes is θr and is = ir = 0.
❑ When the switches for both sources are closed, the stator and rotor currents start to
rise.
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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ If the rotor is not allowed to move, dWmech = 0
dWelec = dW fld

❑ Therefore all the electrical energy input is stored in the magnetic field.
dW fld = is d s + ir d r = is d ( Lsis + M sr ir ) + ir d ( Lr ir + M sr is )
❑ The inductances are expressed in terms reluctances.
Ns2 Nr 2 Ns Nr
Ls = , Lr = , M sr = M rs =
Rls Rlr Rlsr

❑ Rls and Rlr are reluctances seen by stator and rotor fluxes, respectively.
❑ Rlsr is reluctance seen by resultant stator and rotor fluxes.
❑ Since the rotor is not allowed to move, the reluctances and so that the inductances
are constants.
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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Therefore the filed stored energy becomes: dW fld = is Ls dis + is M sr dir + ir Lr dir + ir M sr dis
dW fld = is Ls dis + ir Lr dir + M sr d ( isir )
❑ The field stored energy in establishing the currents from zero to is and ir is given by:
is ir is ir

W fld =  is Ls dis +  ir Lr dir +

0 0
 M d (i i )
0
sr s r

1 2 1 2
W fld = is Ls + ir Lr + M sr isir
2 2
❑ To obtain the magnetic torque, the rotor has to move a virtual displacement dθr in
the direction of the torque. Hence, the reluctances and inductances are changing.
❑ Then the electrical energy input will be:
dWelec = is d ( Ls is + M sr ir ) + ir d ( Lr ir + M sr is )
dWelec = is Ls dis + is 2 dLs + is M sr dir + is ir dM sr + ir Lr dir + ir 2 dLr + ir M sr dis + isir dM sr
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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ The differential field energy during the virtual displacement is
1 2 1 2
dW fld = is Ls dis + is dLs + ir Lr dir + ir dLr + is M sr dir + ir M sr dis + isir dM sr
2 2

❑ The differential work done during the displacement is:

1 1
dWmech = Te d r = dWelec − dW fld = is 2 dLs + ir 2 dLr + isir dM sr
2 2
❑ Then the magnetic torque becomes
1 1
Te d r = is 2 dLs + ir 2 dLr + is ir dM sr
2 2
1 dL 1 dL dM sr
Te = is 2 s + ir 2 r + is ir
2 d r 2 d r d r
❑ It can be seen that the magnetic torque only depends on instantaneous values of the
currents and the anguar rate of change of the inductances.
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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
W fld
❑ With constant current, Te = ( is , ir , r )
 r
W fld '
❑ For a linear magnetic circuit: Te = ( is , ir , r )
 r
❑ Integrating the differential electrical energy input with constant currents
Welec = is 2 dLs + ir 2 dLr + 2is ir dM sr
❑ Hence, if electrical energy input takes place at constant currents, then half of it is
converted to mechanical work done and the other half is stored in the magnetic field
at constant currents. That means Wmech = Wfld at constant currents.

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1.3 Doubly-Excited Magnetic Systems
❑ Similarly to obtain linear magnetic force, consider doubly excited linear magnetic
system.

dWelec = i1d 1 + i2 d 2
dWelec = i1d ( L1i1 + M 12i2 ) + i2 d ( L2i2 + M 12i1 )
❑ Then, 1 2 dL1 1 2 dL2 dM 12
f e = i1 + i2 + i1i2
2 dx 2 dx dx
W fld
fe = ( i1 , i2 , x )
x
W fld '
fe = ( i1 , i2 , x )
x
❑ Unlike the singly-excited magnetic system, magnetic torque and force act in such a
direction as to tend to increase the field stored energy at constant currents.
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 End of Chapter 1

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Tutorial
Example 1: Consider a simple relay. The functional relationship between m.m.f, flux
and position co-ordinate (x) is given by: F =  3 x3
Compute the stored energy and the magnetic force acting in the x-direction. Does the
force tend to increase or decrease x?
Solution: F =  3 x3
The stored magnetic filed energy is:
 
W fld =  Fd =  ( 3 x3 ) d =  4 x 3
1
0 0
4
1 4 3
W fld =  x
4
1 
The magnetic force is:    4 x3 
W fld  4  3 4 2
fe = − ( , x ) = − =−  x tends to decrease x
x x 4
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Tutorial
Example 2: Consider a simple relay. The functional relationship between current and
2
 x 
flux linkages is given by: i =  2 +  1 −  for x < 1
 2
Compute the stored energy and the magnetic force acting in the x-direction.
Solution:
 
 2  x 
2
 1 1  x 
2

The stored magnetic filed energy is: W fld =  id =   +  1 −   d =  3 +  2 1 − 

  2   3 2  2
0 0
2
1 3 1 2 x
W fld =  +  1 − 
3 2  2
The magnetic force is:
 1 3 1 2  x 2 
   +  1 −  
W fld 3 2  2   1 2  x 

fe = − ( , x ) = − =  1 − 
x x 2  2
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