Immunology

Part- 1
Noem Dawood
Lecturer
DIONAM-DUHS.
 Teaching objectives
• To recognize the significance of the immune
system in combating infection and disease.
• To distinguish between the innate and adaptive
immunity
• To know the humoral and cellular components
of innate immunity.

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 Anatomy of the immune system
• Immune system comprises cell and moclecules
with specilaized role in defending against
infection and invasion by other organisms.
• Major components include the bone marrow,
and the lymphoid tissues.
• Lymphoid tissue include : thymus gland,
spleen, lymph node , tonsile etc.

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 Immunity
• The term immunity has come to mean the protection
from disease and, more specifically, infectious
disease. The collective, coordinated response of the
cells and molecules of the immune system is called
the immune response.
• The system in the body responsible for maintaining
homeostasis (inner environment) by recognizing
harmful from nonharmful organisms and produces an
appropriate response.

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 Immunity
• The immune system is clearly essential for survival. It
constantly defends the body against bacteria,
viruses, and other foreign substances it encounters.
• It also defends against abnormal cells and molecules
that periodically develop in the body, such as cancer
cells.

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 leukocytes
• Important function in defense and immunity
• Leukocytes are the largest blood cells.
• They contain nuclei and some have granules in
their cytoplasm.
• Two main types;
– Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear)
– -neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils
– Agranulocytes
– -monocytes and Lymphocytes
Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear
leukocytes PMNs)
• During granulopoiesis.
• They follow a common line of
development through myeloblast to
myelocyte before differentiating into
three types
• All granulocytes have multilobed nuclei in
their cytoplasm.

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 Neutrophils PMNs
• Small, fast and active scavengers protect
the body against bacterial invasion, and
remove dead cells and debris from
damaged tissue.
• Highly mobile, and squeeze through the
capillary wall in the affected area.
• Nuclei are characteristically complex.
• Live on average 6- 9 hours in the blood
stream.
• Professional phagocytes.
 Eosinophils
• Eosinophils are less active than neutophils .
• Specialized role appears to be in the
elimination of parasites(worms)
• Certain toxic chemicals stored in their
granules.
• Often found at site of allergic inflammation (
asthmatic airway and skin allergies.)

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 Basophils
• Closely associated with
allergic reactions and
• Inflammation .
• Granules packed with heparin and histamine
that increase capillary permeability during
inflammation.
• MAST Cell are similar in appearance and
function to basophils.

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 Agranulocytes
• Monocytes and lymphocytes make up 25 to
50% of the total leukocyte count.
• Have a large nucleus and no cytoplasmic
granules.

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 Monocytes
• Largest of the white blood cells.
• Actively motile and phagocytic
• Some circulate in the blood other migrate into
the tissue where they develop into the
macrophages
• Both types of cell produce interleukin 1.
• Which act ………………………..cont.

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 monocytes
• Act on hypothalamus,
• Rise in body temperature
• Stimulates the production of some globulins
by liver.
• Enhances the production of activated T-
lymphocytes

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The monocytes-macrophages system.
• Some macrophages are mobile, whereas
others are fixed, providing effective defense at
key body location.
• Langerhans cells in the skin
• Microglia in the brain
• Kupffer cell in the liver
• Alveolar macrophages in the lungs
• Osteoclasts in bone.
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 Lymphocytes
• Lymphocytes are smaller than monocytes and
have large nuclei
• Lymphocytes develop from pluripotent stem
cell in red bone marrow.
• Circulate in the blood
• Great number in lymphoid tissue

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 NK Cells
• Natural killer cells do not attack invading microbes dierectly.
they kill cells of the body that have been infected with viruses.
They kill not by phagocytosis, but rather by creating a hole in
the plasma membrane of the target cell Proteins,
• perforins, are released from the natural killer cells and insert
into the membrane of the target cell, forming a pore. This
pore allows water to rush into the target cell, which then
swells and bursts.

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NK Cells

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Proteins that kill invading microbes
• Complement system is the major humoral non-
specific defense mechanism
• Approximately 20 different proteins that circulate
freely in the blood plasma
• Aggregate to form a membrane attack complex
• Forming a pore like produced by NK
• Water enter through this pore, causing the cell to
swell and brust.

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• Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells,
Their main function is to process antigen material
and present it on the cell surface to the T cells of
the immune system. They act as messengers
between the innate and the adaptive immune
systems.
• Dendritic cells are present in those tissues that are
in contact with the external environment, such as
the skin ( Langerhans cell) and the inner lining of
the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines.
• Once activated, they migrate to the lymph nodes
where they interact with T cells and B cells to
initiate and shape the adaptive immune response.

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Dendritic cell
 Overview of the immune system
• The immune system is composed of two major
subdivision.
• Innate or non specific
• Adaptive or specific
• Innate immune system is our first line of
defense against invading organisms
• Adaptive immune act as a second line of
defense and also protection against re-
exposure of the same pathogen.
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 Overview of the immune system
• Each of the major subdivision of the immune system
has both;
• Cellular and humoral
• Innate immune system also has anatomical features
that function as barriers to infection.
• Innate and adaptive immune systems both function
to protect against invading organisms.
• Differ in a number of way.

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• Adaptive immune system require some time to
react to an invading organism.
• Innate immunity constitutively present and
ready to be mobilized upon infection.
• Adaptive immune is antigen specific
• Innate system is not antigen specific and equally
well to a variety of organisms.
• Adaptive demonstrates immunological memory
• Innate immune does not demonstrate
immunological memory.

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 Characteristics of Innate and
Adaptive Immunity
Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

Antigen independent Antigen dependent

No time lag A lag period

Not antigen specific Antigen specific

No Immunologic Development
memory of memory

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 Non- specific defense
• There are five main non- specific defence
mechanisms.
• Defence at body surfaces
• Phagocytosis
• Natural antimicrobial substances
• The inflammatory response
• Immunological survellance

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Innate and Adaptive Defenses
Anatomical barriers to infection
- 1. Mechanical Factors

- Acts as our first line defense

against invading organisms.
- The epithelial surfaces form a
physical barrier
- Impermeable to most infectious
agents.

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 1. Mechanical factors
ANATOMICAL BARRIER TO INFECTION

• Movement due to cilia or peristalsis help to

keep air passages and the gastrointestinal
tract free from microbes.
• Flushing action of tears and saliva helps
prevent infection of the eye and mouth.
• The trapping action of mucus protect the
lungs.

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 2. Chemical factors
ANATOMICAL BARRIER TO INFECTION

• Lysozyme and phospholipase found in tear,

saliva and nasal secretion can breakdown the
cell wall of bacteria and destabilize bacterial
membranes.
• Low PH of sweat and gastric secretion prevent
growth of bacteria.

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 3. Biological factors
ANATOMICAL BARRIERS TO INFECTION

• The normal flora of the skin and the GIT can

prevent the colonization of pathogenic
bacteria.

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 Second-Line Defenses

If a pathogen is able to get past the

body's first line of defense, and an
infection starts, the body can rely on it's
second line of defense.

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 Second Line of Defense
Nonspecific Immune Response
These defenses include:
Fever:
– Caused by IL1 . The fever (high temp)
kills invaders by denaturing their proteins.
Heat – Increased temperature inhibits the
growth of antigens or microbial
proliferation.
Pain:
– Due mainly to tissue destruction and, to a
.
lesser extent, swelling.

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Second Line of Defense
Inflammation:
• Damage tissue release histamine from
leukocytes –inflammation cause rednes - due
to capillary dilatition resulting in increase
blood Flow. Histamine cause capillaries to
leak, releasing phagocytes and clotting factors
into the wound. phagocytes engulf bacteria
,dead cell and cellular debris. Platelet move
out of capillary to seal the wounded area.
• Swelling – due to passage of plasma from the
blood stream into the damaged tissue.

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 Second Line of Defense
• Inflammatory response: Prevents spread of
harmful agents to adjacent tissues; promotes
tissue repair; release chemical mediators to
attract phagocytes and stimulate third line of
immune response.
– Phagocytes: Engulf pathogens and
contributes immune response
– Phagocytosis – Done by Macrophages
– Macrophage:A phagocytic cell found in the
liver, spleen, brain and lungs. Travels to all
areas of the body to find and eat pathogens.

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 Second Line of defense

• Antimicrobial proteins:
Interferon:
• Proteins released by virus infected cells
that protect uninfected cells from viral
overtake.
Complement:
• Lyses microbes, enhances phagocytosis
by opsonization, and intensifies
inflammatory and immune responses.

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 phagocytosis
• Macrophages and neutrophils migrate to site
of inflammation
• Phagocytosis occurs in five phases:
chemotaxis, adherence,ingestion, digestion,
and killing

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Phagocytosis

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 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

Phagocytic vesicle
containing antigen
(phagosome).
Lysosome
3 Phagocytic vesicle is
fused with a lysosome.
Phagolysosome

4 Microbe in fused vesicle

is killed and digested by
Acid lysosomal enzymes within
hydrolase the phagolysosome, leaving
enzymes a residual body.
Residual body

5 Indigestible and
residual material
is removed by
exocytosis.

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

Phagocytic vesicle
containing antigen
(phagosome).
Lysosome

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

Phagocytic vesicle
containing antigen
(phagosome).
Lysosome
3 Phagocytic vesicle is
fused with a lysosome.
Phagolysosome

Acid
hydrolase
enzymes

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

Phagocytic vesicle
containing antigen
(phagosome).
Lysosome
3 Phagocytic vesicle is
fused with a lysosome.
Phagolysosome

4 Microbe in fused vesicle

is killed and digested by
Acid lysosomal enzymes within
hydrolase the phagolysosome, leaving
enzymes a residual body.
Residual body

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
 1 Microbe adheres to phagocyte.

2 Phagocyte forms pseudopods that

eventually engulf the particle.

Phagocytic vesicle
containing antigen
(phagosome).
Lysosome
3 Phagocytic vesicle is
fused with a lysosome.
Phagolysosome

4 Microbe in fused vesicle

is killed and digested by
Acid lysosomal enzymes within
hydrolase the phagolysosome, leaving
enzymes a residual body.
Residual body

5 Indigestible and
residual material
is removed by
exocytosis.

(b)
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Figure 21.2b
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 Key concepts of specific immunity
Antigen
• Antigen , or immunogens are substance foreign
to the host that can stimulate an immune
response.
• These foreign molecules are recognized by
receptor on immune cells /protein called
antibodies or immunoglobulins.
• Most antigens are macro- molecules.
• Immunologically active sites on antigen are
called antigenic determinants, or eiptopes

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 Antigens
Epitope:
u Small part of an antigen that interacts with
an antibody.
u Any given antigen may have several epitopes.
u Each epitope is recognized by a different
antibody.

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Antigenic Determinants

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Hapten:
• A substance of low molecular weight that is not
antigenic itself except when combined with a
carrier/protein. E.g. Penicillin drug.
• Small molecules, such as peptides, nucleotides,
and many hormones, that are not immunogenic
but are reactive when attached to protein carriers

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