materials
Article
Physical, Mechanical, and Microstructure Characteristics of
Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Containing
Lightweight Aggregates
Aref A. Abadel
Citation: Abadel, A.A. Physical,
Mechanical, and Microstructure
Characteristics of Ultra-High-
Performance Concrete Containing
Lightweight Aggregates. Materials
2023, 16, 4883. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma16134883
Academic Editors: F. Pacheco Torgal
and Oldrich Sucharda
Received: 21 May 2023
Revised: 29 June 2023
Accepted: 4 July 2023
Published: 7 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 4883. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134883
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia;
aabadel@ksu.edu.sa
Abstract: This study explores and enhances the resistance of an ultra-high-performance concrete
(UHPC) to explosive spalling under elevated temperatures. This study investigates the impact
of lightweight aggregates (LWAs) on the mechanical and microstructural properties of the UHPC.
Various UHPC specimens were created by replacing silica sand with LWAs in percentages ranging
from 0% to 30%. The evaluation of these specimens involved assessing their compressive and flexural
strengths, density, mass loss, shrinkage, porosity, and microstructural characteristics using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). This study provides valuable insights by analyzing the influence of
lightweight aggregates on the strength, durability, and microstructure of UHPC. The results reveal
that incorporating LWAs in the UHPC improved its flowability while decreasing its density, as
the percentage of LWAs increased from 5% to 30%. Including 30% LWA resulted in a mass loss of
4.8% at 300 ◦ C, which reduced the compressive and flexural strengths across all curing durations.
However, the UHPC samples subjected to higher temperatures displayed higher strength than
those exposed to ambient conditions. The microstructure analysis demonstrated that the UHPC
specimens with 30% LWA exhibited increased density due to continuous hydration from the water
in the lightweight aggregate. The pore size distribution graph indicated that incorporating more
of the LWA increased porosity, although the returns diminished beyond a certain point. Overall,
these findings offer valuable insights into the influence of lightweight aggregates on the physical
and strength characteristics of UHPC. This research holds significant implications for developing
high-performance, lightweight concrete materials.
Keywords: durability; lightweight aggregates; thermal analysis; rheology; SEM analysis
1. Introduction
Ultra-high-performance concrete has emerged as a revolutionary material in con-
struction due to its exceptional mechanical properties, high durability, and resistance to
various environmental factors [1]. Incorporating lightweight fine aggregates (LWFAs) in
UHPC is a promising strategy for reducing its density and enhancing performance [2].
LWFAs are known for reducing the weight of concrete while maintaining its strength and
durability, making them ideal candidates for use in UHPC [3]. UHPC, also called reactive
powder concrete, is a novel cement composite with outstanding mechanical properties
and durability [4–6]. Nevertheless, UHPC has a low water-to-cement ratio (w/c) that can
lead to less than 50% cement hydration. Consequently, the UHPC matrix may have many
un-hydrated binder particles that do not contribute to developing hardening properties [7].
The low w/b ratio in UHPC causes notable autogenous shrinkage, which can result in
cracking [8]. Additionally, self-desiccation increases the capillary tension of pore water,
leading to autogenous shrinkage [9,10]. Therefore, it is essential to provide more water to
expedite the cement hydration process and reduce self-desiccation. The UHPC mixture’s
high impermeability makes external water-curing techniques inefficient since it is difficult
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 2 of 24

for water to penetrate the concrete matrix and contribute to cement hydration [11]. In
addition to enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of UHPC, using LWCAs
can also significantly affect its microstructural properties [12–14]. The porous nature of LW-
CAs allows them to act as internal curing agents, which leads to a more homogenous and
denser microstructure of UHPC. This reduces the number and size of voids in the matrix,
which improves the overall mechanical and durability performance of UHPC [15–17]. Lura
et al. [18] suggest that including a few internal curing agents that can efficiently disperse
in the matrix is a more active approach than reserving water when blending and setting
concrete and then slowly discharging the water for internal curing. Varga et al. [19] used
a pre-saturated lightweight aggregate (LWA) to achieve internal curing and decrease the
shrinkage of concrete. However, past research on ultra-high-performance concrete that
utilized internal curing observed a trade-off amid physical characteristics and the shrinkage
of concrete when using a mineral admixture [20,21].
High-strength lightweight concrete (HSLC) is often produced using lightweight ag-
gregates for structural applications [22]. These aggregates contain pores, which lead to a
20–40% reduction in the weight of the HSLC mixture compared to traditional concrete [23].
In a study by Khayat et al. [24], the effectiveness of internal curing with different amounts
of an LWA in the UHPC matrix was examined. They discovered that substituting 25% of
the LWA volume caused the greatest strength, albeit with a decreased elastic modulus in
the UHPC, similar to what is observed in high-performance concrete. The effectiveness of
LWCAs on the strength, durability, and microstructural properties of UHPC has been the
subject of extensive research in recent years. Several studies have investigated the impact
of different types of LWCAs, such as expanded clay, pumice, and perlite, on the mechanical
properties of UHPC. These studies have demonstrated that using LWCAs can improve
the compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength of UHPC. Furthermore,
the addition of LWCAs has been shown to increase the resistance of UHPC to freeze–thaw
cycles, chemical attacks, and abrasion.
Prior research has assessed the performance of UHPCs that underwent internal curing
with LWAs, such as prewetted calcined bauxite [25], pumice [26], expanded shale [27], and
permeable fine aggregate. Some UHPCs displayed a decline in strength compared to their
reference mixtures. In contrast, some research involving well-designed internal curing
agents revealed marginally higher strength without considering the elastic modulus [28,29].
Weiss et al. [30] stated that a favorable internal curing effect could be achieved in concrete
composites by carefully designing mixture proportions that account for the water absorbed
by the LWA before the cement setting. Hu et al. [31] investigated the impact of an LWA’s
physicochemical properties on strength formation in UHPC. An overview of existing
studies revealed that incorporating LWAs in concrete mixes improved the properties at the
macroscale. Consequently, it is anticipated that integrating LWAs into the UHPC system
will affect its resistance to high temperatures. Upon examining the literature above, it is
evident that there is a scarcity of research focusing on the strength and microstructural
characteristics of ultra-high-performance concrete comprising LWAs at heating conditions.
Wei and Liu et al. [32,33] found that when a bauxite aggregate is combined in an air-dry
state, it can absorb water during the blending process and release it into the concrete mix
after setting. This demonstrates the capacity of this bauxite aggregate to facilitate internal
curing in UHPC mixtures. Various techniques for offering water for internal curing in
the concrete matrix have been documented in prior research [34,35]. The most common
methods involve using additional internal curing water for prewetting or incorporating dry
agents with internal curing water during blending. Alternatively, some strategies maintain
the same water quantity as the reference mix.
When exposed to high temperatures, concrete spalls are likely influenced by various
factors, such as concrete materials, aggregate type, aggregate size, specimen dimensions,
heating rate, loading conditions, and testing methods [36,37]. Although UHPC possesses
remarkable mechanical properties and durability, it is more susceptible to explosive spalling
than conventional concrete under elevated temperatures [38,39]. So et al. [40] documented
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 3 of 24

violent spalling in UHPC at temperatures of 500 degrees Celsius during 10 min of heat-
ing. Richard et al. [41] observed reduced free water in UHPC at elevated temperatures of
250 degrees Celsius. This observation was attributed to the possible buildup of xonotlite
and crystal hydrate, which increased the pozzolanic reaction achievement phase to 94%
at a heating condition, then 72% at an ambient condition, ultimately resulting in a dense
microstructure for the UHPC. Kodur [38] and Amran [39] described the violent spalling
process at high temperatures. It has been proposed that explosive spalling in UHPC mix-
tures occurs due to the buildup of high pore pressure. The denser microstructures of
UHPC result in internal water vapor pressure formation at elevated heat, increasing the
likelihood of violent spalling as porosity decreases due to the low w/b ratio [40]. Further-
more, Phan et al. [42] examined the violent spalling of HPC subjected to temperatures of
235 degrees Celsius, attributing it to thermal stress and internal pore pressure.
In recent decades, researchers have investigated developing ultra-high-performance
concrete mixes by adding fillers or admixtures to achieve superior mechanical and durabil-
ity properties when the UHPC is subjected to various situations [43,44]. The recent inclusion
of lightweight aggregates (LWAs) in the UHPC matrix has been investigated. While studies
have examined the strength and durability characteristics of UHPC-containing LWAs,
limited research has focused on the microstructure, thermal analysis, pore structure, and
porosity of ultra-high-performance lightweight concrete.
Originality Aspect of Paper: This study aims to comprehensively evaluate the physi-
cal, strength, and microstructural attributes of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)
compositions with varying proportions of lightweight aggregates (LWAs). By introducing
different dosages of LWAs into the UHPC matrix, the influence of LWA content on the
engineering properties of the mixture was systematically examined. Scanning electron
microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis were conducted on the UHPC-LWA blend to
delve deeper into the microstructure. Incorporating LWAs into UHPC holds great promise
for enhancing the mechanical and durability properties of construction projects while
simultaneously promoting sustainability. This research seeks to contribute to the exist-
ing knowledge by shedding light on the impact of LWA content on the performance of
UHPC under elevated temperatures. Consequently, it aims to facilitate the development of
optimized UHPC mixtures that meet the multifaceted requirements of diverse structural
applications. Ultimately, this investigation endeavors to pave the way for producing highly
durable, sustainable, and high-performance concrete composites, which will undoubtedly
find extensive utilization within the construction industry.

2. Experimental Program
2.1. Materials
Cement
In making ultra-high-performance lightweight concrete mixtures, a binder was pro-
duced by combining Type I OPC and locally sourced silica fume (SF). The chemical con-
stituents of both the OPC and SF can be found in Table 1. With a specific surface area
of 17.5 m2 /g, the silica fume used in this study exhibited considerable fineness. In the
present study, single-sized, volcanic pumice was used as an LWA, devoid of contami-
nants that could potentially hinder the setting and hardening processes of the binder (see
Figure 1). The aggregate was derived from a volcanic tuff of scoria found on the outskirts
of Al-Medina, KSA. With a size of 4 mm and a density of 2.93 g/cm3 , the fine aggregate
demonstrated desirable properties for use in the project.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

Table 1. Chemical properties of OPC and SF.

Materials 2023, 16, 4883 4 of 24
Content, %
Oxide, % OPC Silica Fume
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
Table 1. Chemical properties of OPC and SF. 23 98.9
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 63.5 Content, % 0.1
Aluminum Oxide
Oxide, % (Al2O3) OPC4.5 Silica Fume0.1
Ferric Oxide (Fe 2O3)
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2 ) 23
3.6 98.9
0.1
Magnesium Oxide
Calcium Oxide (CaO)(MgO) 63.5 2.3 0.1 0.1
Sulfur Trioxide (SO
Aluminum Oxide (Al 2 33)
O ) 4.5 2.1 0.1 0.1
Ferric Oxide (Fe2 O3 ) 3.6 0.1
Sodium Oxide
Magnesium Oxide (Na
(MgO) 2O)
2.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
Potassium Oxide
Sulfur Trioxide (SO(K3 ) 2O) 2.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)
Sodium Oxide (Na 2 O) 0.3 0.4 0.1 N/A
Potassium Oxide (K2 O) 0.2 0.1
Loss Sulfate
Calcium on Ignition
(CaSO4 ) 0.4 0.1 N/A 0.4
Loss on Ignition 0.1 0.4

Figure 1. Pumice lightweight fine aggregate.

Figure 1. Pumice lightweight fine aggregate.
Selecting a single-sized aggregate aimed at guaranteeing concrete’s flowability and
Selecting
dispersion a single-sized
within aggregate Achieving
the matrix is important. aimed at uniformity
guaranteeing concrete’s
can be flowability
challenging when and
dispersion
using graded within the matrix
aggregates is important.
in UHPLWC, Achieving
mainly due uniformity
to the limited amountcan be challenging
of water employed when
using graded aggregates
in the mixture. in UHPLWC,
To ensure optimal mainly
flowability due tomixtures
in the UHPC the limited
whileamount of water
maintaining a em-
ployed in the mixture. To ensure optimal flowability in the UHPC mixtures while main-
relatively low dosage, a polycarboxylate ether-based additive was used as an admixture.
taining a relatively low dosage, a polycarboxylate ether-based additive was used as an
2.2. Development of Samples and Mix Design
admixture.
Seven distinct concrete mixes with a uniform w/b of 0.21 were adopted with different
percentages (0% to 30%) of lightweight aggregates fractionally substituting the fine aggre-
2.2.
gateDevelopment of Samples
developed. The completeand MixofDesign
details all mixtures are presented in Table 2. The samples
wereSeven distinctbyconcrete
characterized a numbermixes with
and the a uniform
letter “L”. The w/b of 0.21 were
“L” indicates adopted with
the lightweight different
aggre-
percentages (0% to 30%) of lightweight aggregates fractionally substituting the fine aggre-
gate, and the number shows the proportion of lightweight aggregates added in a sample as
gate developed.
a substitute The
for the complete
fine aggregate details
in theof all mixtures
UHPC are samples
mix. Three presented in prepared,
were Table 2. The
andsamples
their average value was taken as a final value.
were characterized by a number and the le er “L”. The “L” indicates the lightweight ag-
gregate, and the number shows the proportion of lightweight aggregates added in a sam-
Table 2. Mix design of complete mixtures (kg/m3 ).
ple as a substitute for the fine aggregate in the UHPC mix. Three samples were prepared,
and their
Mix ID average
Cement valueSilica
wasFume
taken asWater
a final value.
Sand LWA HRWR Steel Fiber
LW0 900 221 192 990 0 30 78
Table
LW52. Mix design
900 of complete
221 mixtures192
(kg/m3). 950 41 30 78
LW10 900 221 192 909 81 30 78
Mix ID Cement
LW15 900 Silica 221
Fume Water
192 Sand
869 122LWA 30HRWR 78Steel Fiber
LW20 900 221 192 828 162 30 78
LW0
LW25
900900 221
221
192
192 788
990 203
0 30
30 78
78
LW5
LW30 900900 221
221 192
192 828950 162 41 30 30 78 78
LW10 900 221 192 909 81 30 78
LW15 900 221 192 869 122 30 78
LW20 900 221 192 828 162 30 78
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 5 of 24

A planetary mixing apparatus was employed for blending the various components.
The dry ingredients, consisting of OPC, SF, quartz sand, and a lightweight pumice aggregate,
were combined in the mixer and stirred slowly for three minutes. Following this, water
and a superplasticizer were added to the blend, and the stirring process continued for an
additional two minutes until the mixture became pliable.
Once the mixing process was complete, the mixes were discharged into various
molds designed to create samples for compression and flexure strength evaluations. These
molds were subsequently covered with a plastic sheet kept at an ambient temperature of
24 degrees Celsius for one day. Upon completion of the demolding process, the samples
were submerged in water and cured for different numbers of days before their tests.
Cylinder-shaped molds, with dimensions of 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length,
were utilized for the compressive strength assessments, while prismatic molds, measuring
40 mm in width, 40 mm in depth, and 160 mm in length, were employed for the flexural
strength evaluations. To investigate the effects of high temperatures on the properties
of UHPC, the test specimens, which included cylinders and prisms, underwent 56 days
of curing before being subjected to elevated temperatures of 100, 200, and 300 degrees
Celsius. This temperature increase occurred within an electric furnace at 10 degrees Celsius
per minute.
Each specimen was maintained at the specified temperature for two hours. Following
this exposure, the samples were allowed to return to room temperature within the confines
of the furnace before undergoing testing. This cooling process was crucial for accurately
measuring the UHPC’s performance under heightened temperatures.

2.3. Characterization of Tests

The rheology was conducted on various fresh mixtures following the ASTM C143 [45]
standard. A standard truncated cone featuring a 200 mm internal diameter at its base, a
100 mm diameter at its apex, and a 300 mm height was utilized during this process. The flow
measurement was determined by averaging the diameters of the circularly spread concrete.
Compressive strength tests complied with ASTM C39 [46], while flexural strength tests
were executed using the 3-point loading method per ASTM C78 [47]. Four duplicates were
tried for each specimen type and property, with the results averaged. An electromechanical
testing machine (Toni Technik) was employed for the strength tests, operating under load
control at a 4 kN/s rate. This rate was precisely sustained until the load indicator displayed
a decreasing trend and the samples exhibited distinct fracture patterns. The fracture
patterns of each sample were carefully examined to discern the failure modes of the various
samples. Additionally, the loss in mass of the UHPC’s samples, expressed as a (%), was
calculated by evaluating the concrete’s mass before and after subjecting it to fire.
Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was employed for porosity and pore structure
assessment. Before testing, it was ensured that samples were oven-dried at 60 degrees
Celsius until a constant mass was attained to eliminate residual moisture content. MIP
provides valuable information regarding pore size distribution, porosity, and pore con-
nectivity, crucial to understanding the concrete’s durability and mechanical properties.
Thermal analysis of the concrete was performed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). TGA helps determine mass loss due to thermal
decomposition or phase transitions, while DSC measures the heat flow associated with
these transitions. By combining both techniques, we can effectively assess the thermal sta-
bility, reaction kinetics, and potential thermal effects on ultra-high-performance lightweight
concrete. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted to identify the crystalline phases
within the concrete and evaluate the degree of hydration. XRD offers insights into the min-
eralogical composition and phase transformations, which are essential for understanding
the material’s mechanical performance and long-term durability.
Lastly, for microstructural behavior, samples were assessed utilizing scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). Remnant samples derived from the compressive strength tests were
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24

insights into the mineralogical composition and phase transformations, which are essen-
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 tial for understanding the material’s mechanical performance and long-term durability.
6 of 24
Lastly, for microstructural behavior, samples were assessed utilizing scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM). Remnant samples derived from the compressive strength tests
were repurposed for SEM examination. Before testing, the samples were oven-dried at 60
repurposed for SEM examination. Before testing, the samples were oven-dried at 60 degrees
degrees Celsius until a uniform mass was reached, halting further hydration.
Celsius until a uniform mass was reached, halting further hydration.

3.3.Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
3.1.Workability
3.1. WorkabilityofofUHPC
UHPC
Thetest
The testresult
resultof
ofthe
theflowability
flowabilityof ofall
allUHPC
UHPCmixtures
mixturesisispresented
presentedin inFigure
Figure2.2.The
The
additionof
addition oflightweight
lightweightfine
fineaggregates
aggregates(pumice)
(pumice)ininUHPC
UHPCas asaapartial
partialreplacement
replacementforforfine
fine
aggregates has
aggregates hasbeen
beenobserved
observed totoimpact
impactthetheworkability
workability or
orflow
flowofofthe
theresulting
resultingmixture
mixture
significantly. As
significantly. As the
thepercentage
percentageofoflightweight
lightweight aggregates
aggregateswaswas
increased fromfrom
increased 5% to
5%30%,
to
the flowability
30%, of the
the flowability ofUHPC
the UHPCincreased correspondingly,
increased withwith
correspondingly, the mixture
the mixturecontaining 30%
containing
lightweight
30% aggregate
lightweight displaying
aggregate the highest
displaying flowability
the highest (230 mm)
flowability among
(230 mm) all the mixtures
among all the
tested. tested.
mixtures

Figure2.2.Workability
Figure WorkabilityofofUHPC.
UHPC.

Theunique
The unique physical
physical properties
properties of of the
the lightweight
lightweight aggregate
aggregate can can explain
explain this
this phe-
phe-
nomenon. Lightweight aggregates have a lower specific gravity and
nomenon. Lightweight aggregates have a lower specific gravity and higher porosity than higher porosity than
traditional aggregates,
traditional aggregates, reducing
reducing the
the mixture’s
mixture’soveralloveralldensity
density[48].
[48].The
The decreased
decreased density
den-
increases
sity the volume
increases the volume of paste, which
of paste, acts as
which actsa lubricant and helps
as a lubricant facilitate
and helps ease ofease
facilitate move-
of
ment within
movement the mixture.
within Additionally,
the mixture. the high
Additionally, porosity
the high of the
porosity oflightweight
the lightweightaggregate pro-
aggregate
vides more
provides moresurface
surfacearea forfor
area thethe
paste
pastecoating,
coating, leading toto
leading improved
improved lubrication
lubrication and
andease
easeof
movement
of movement [49]. These
[49]. These characteristics
characteristicsultimately
ultimately enhance
enhancethethe
flowability of the
flowability of UHPC.
the UHPC.The
increase
The in the
increase flowability
in the flowabilityof the UHPC
of the UHPC can can
be further enhanced
be further enhancedby increasing
by increasingthe per-
the
centage of of
percentage thethelightweight
lightweightaggregate.
aggregate.This
Thistrend
trendwas was observed
observed in the mixture
in the mixture containing
containing
30%lightweight
30% lightweightaggregate,
aggregate, which
which hadhad the highest
the highest flowability
flowability among among
all the all the mixtures
mixtures tested.
tested.
This This increase
increase in flowability
in flowability may be may be a ributed
attributed to the greater
to the greater proportion
proportion of light-
of lightweight
weight aggregate
aggregate present present in the mixture,
in the mixture, which further
which further reducesreduces the density
the density of theof the concrete
concrete and
and creates a greater volume of paste [50].
creates a greater volume of paste [50].
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3.2.Density
3.2. Density
Theuse
The useofoflightweight
lightweightfine fineaggregates
aggregates(pumice)
(pumice) in inUHPC
UHPCas asaapartial
partialsubstitute
substitutefor for
traditionalaggregates
traditional aggregatessuchsuchasas sand
sand hashas been
been observed
observed to result
to result (See(See Figure
Figure 3) in3)a in a signifi-
significant
cant reduction
reduction in theinoverall
the overall density
density of the
of the mixture.
mixture. AsAs thethe percentageofoflightweight
percentage lightweightfine fine
aggregatesincreased
aggregates increasedfrom
from5%5% to to
30%,30%,
thethe density
density of UHPC
of the the UHPC decreased
decreased correspond-
correspondingly,
ingly,
with with
the the mixture
mixture containing
containing 30% lightweight
30% lightweight fine aggregates
fine aggregates exhibiting exhibiting
the lowest thedensity
lowest
density among all the mixtures tested. This reduction in density can be a ributed to the
among all the mixtures tested. This reduction in density can be attributed to the unique
unique physical
physical propertiesproperties of the lightweight
of the lightweight aggregate.
aggregate. Compared Compared to traditional
to traditional aggre-
aggregates,
gates, lightweight
lightweight aggregates
aggregates have specific
have a lower a lower gravity
specificandgravity
higher and higher which
porosity, porosity, which
results in
aresults
lower in a lower
overall overall
density density
of the of the
mixture whenmixture
usedwhen used as
as a partial a partial[51].
substitute substitute [51].
Including
Including lightweight
lightweight fine aggregates
fine aggregates reduces thereduces the total
total weight weight
of the mixtureof the mixture
while while main-
maintaining the
taining the same volume, ultimately resulting in a lower density of the UHPC. With the
same volume, ultimately resulting in a lower density of the UHPC. With the inclusion of
3 to 2005 kg/m3 .
inclusion of 30% lightweight aggregate, the density of concrete reduced from 2310 kg/m3
30% lightweight aggregate, the density of concrete reduced from 2310 kg/m
to 2005
The kg/m3.inThe
reduction reduction
density of theinUHPC
densitydue ofto
the
theUHPC due of
inclusion to lightweight
the inclusionfine of lightweight
aggregates
may have implications for the design of UHPC structures. For example,
fine aggregates may have implications for the design of UHPC structures. For example, lower-density
UHPC can reduce
lower-density UHPC the overall
can reduceweightthe of a structure,
overall weightpotentially
of a structure,leading to cost savings
potentially leadingin to
construction and transportation [52,53].
cost savings in construction and transportation [52,53].

2450.0

2350.0

2250.0
Density (kg/m3)

2150.0

2050.0

1950.0

1850.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes
Figure3.3.Hardened
Figure Hardeneddensity
densityof
ofUHPC.
UHPC.

Moreover,the
Moreover, thehigh
highporosity
porosityofof the
the lightweight
lightweight fine
fine aggregates
aggregates allows
allows forfor be mixing
better er mix-
ing with
with the cement
the cement paste,
paste, creating
creating a more
a more homogenous
homogenous mixture.
mixture. Thehigh
The highsurface
surfacearea
areaofof
the lightweight fine aggregates also results in a greater paste volume, further
the lightweight fine aggregates also results in a greater paste volume, further reducing reducing the
overall
the density
overall densityof the UHPC
of the UHPC[54].[54].
As the percentage
As the of lightweight
percentage fine fine
of lightweight aggregates was
aggregates
increased
was to 30%,
increased the UHPC
to 30%, mixture
the UHPC had the
mixture hadlowest density
the lowest among
density all theall
among mixtures tested.
the mixtures
This isThis
tested. because the higher
is because proportion
the higher of lightweight
proportion fine aggregates
of lightweight in the
fine aggregates in mixture dis-
the mixture
places heavier
displaces heavier traditional
traditionalaggregates,
aggregates,reducing
reducingthetheoverall
overall weight
weight of the mixture
of the mixture while
while
maintainingthe
maintaining thesame
samevolume.
volume.

3.3.Mass
3.3. MassLoss
LossininUHPC
UHPC
The mass lossininultra-high-performance
The mass loss ultra-high-performance lightweight
lightweight aggregate
aggregate concrete
concrete when
when sub-
sub-
jected to 100 ◦ C, 200 ◦ C, and 300 ◦ C is presented in Figure 4. Figure 4 shows that as the
jected to 100 °C, 200 °C, and 300 °C is presented in Figure 4. Figure 4 shows that as the
percentage
percentageofoflightweight
lightweightaggregates
aggregatesincreased
increasedfrom
from0%0%to
to30%,
30%,the
themass
massloss
lossin
inthe
theUHPC
UHPC
mixture
mixture also increased with increasing temperature. One possible explanation forfor
also increased with increasing temperature. One possible explanation why
why the
the
mass loss in the UHPC was higher when the fine aggregates were replaced with aa
mass loss in the UHPC was higher when the fine aggregates were replaced with
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lightweight pumice
lightweight pumice aggregate
aggregate from from 0% 0% toto30%,
30%,with
withthe themixture
mixturecontaining
containing30% 30%pumice
pumice
having the highest mass loss, is that the lightweight aggregate
having the highest mass loss, is that the lightweight aggregate may have lower thermal may have lower thermal sta-
bility than
stability thanthethefine aggregates.
fine aggregates. At At
300300
°C, the
◦ LW30
C, the LW30 hadhad4.8% mass
4.8% loss,loss,
mass whereas LW0LW0
whereas had
onlyonly
had 2.4%. When
2.4%. WhenUHPC UHPC is exposed
is exposed to high
to hightemperatures,
temperatures, the lightweight
the lightweight aggregate
aggregatemay
break
may down
break downfaster thanthan
faster the the
finefine
aggregate,
aggregate, leading
leading to tomore
more significant
significant mass
mass loss.
loss.This
Thisis
isbecause
becauselightweight
lightweightaggregates
aggregatesoften oftenhave
havehigher
higher porosity,
porosity, which allows them
which allows them to toabsorb
absorb
moremoisture
more moisture and and other
other contaminants,
contaminants,making makingthem themmore morevulnerable
vulnerabletoto thermal
thermal degrada-
degra-
tion. UHPC
dation. UHPC is susceptible
is susceptible to damage
to damage when whenexposed
exposedto high temperatures
to high [55]. When
temperatures UHPC
[55]. When
is exposed
UHPC to temperatures
is exposed above 100
to temperatures degrees
above Celsius, Celsius,
100 degrees it can experience thermal degrada-
it can experience thermal
tion, leading to
degradation, mass loss,
leading to masscracking, and other and
loss, cracking, forms of damage.
other forms of Indamage.
addition to In porosity,
addition the to
chemicalthe
porosity, composition of the lightweight
chemical composition of the aggregate
lightweight may also play
aggregate maya role
alsoinplay
the ahigher
role inmass
the
loss observed
higher mass loss in observed
the UHPCinmixtures
the UHPC containing
mixturesthe lightweight
containing aggregate [56].
the lightweight Pumice,
aggregate for
[56].
example, is a volcanic rock that contains significant amounts of water and other volatile
Pumice, for example, is a volcanic rock that contains significant amounts of water and
compounds.
other volatile When exposed
compounds. to high
When temperatures,
exposed these compounds
to high temperatures, thesemay be released
compounds may from
be
the lightweight
released from the aggregate,
lightweight contributing
aggregate,tocontributing
the mass losstoof the
the UHPC
mass loss[57].
of theAnother
UHPCfactor[57].
that mayfactor
Another contribute to thecontribute
that may higher mass losshigher
to the in the UHPC
mass loss containing the lightweight
in the UHPC containing aggre-
the
gate is the difference
lightweight aggregate is in the
thermal expansion
difference between
in thermal the lightweight
expansion between the andlightweight
fine aggregates.
and
When
fine UHPC is When
aggregates. exposed UHPC to high temperatures,
is exposed to highthe different thermal
temperatures, expansion
the different rates ex-
thermal be-
tween the two aggregates can lead to internal stresses, which can cause cracking andcause
pansion rates between the two aggregates can lead to internal stresses, which can other
damage [58].
cracking and other damage [58].

5.0
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C
4.5
4.0
3.5
Mass loss (%)

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes
Figure4.4.Mass
Figure Massloss
lossin
inUHPC
UHPCafter
afterexposure
exposuretotoelevated
elevatedtemperature.
temperature.

3.4.Compressive
3.4. CompressiveStrength
Strength
The compressive strength
The compressive strength ofof the
the UHPC
UHPC with
with different
different percentages
percentages ofof LWAs
LWAs at at the
the
curing of 7, 28, and 56 days is presented in Figure 5a. The test results show that asthe
curing of 7, 28, and 56 days is presented in Figure 5a. The test results show that as the
percentageof
percentage oflightweight
lightweightaggregates
aggregatesincreases
increasesfrom
from0%0%to to30%,
30%,the
thecompressive
compressivestrength
strength
reduces at
reduces atevery
everycorresponding
corresponding curing
curing duration.
duration. For
For 5%
5% and
and 10%
10% LWA
LWA atat 56
56days,
days, thethe
compressive strength was observed to increase by 4% and 1.31% compared to the sample
compressive strength was observed to increase by 4% and 1.31% compared to the sample
with0%
with 0%LWA,
LWA,but butafter
afterthat,
that,the
thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthwaswascontinuously
continuouslyreduced.
reduced. The The
reduction in the compressive strength of the UHPC as the fine aggregates werereplaced
reduction in the compressive strength of the UHPC as the fine aggregates were replaced
with
withlightweight
lightweightaggregates
aggregatescancanbebeattributed
a ributedtotoseveral
severalscientific
scientificreasons.
reasons.
Materials 2023,
Materials 16,16,
2023, x FOR
4883PEER REVIEW 9 of9 24
of 24

140.0
7 days 28 days 56 days

120.0

Compressive strength (MPa)

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes

(a)
160.0
Ambint 100 °C 200 °C 300 °C
140.0
Compressive strength (MPa)

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes

(b)
Figure 5. Compressive
Figure strength
5. Compressive of UHPC:
strength (a)(a)
of UHPC: at 7,
at 28, and
7, 28, 56 56
and days of curing;
days (b)(b)
of curing; at ambient and
at ambient after
and after
elevated temperature.
elevated temperature.

Pumice
Pumice aggregates
aggregates have
havea lower
a lower density
density compared
compared to to
thethe
fine aggregates
fine aggregates typically
typically
used
usedin in
UHPC,
UHPC, which
which can lead
can to to
lead a lower
a lower packing
packing density
densityof of
thetheconcrete
concrete mixture.
mixture.This
This
reduced
reduced packing
packingdensity
densitycancanresult
resultinin aa higher porosityof
higher porosity ofthe
theconcrete,
concrete,which
which can
can nega-
negatively
tively impact
impact the strength
the strength and and durability
durability of the ofconcrete.
the concrete. In addition,
In addition, pumice pumice aggregates
aggregates have a
have a lower modulus of elasticity than fine aggregates, which can result in higher defor-
lower modulus of elasticity than fine aggregates, which can result in higher deformation
mation and cracking
and cracking of theofconcrete
the concrete
under under
load.load.
This This can also
can also contribute
contribute to theto reduction
the reduction
in the
in the compressive strength of UHPC with higher percentages of pumice aggregates. Inthe
compressive strength of UHPC with higher percentages of pumice aggregates. In
thepresent
presentstudy,
study, thethe compressive
compressive strength
strength at days
at 56 56 days reduced
reduced from from
120120
MPaMPa to 92.5
to 92.5 MPaMPa
when
up to
when up30% LWALWA
to 30% was added.
was added.Furthermore,
Furthermore,pumice aggregates
pumice have ahave
aggregates lower a surface area and
lower surface
surface roughness than fine aggregates, leading to a weaker bond
area and surface roughness than fine aggregates, leading to a weaker bond between the between the aggregate
and the and
aggregate cementthe paste
cement [59]. This
paste weaker
[59]. This bond
weaker can result
bond caninresult
a lower in ainterfacial transition
lower interfacial
zone (ITZ) strength, which can further reduce the compressive strength
transition zone (ITZ) strength, which can further reduce the compressive strength of the of the UHPC.
UHPC.
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 10 of 24

Several research studies have studied the reduction in compressive strength of UHPC
due to the replacement of fine aggregates with lightweight pumice aggregates. In a study
conducted by Gündüz [60], it was found that the compressive strength of concrete de-
creased as the percentage of pumice aggregates increased. The study concluded that the
reduction in compressive strength was mainly due to the lower density of pumice aggre-
gates, which resulted in a higher porosity of the concrete and a weaker ITZ [61]. Another
study conducted by Meng et al. (2023) [62] investigated the effect of pumice aggregates
on the mechanical properties of UHPC. The study found that the compressive strength
of UHPC decreased as the percentage of pumice aggregates increased, with the mixture
containing 30% pumice aggregate exhibiting the lowest compressive strength on each
curing day. The study also found that adding pumice aggregates led to increased water
absorption and total porosity of the UHPC, which further contributed to the reduction in
compressive strength.
Figure 5b displays the compressive strength of the UHPC containing varying percent-
ages of the LWA when subjected to elevated temperatures (100 ◦ C, 200 ◦ C, and 300 ◦ C).
The compressive strength of the UHPC with the lightweight aggregate was reduced at
all curing days (7, 28, and 56) when exposed to elevated temperatures of 100, 200, and
300 degrees Celsius. However, simultaneously, the samples subjected to elevated tem-
peratures had higher compressive strength than those with ambient conditions at every
replacement level of fine aggregates. At LW30, the sample exposed to 200 ◦ C had 96 MPa
strength, while the sample with the ambient condition had 92.5 MPa compressive strength.
Different mechanisms can explain this contradictory behavior. One possible reason for the
reduction in compressive strength of the UHPC with the lightweight aggregate at elevated
temperatures is the thermal degradation of the aggregate [63]. As pumice is a volcanic rock,
it may undergo phase transformation or breakdown when exposed to high temperatures,
resulting in a weakened aggregate [64]. This, in turn, can reduce the strength of the UHPC.
On the other hand, the increased compressive strength observed in the samples subjected
to elevated temperatures can be attributed to the accelerated rate of chemical reactions
in concrete at high temperatures [65]. As mentioned earlier, the higher activity of water
molecules at elevated temperatures results in a faster reaction between the cementitious ma-
terials and the fine aggregates. This leads to increased cement hydration and, subsequently,
higher compressive strength [66].

3.5. Flexure Strength

Figure 6a illustrates the flexural strength of UHPC samples with varying percentages
of lightweight aggregates at curing durations of 7, 28, and 56 days. The test outcomes
indicate that as the LWA percentage increases from 0% to 30%, there is a corresponding
reduction in flexural strength at each curing duration.
At 56 days of curing, the flexure strength was reduced by 34.81% when the LWA was
increased from 0% to 30%. The reduction in flexure strength of the UHPC containing 0%
to 30% of lightweight pumice aggregates at 7, 28, and 56 days of curing can be attributed
to several factors. Firstly, lightweight aggregates have lower mechanical properties com-
pared to conventional aggregates. The modulus of elasticity and compressive strength
of lightweight pumice aggregates are lower than those of traditional aggregates, result-
ing in a reduction in the composite strength of the UHPC. The reduced strength of the
lightweight aggregates can also lead to a reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the
composite [67]. Secondly, the lower bonding strength between the cement matrix and the
lightweight aggregates can decrease the interfacial bond strength between the aggregates
and the cement paste [68]. The lightweight aggregates have a lower surface area and
higher porosity compared to conventional aggregates, which can lead to a weaker bonding
between the cement matrix and the lightweight aggregates. This can result in a reduction in
the flexural strength of the UHPC. Thirdly, incorporating lightweight aggregates in UHPC
can increase the composite’s porosity, reducing its density and strength. The higher porosity
of the lightweight aggregates can result in a higher volume of air voids in the composite,
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Materials 2023, 16, 4883 11 of 24

composite, reducing the load-carrying capacity of the UHPC. Finally, the reduction in
flexure strength observed in the UHPC sample with 30% lightweight aggregates can be
reducing the load-carrying capacity of the UHPC. Finally, the reduction in flexure strength
a ributed
observedto in
thethe
combination
UHPC sample of the above
with 30%factors. The higher
lightweight percentage
aggregates can be of lightweight
attributed to the
aggregates in the UHPC resulted in a higher volume of air voids, weaker bonding
combination of the above factors. The higher percentage of lightweight aggregates between
in the
theUHPC
cement matrixinand
resulted the lightweight
a higher volume of airaggregates, and bonding
voids, weaker a lower between
load-carrying capacity,
the cement matrix
significantly reducing the
and the lightweight flexure strength
aggregates, [69].load-carrying capacity, significantly reducing
and a lower
the flexure strength [69].

7 days 28 days 56 days

16.0

14.0

12.0
Flexure strength (MPa)

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes
(a)

Ambint 100 °C 200 °C 300 °C

16.0

14.0

12.0

10.0
Flexure Strength (MPa)

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
LW0 LW5 LW10 LW15 LW 20 LW25 LW30
UHPC mixes

(b)
Figure 6. Flexural
Figure strength
6. Flexural of UHPC:
strength (a) at 7,(a)
of UHPC: 28,atand 56 days
7, 28, and of
56curing;
days of(b)curing;
at ambient and
(b) at after elevated
ambient and after
temperature.
elevated temperature.
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 12 of 24

The flexural strength of the ultra-high-performance concrete with different percentages

of the lightweight aggregate when exposed to elevated temperatures of 100 ◦ C, 200 ◦ C, and
300 ◦ C is presented in Figure 6b. The reduction in the flexural strength of the ultra-high-
performance concrete containing 0% to 30% of a lightweight (pumice) aggregate when
subjected to elevated temperatures of 100, 200, and 300 degrees Celsius can be attributed to
the thermal degradation of the cement paste and the lightweight aggregate. The hydration
products in the cement paste, such as C-S-H gel and calcium hydroxide, undergo thermal
decomposition at elevated temperatures, reducing the strength of the UHPC [70]. At
LW30, the sample exposed to 200 ◦ C had 9.8 MPa flexure strength, while the sample
with the ambient condition had 8.8 MPa flexure strength (10.2% higher flexure strength
at 200 ◦ C). Similarly, the lightweight pumice aggregate undergoes thermal expansion due
to the presence of water and other volatile compounds, which can result in microcracks
and a reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the composite [71]. However, the samples
subjected to elevated temperatures had higher flexural strength than those with ambient
conditions at every replacement level of fine aggregates. This can be attributed to the
thermal curing of the UHPC at elevated temperatures, which can result in accelerated
strength gain due to the increased rate of hydration of the cementitious materials [72]. The
high temperature can also lead to additional C-S-H gel, enhancing the bond between the
cement matrix and the lightweight aggregate and higher flexural strength [73].
Furthermore, the higher flexural strength observed in the samples subjected to elevated
temperatures can also be attributed to the reduction in the porosity of the UHPC at high
temperatures. The heating can cause water evaporation from the UHPC, resulting in a
denser and stronger composite. The reduction in porosity can also lead to a lower volume
of air voids, reducing the susceptibility of the UHPC to thermal cracking [74].

3.6. Porosity
The porosity of UHPC with different percentages of lightweight aggregates at 56 days
is shown in Figure 7. In the UHPC samples containing varying concentrations of lightweight
pumice aggregates, it was observed that at the hydration of 56 days, the porosity of the
composite was higher for the sample with 30% lightweight aggregates compared to the
samples with 0% and 15% lightweight aggregates. This increase in porosity can be primarily
attributed to the intrinsic porous nature of the pumice, a volcanic rock with a high volume
of voids resulting from the rapid cooling and solidification of lava [75]. Using pumice as
a partial replacement for traditional fine aggregates in a UHPC mix increases the overall
porosity of the composite due to incorporating these additional voids originating from
the lightweight aggregates [76]. However, in the case of the sample with 15% lightweight
aggregates, the lowest porosity compared to 30% lightweight aggregates was observed
and was almost similar to samples with no lightweight aggregates. This captivating
phenomenon can be explained by considering several factors that may have contributed
to this result. One potential explanation is the synergistic effect of the pumice particles
and the cementitious matrix, which may have enhanced the composite’s packing density
and microstructural refinement [77]. The partial replacement of traditional aggregates
with a smaller proportion of pumice (15%) might have resulted in an optimal balance
between the packing density and void content within the composite, producing a denser
microstructure [78]. Another factor to consider is the influence of the pumice aggregates on
the water absorption and release during the mixing and hydration processes. The porous
nature of pumice allows it to absorb a significant amount of water, which may be gradually
released into the cementitious matrix during hydration [79]. The water released by the
pumice particles might have contributed to a more efficient hydration process, ultimately
resulting in a denser and less porous microstructure in the 15% LWA sample.
R PEER REVIEW 13 of
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 13 of 24

Figure 7. Effect of LWA on the porosity of UHPC after hydrating at 56 days.

Figure 7. Effect of LWA on the porosity of UHPC after hydrating at 56 days.
Additionally, the 15% lightweight aggregate content may have led to a more favorable
pore size distribution within the UHPC matrix. A more heterogeneous pore size distri-
Additionally, the with
bution, 15%smaller
lightweight
and largeraggregate content
pores, can result may
in a more havepore
tortuous ledstructure
to a more
that favo
ble pore size distribution within the UHPC matrix. A more heterogeneous pore size d
impedes the ingress of aggressive agents and enhances the material’s durability.

tribution, with smaller and larger pores, can result in a more tortuous pore structure th
3.7. Pore Structure
impedes the ingressInofFigure
aggressive agents
8, the graph’s x-axisand enhances
represents the porethe material’s
diameter, durability.
which ranges from 1 to
100,000, and the y-axis represents dV/dlog(d) (cc/g), which measures the material’s pore
volume per unit mass. The pore structure of UHPC is an essential factor in determining
3.7. Pore Structureits mechanical properties, particularly its strength and durability. The graph shows three
lines, each representing a different percentage of lightweight aggregates in the UHPC mix.
In Figure 8, The
thefirst
graph’s x-axis
line defines represents
the UHPC theanypore
mix without diameter,
lightweight which
aggregates ranges
(0%), the secondfrom 1
100,000, and the line
y-axis represents
represents dV/dlog(d)
the mix with (cc/g),
15% lightweight which
aggregates, andmeasures
the third line the material’s
represents the po
volume per unit indicating
mass. The pore structure of UHPC is an essential factor in determini
mix with 30% lightweight aggregates. The lines intersect at various points on the graph,
changes in the pore structure as the percentage of lightweight aggregates in
its mechanical properties,
the mix changes.particularly
The points of its strength
intersection and
can be useddurability.
to identify theThe graph
threshold shows th
at which
lines, each representing a different percentage of lightweight aggregates in the UHPC m
the addition of lightweight aggregates begins to impact the pore structure of the UHPC
significantly. By analyzing the trends and points of intersection of the lines, important
The first line defines the
insights canUHPC
be drawnmixaboutwithout
the effectsany lightweight
of lightweight aggregates
aggregates on the pore(0%), the seco
structure
line represents the mix with 15% lightweight aggregates, and the third line represents t
of the UHPC. For example, the graph reveals that the addition of lightweight aggregates
increases the overall porosity of the UHPC but that there is a limit beyond which further
mix with 30% lightweight
additions haveaggregates. The[80].
diminishing returns lines intersect
Overall, at various
Figure 8 provides points
a visual on the grap
representation
indicating changes inimpact
of the the pore structure
of different amounts asofthe percentage
lightweight of lightweight
aggregates aggregates
on the pore structure of the in t
mix changes. Thethispoints of intersection can be used to identify the threshold at which t
UHPC, which is a critical factor in the material’s strength and durability. The results of
study can have important implications for developing new, high-performance concrete
addition of lightweight aggregates begins to impact the pore structure of the UHPC s
nificantly. By analyzing the trends and points of intersection of the lines, important
sights can be drawn about the effects of lightweight aggregates on the pore structure
the UHPC. For example, the graph reveals that the addition of lightweight aggregates
 Materials 2023, 16, 4883 14 of 24

R PEER REVIEW 14 o

materials with improved properties, particularly in applications where weight reduction is

a crucial consideration [81].

Figure 8. Effect ofFigure

LW content
8. Effect ofon
LW the pore
content size
on the poredistribution.
size distribution.

3.8. Shrinkage
3.8. Shrinkage The effect of replacing fine aggregates with lightweight pumice aggregates on the
shrinkage of the UHPC is displayed in Figure 9. The test result showed that increasing
The effect of replacingof LWAs
the percentage fine reduced
aggregates withoflightweight
the shrinkage pumiceinaggregates
the UHPC. The reduction autogenous on
shrinkage of theshrinkage
UHPC of is the
displayed in Figure concrete
ultra-high-performance 9. The astestthe result showed
percentage that aggre-
of lightweight increasing
gates increased can be attributed to several factors. Autogenous shrinkage is a phenomenon
percentage of LWAs reduced
that occurs in concretethe
dueshrinkage
to autogenous of thewhich
drying, UHPC. The
is caused reduction
by the in autogen
ongoing hydration
shrinkage of thereactions
ultra-high-performance
in the cement paste. Thisconcrete phenomenon ascantheleadpercentage of lightweight
to the development of tensile agg
gates increased can be attributed to several factors. Autogenous shrinkage is a phenomen
stresses in the concrete, which can cause cracking and other forms of damage [82]. Adding
LWAs as a partial substitute for fine aggregates in UHPC can help mitigate this problem by
that occurs in concrete
reducingdue to autogenous
the amount of cement paste drying, which
in the mix and theis overall
caused by the
volume ongoing
changes duringhydrat
reactions in the cement paste. This phenomenon can lead to the development of ten
hydration. This reduction in the cement paste content results in lower internal relative
humidity and a decrease in the amount of water available for autogenous drying, which
stresses in the concrete, which
in turn leads can cause
to a reduction crackingshrinkage
in autogenous and other forms
[10]. The of damage
presence [82]. Add
of lightweight
LWAs as a partial substitute
aggregates in thefor
UHPCfinemixaggregates
also provides ain UHPC
better can
internal help system,
drainage mitigatewhich this problem
allows
the excess water to escape more quickly, reducing the overall shrinkage of the concrete.
reducing the amount of cement
This improved drainagepaste
is due to inthethe mix
larger and
pores the
in the LWA,overall
which canvolume changes dur
help to transport
hydration. This reduction
the excess waterinmore
the efficiently
cementthan paste content
the smaller poresresults in lower
in the cement internal
paste. This enhancedrelative
midity and a decrease in the amount of water available for autogenous drying, which in t
drainage can further reduce the amount of internal moisture available for self-desiccation
and minimize the risk of cracking [83]. In addition, using a LWA in UHPC can also improve
leads to a reduction in autogenous
the material’s durability byshrinkage [10]. The
reducing the concrete’s presenceThis
permeability. ofislightweight
because the LWA aggrega
in the UHPC mix also
acts provides
as a barrier a better internal
to the penetration of water and drainage
other harmful system, which
substances, allows
preventing themthe exc
from reaching the internal surfaces of the concrete and causing damage [84]. The study
water to escape more quickly, reducing the overall shrinkage of the concrete. This impro
drainage is due to the larger pores in the LWA, which can help to transport the excess wa
more efficiently than the smaller pores in the cement paste. This enhanced drainage
 Materials 2023, 16, 4883 15 of 24

results showed that the sample with 0% LWA had the highest shrinkage (2100 microns)
at all corresponding curing days, while the sample with 30% LWA had the lowermost
(958 microns) shrinkage across all curing days. This highlights the beneficial effect of LWAs
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
on the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC and provides valuable insights into using LWAs as
a partial substitute for fine aggregates in UHPC to improve its properties.

Figure 9. Effect
Figure ofofLWA
9. Effect LWAon
onshrinkage ofUHPC.
shrinkage of UHPC.

3.9.3.9.
Thermal Analysis
Thermal Analysis
The
The thermalanalysis
thermal analysis of
of the
theUHPC
UHPC with
with lightweight
lightweightpumice aggregates
pumice under different
aggregates under differ-
temperatures is displayed in Figure 10. The thermal behavior of the materials can explain
ent temperatures is displayed in Figure 10. The thermal behavior of the materials can ex-
the reduction in the percentage of the mass of the UHPC with an increase in the percentage
plain the reduction
of LWAs in the
as a partial percentage
substitute of aggregates.
for fine the mass ofWhen the UHPC with an increase
the temperature increases,in the
percentage of LWAs
the lightweight as a partial
aggregates substitute
experience for fine
a higher aggregates.
thermal expansionWhen ratethe
thantemperature
the other in-
creases,
components of the UHPC mixture. This leads to a decrease in the density of therate
the lightweight aggregates experience a higher thermal expansion than the
UHPC,
other components
reducing the massof the UHPC
percentage mixture.
of the material. This leads to a decrease in the density of the
UHPC,Furthermore,
reducing thethe mass percentage
decrease in theof the percentage
mass material. of the UHPC mixture with an
Furthermore, the decrease in the mass percentage
increase in LWA percentage is observed across of theindicating
all curing days, UHPC mixture that thiswith
effectan in-
is not limited to a specific point in the curing process. This is likely because
crease in LWA percentage is observed across all curing days, indicating that this effect is not the thermal
properties of the LWA are not affected significantly by the curing process [85]. Therefore,
limited to a specific point in the curing process. This is likely because the thermal properties
the reduction in mass percentage observed at higher temperatures is consistent throughout
of the LWA are not affected significantly by the curing process [85]. Therefore, the reduction
the curing period. The sample with 0% LWA had the highest mass percentage at all
in mass percentage
corresponding observed atindicating
temperatures, higher temperatures
that the absenceis consistent throughout
of lightweight aggregatesthe leads
curing pe-
riod.
to a denser UHPC mixture. On the other hand, the sample with 30% LWA had the lowest tem-
The sample with 0% LWA had the highest mass percentage at all corresponding
peratures, indicating
mass percentage that the
compared to absence
LW0 and of LW15lightweight aggregates
across all curing leads to athat
days, indicating denser UHPC
a high
mixture. On the
percentage otherleads
of LWAs hand,to athe
lesssample with 30%
dense UHPC LWA
mixture had the lowest mass percentage
[86].
compared to LW0 and LW15 across all curing days, indicating that a high percentage of
LWAs leads to a less dense UHPC mixture [86].
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 16 of 24

Figure 10. Thermal Figure

analysis of UHPC.
10. Thermal analysis of UHPC.

3.10. X-ray Diffraction Analysis

3.10. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The XRD spectra show the diffraction pattern of the crystalline phases present in the
The XRD spectra show
material. Thethe
peakdiffraction
intensities inpa the ern of the
spectra crystalline
indicate phases
the relative present
abundance of theindifferent
the
material. The peakphases
intensities
in eachin the spectra indicate the relative abundance of the different
sample.
phases in each sample. The first XRD spectrum (see Figure 11a), which corresponds to the UHPC sample with
0% replacement of fine aggregates with pumice, shows the highest peaks of portlandite
The first XRD spectrum (see Figure 11a), which corresponds to the UHPC sample
(Ca(OH)2 ), calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), and ettringite intensities. This suggests that
with 0% replacement
the UHPCof fine aggregates
sample with pumice,
with no replacement shows
of fine the highest
aggregates peaks
has higher of port-
crystallinity than
landite (Ca(OH)2),thecalcium-silicate-hydrate
other samples. Sharp and intense (C-S-H), peaksand e ringite
in the spectrumintensities.
may indicateThis sug-
the presence
gests that the UHPC sample
of highly with nophases
crystalline replacement of fine
in the material aggregates
[87], has higher
such as portlandite, crystallin-
a typical phase in
ity than the othercement-based
samples. Sharp and
materials. Theintense
second XRDpeaks in the(see
spectrum spectrum
Figure 11b),may indicate
which the to
corresponds
the UHPC sample with 15% replacement of fine aggregates with pumice, shows lower peak
presence of highly crystalline phases in the material [87], such as portlandite, a typical
portlandite, C-S-H, and ettringite intensities than the first spectrum. This suggests that
phase in cement-based
replacingmaterials. The with
fine aggregates second XRD
pumice hasspectrum
decreased the (see Figure 11b),
crystallinity of thewhich
UHPC. Somecor- of
responds to the UHPC
the samesample
peaks as with
the first15% replacement
spectrum indicate thatofthefine aggregates
UHPC sample withwith15%pumice,
replacement
shows lower peak portlandite, C-S-H, and e ringite intensities than the first spectrum.
still contains some of the same crystalline phases as the UHPC sample with 0% replacement.
The third XRD spectrum (see Figure 11c), which corresponds to the UHPC sample with
This suggests that replacing fine aggregates with pumice has decreased the crystallinity
30% replacement of fine aggregates with pumice, shows an even lower peak of portlandite,
of the UHPC. Some of the same peaks as
calcium-silicate-hydrate, andthe first spectrum
ettringite intensities indicate that the
than the second UHPCThis
spectrum. sample
suggests
with 15% replacement still contains
that replacing some ofwith
fine aggregates the same
pumicecrystalline
has further phases
decreased asthe
thecrystallinity
UHPC sam- of the
ple with 0% replacement.
UHPC [88]. The third
Fewer XRD
peaks spectrum
in the spectrum (see Figureto11c),
compared which
the first corresponds
two spectra to
may indicate
the UHPC sample with 30% replacement of fine aggregates with pumice, shows an even
that the UHPC sample with 30% replacement contains fewer highly crystalline phases.

lower peak of portlandite, calcium-silicate-hydrate, and e ringite intensities than the sec-
ond spectrum. This suggests that replacing fine aggregates with pumice has further de-
creased the crystallinity of the UHPC [88]. Fewer peaks in the spectrum compared to the
first two spectra may indicate that the UHPC sample with 30% replacement contains fewer
highly crystalline phases.
 Materials 2023, 16, 4883
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Intensity (cps) Intensity (cps) Intensity (cps)

500

0
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500

500

0
1000
1500
2000
2500

500

0
1000
1500
2000
2500
5.02
1 1
7.96
153 153
305 305 10.9
457 457 13.84
609 609 16.78
761 761 19.72
C-S-H

C-S-H
22.66

C-S-H
913 913
1065 1065 25.6
1217 1217 28.54
1369 31.48
Ca(OH)2

1369

Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
1521 1521 34.42
1673 37.36

Ca(OH)2
1673
1825 40.3

Ca(OH)2
1825

(c)
(a)

(b)
1977 1977 43.24
2129 46.18
Ca(OH)2

2129
2281 49.12

C 2S

C 2S
2281

2-theta (deg)
2433 52.06

2-theta (deg)
2433
2-theta (deg)

2585 2585 55
C 2S C 3S

2737 2737 57.94

C-S-H
2889

Figure 11. XRD spectra of UHPC: (a) LW0, (b) LW15, (c) LW30.
2889
C-S-H 60.88
3041 3041 63.82
3193

C-S-H
3193 C-S-H 66.76
3345 3345 69.7
C-S-H

3497 72.64
3497
3649 75.58
3649
3801 78.52
3801

Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2

3953 81.46
3953
Ca(OH)2

4105 84.4
4105
87.34
17 of 24
17 of 24
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24

Materials 2023, 16, 4883 18 of 24

Figure 11. XRD spectra of UHPC: (a) LW0, (b) LW15, (c) LW30.
3.11. Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis
3.11. Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis
SEM micrographs of UHPC specimens containing 0% and 30% LWA, both heated and
SEM micrographs of UHPC specimens containing 0% and 30% LWA, both heated and
unheated, have been analyzed and are presented in Figures 12 and 13. SEM is a commonly
unheated, have been analyzed and are presented in Figures 12 and 13. SEM is a commonly
used technique for examining the microstructure of concrete, particularly UHPC, due to its
used technique for examining the microstructure of concrete, particularly UHPC, due to
high resolution and ability to capture fine details.
its high Upon
resolution and ability
inspection to capture
of Figure 12a, it finecandetails.
be seen that the unheated UHPC specimen
Upon inspection of Figure 12a, it can be
containing 0% LWA has a complex internal microstructure.seen that the unheated TheUHPC specimen
SEM image con-the
reveals
taining 0% LWA has a complex internal microstructure. The SEM image
presence of various constituents, such as hydration products, un-hydrated cementitious reveals the presence
of various
materialconstituents, such as hydration
particles, aggregates, pores, and products,
air voids.un-hydrated cementitious
The main hydration material
products par-
identified
ticles, aggregates, pores, and air voids. The main hydration products identified
are calcium silicate hydrate gels and calcium hydroxide crystals [89]. The compact interface are calcium
silicate hydrate
between the gels and calcium
aggregate hydroxide
and matrix crystals [89].
is particularly The compact
noteworthy, interfacestrong
suggesting between the
bonding
aggregate
between the two phases. The SEM image also shows the presence of relatively larger the
and matrix is particularly noteworthy, suggesting strong bonding between pores,
twowhich
phases. Thebe
could SEM image also
attributed shows the presence
to incomplete filling ofoftherelatively larger casting
voids during pores, which could of
or bleeding
be the
attributed
mixture. toWhen
incomplete
the UHPCfillingspecimen
of the voids during
is heated, thecasting or bleeding
microstructure of thesignificantly.
changes mixture.
WhenThethe
SEM UHPCimage specimen
in Figureis heated, the microstructure
12b,c shows a more homogeneouschanges significantly.
microstructureThe SEM
with im-fewer
agevisible
in Figure 12b,c shows a more homogeneous microstructure with fewer
pores and a denser matrix. The reduction in porosity and increased density can visible pores and
a denser matrix. to
be attributed The
thereduction in porosity
heat treatment, which and increased
results density
in further can be attributed
hydration to the
of the cementitious
heat treatment, which results in further hydration of the cementitious
materials and improved bonding between the matrix and aggregates [90]. The densification materials and im-
proved
of thebonding between leads
microstructure the matrix and aggregates
to higher strength and [90].durability
The densification
of the UHPC.of the The
micro-SEM
structure
imagesleads
of thetoUHPC
higherspecimens
strength and durability
containing 30%ofLWA the (Figure
UHPC. 13) Theshow
SEM aimages
similarof the to
trend
UHPCthosespecimens
with 0% LWA. containing 30% LWAspecimen
The unheated (Figure 13) show13a)
(Figure a similar trend
displays to those
a more with 0%
heterogeneous
LWA. The unheated
microstructure specimento(Figure
compared 13a) specimen
the heated displays a (Figure
more heterogeneous
13a,b), with amicrostructure
range of particle
compared
sizes and to the heated
shapes specimen
visible in the(Figure
matrix.13a,b), with ainrange
However, of particle
contrast to the sizes and shapes
specimen with 0%
visible
LWA, in the
the presence
matrix. However,
of the LWA in contrast
particlestoisthe specimen
visible in the with
SEM 0% LWA,The
images. the LWA
presence of
particles
theare
LWA particlestoishave
observed visible in the SEM
a distinct images. The
morphology andLWA are particles
generallyare observed
well to have
distributed a
within
distinct morphology and are generally well distributed within the matrix.
the matrix.

LWA

Interface

(a) Ambient

C-S-H

(b) 200 °C (c) 300 °C

Figure 12. 12.
Figure SEM analysis
SEM of UHPC
analysis (a–c).
of UHPC (a–c).
Materials
Materials2023, 16,16,
2023, x FOR
4883 PEER REVIEW 19 19
of of
2424

LWA pores

(a) Ambient

Pores

Desnse structure C-S-H

C-S-H

Pores
Desnse structure

(b) 200 °C (c) 300 °C

Figure
Figure13.
13.SEM
SEManalysis
analysisofof
UHPC with
UHPC withLWA
LWA(a–c).
(a–c).

The
The SEM
SEMimages
images in Figure 13 provide
in Figure insights
13 provide into the
insights microstructure
into of UHPC
the microstructure of speci-
UHPC
mens containing
specimens varying
containing percentages
varying of theofLWA.
percentages The specimens
the LWA. The specimens withwith
30%30% LWA have
LWA a
have
denser microstructure
a denser microstructure than those
than thosewith
with0%0%LWA,
LWA, with fewer
with fewervisible voids
visible voidsand andcracks.
cracks.The
The
microstructure
microstructureofofthe
thepaste
pasteand
andthetheinterface
interfacebetween
betweenthe theaggregate
aggregateand andpaste
pasteappear
appeartotobebe
more uniformly distributed in the specimens containing the LWA. This observation can be
more uniformly distributed in the specimens containing the LWA. This observation can
be attributed to the continuous hydration process triggered by the supply
attributed to the continuous hydration process triggered by the supply of water stored in of water stored
in LWA.
the the LWA.
TheThe
LWA LWA particles
particles act act as internal
as internal curing
curing agents
agents byby releasing
releasing water
water gradually,
gradually,
which ensures the continuous hydration of cementitious materials, resulting
which ensures the continuous hydration of cementitious materials, resulting in a denser in a denser
mi-
microstructure and improved performance of the UHPC [91]. However,
crostructure and improved performance of the UHPC [91]. However, the specimens with the specimens
with
15% 15%exhibit
LWA LWA exhibit
weakerweaker performance
performance than with
than those those0%with
LWA.0% LWA.
This isThis is likely
likely due toduetheto
the high porosity of the LWA particles, which can reduce the overall strength
high porosity of the LWA particles, which can reduce the overall strength of the UHPC. The of the UHPC.
The porosity of the LWA particles is an intrinsic weakness that can significantly affect the
porosity of the LWA particles is an intrinsic weakness that can significantly affect the
strength-reduction effect of concrete, particularly when present in a significant quantity. To
strength-reduction effect of concrete, particularly when present in a significant quantity. To
overcome this issue, heating the UHPC specimens effectively improves their microstructure
overcome this issue, heating the UHPC specimens effectively improves their microstructure
and compressive strength, as shown in Figure 13b,c. The elevated temperature during
and compressive strength, as shown in Figure 13b,c. The elevated temperature during heat-
heating triggers further hydration of cementitious materials and leads to better bonding
ing triggers further hydration of cementitious materials and leads to better bonding between
between the matrix and aggregates. This densification of the microstructure improves the
the matrix and aggregates. This densification of the microstructure improves the strength
strength and durability of the UHPC containing the LWA.
and durability of the UHPC containing the LWA.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The present research assessed the effect of lightweight aggregates as a partial replace-
mentThe
ofpresent researchon
fine aggregates assessed the effect of lightweight
ultra-high-performance aggregates
concrete. Differentasstrength,
a partialdurability,
replace-
ment of fine aggregates on ultra-high-performance concrete. Different strength,
and microstructural properties of the UHPC were evaluated. The following conclusions durabil-
ity,
areand microstructural
obtained properties
from the present of the UHPC were evaluated. The following conclu-
research:
sions are obtained from the present research:
• Raising lightweight aggregates from 5% to 30% improves UHPC flowability, with the
 Raising lightweight
30% mixtures aggregates
showcasing from 5% flowability.
exceptional to 30% improves UHPC flowability,
This remarkable increasewith theto
is due
30% mixtures showcasing exceptional flowability.
the unique physical properties of lightweight aggregates. This remarkable increase is due to
• theAsunique physical
lightweight fine properties
aggregatesof lightweight
increased fromaggregates.
5% to 30%, the UHPC density decreased,
 As lightweight
with fine aggregates
30% mixtures showing theincreased
lowest from 5% Lightweight
density. to 30%, the UHPC density
aggregates’ decreased,
lower specific
with 30% mixtures showing the lowest density. Lightweight aggregates’ lower specific
Materials 2023, 16, 4883 20 of 24

gravity and higher porosity reduced overall density. Including 30% lightweight
aggregates lowered the concrete density from 2310 kg/m3 to 2005 kg/m3 .
• The test results indicate that increasing lightweight aggregates from 0% to 30% re-
duces compressive strength at all curing durations. At 56 days, the 5% and 10%
LWA samples increased strength by 4% and 1.31% compared to the 0% LWA, but
subsequently declined.
• The UHPC with the lightweight pumice aggregate had reduced compressive strength
at all curing days and elevated temperatures. Yet, samples exposed to higher tempera-
tures showed greater strength than ambient conditions at every replacement level. At
LW30, 200 ◦ C yielded 96 MPa, while an ambient temperature achieved 92.5 MPa.
• The flexure tests show that increasing the LWA percentage from 0% to 30% reduces
flexural strength at each curing duration. At 56 days, flexure strength dropped by
34.81% from the 0% to 30% LWA. The LW30 samples exposed to 200 ◦ C had 9.8 MPa
flexural strength, 10.2% higher than the ambient-condition samples at 8.8 MPa.
• The observation at 56 days of hydration revealed that the composite porosity was
higher for the sample containing 30% lightweight aggregates than those with 0% and
15% lightweight aggregates.
• The UHPC mass reduction with increased lightweight aggregate percentage is due to
thermal behavior. Lightweight aggregates exhibit higher thermal expansion, decreas-
ing the UHPC density and mass.
• The XRD spectra reveal that the UHPC crystallinity decreases with pumice replacing
fine aggregates. The 0% pumice sample has the highest crystallinity, shown by peak
portlandite, calcium-silicate-hydrate, and ettringite intensities. With 15% and 30%
pumice replacements, the crystallinity and peak intensities decrease, indicating fewer
highly crystalline phases.
• The SEM analysis of the UHPC specimens with varying percentages of the LWA
reveals changes in their microstructure. The samples with 30% LWA have a denser
microstructure due to the continuous hydration triggered by water stored in the LWA,
resulting in improved paste performance near the aggregates.
• Heating the UHPC specimens improves their microstructure, triggering further hy-
dration and better bonding between matrix and aggregates and improving strength
and durability.

Funding: This research was funded by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R343), King
Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author extends appreciation to Researchers Supporting Project number
(RSP2023R343), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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